Modern History Noted - Ww1

War on the Western Front

* THE REASONS FOR THE STALEMATE ON THE WESTERN FRONT * War began August 14th * Both sides thought it would be a rapid war, ‘all over by Christmas’ and that their side would be victorious -> views were unrealistic
Schlieffen Plan * Based on the idea that Germany would eventually have to fight France and Russia but should avoid fighting both at once * France would expect Germany to invade from the east, so would not be prepared for an invasion from the north * Germany would defeat France in six weeks it would supposedly take for Russian troops to mobilise. Then Germany would attack Russia. * The German General Staff Count Schlieffen completed a plan for war * Forced to fight on two fronts (an eastern and western front) * Aims were * To knock out the Western Front by moving rapidly to defeat France * After beating France to transfer troops to the Eastern front for the assault on Russia * Schlieffen plan therefore was to place on army (the left wing) in a defensive position behind the French fortifications and March the other army (the right wing) through Belgium, where it would wheel south and encircle Paris from the west and then surround the French army in a pincer like movement. It was essential to move quickly and to strike the enemy with the full weight of the German Army. The right wing was to be 6 times as strong as the left wing
Reasons for its failure include:
NOTE: Von Moltke succeeded von Schlieffen as the German Army Chief in 1906
- Unexpected Belgian Resistance
- Belgians brought the British into war
- Weakening of the Right Wing + swinging of troops east of Paris
- Russia mobilised its forces far more quickly than expected, Germany had to send troops east which weakened its army
- Austria preoccupied with her invasion of Serbia, failed to provide the support Germany had expected from her ally on the eastern front

Plan 17 * French troops would quickly recapture Alsace and Lorraine * Troops would then move into German territory
Main Army Commanders: * Sir John French- British Commander in Chief
French was given command of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) which was deployed to Europe in the opening days of the war, August 1914. * Colonel Von Moltke – German general (chief when Schlieffen plan was put into plan, and one of the reasons of its failure was his lack of faith in the play so he therefore weakened the left wing) * General Alfred von Schlieffen (creator of the plan)
TIMELINE
1914: August
Outbreak of World War 1
Stalemate on Western Front: trench warfare established
1915: April
First large-scale use of poison gas in conflict
1916: Feb-Dec
Battle of Verdun
May
Diphosgene gas introduced
July-Nov
Battle of the Somme
September
Tank introduced as new weapon
1917: April-May
Nivelle Offensive
July-Nov
Battle of Passchendaele
1918: November 11th
Ceasefire and armistice – Allied Victory

Personalities * Hindenburg * Ludendorff
(Become key in German war effort)

SPECIFIC REASONS FOR STALEMATE: * Failure of the Schlieffen Plan and Plan 17 * Too much reliance on speed and movement * Unexpectedly strong resistance by the Belgians and British * The strict deadline of 42 days for conquest was inflexible and unrealistic * Germans did not expect the Russians to attack in under eight weeks * Neither von Moltke nor his subordinate commanders were prepared to commit themselves fully to the implementation of the plan * Moltke: * weakened the right wing and strengthened the left * troops were diverted from the Western to the Eastern Front * they launched major offensives rather than holding their positions * moved towards Paris from the east rather than west * This meant that the right wing was exposed at the Battle of Marne – The German withdrawal to the Aisne ended the Schlieffen Plan * Insufficiently organised and not strong enough to penetrate the German left wing * Tactical and Strategic Problems * Railway made it only possible to travel effectively where track was laid * The muddy conditions and historic weaponry and tactics (the end of the cavalry mobility) * The fast pace caused fatigue and disease among soldiers * Problems in Communications * Modes of communication were outdates and messages were often misconstrued (carrier pigeons were often used with a delay between 24-48hrs) * Delay and confusion on the battlefield
-Role of the Commanders * The commanders on all sides were incapable of offensive tactics yet successfully pulled off defensive tactics

* THE NATURE OF TRENCH WARFARE AND LIFE IN THE TRENCHES DEALING WITH EXPERIENCES OF ALLIED AND GERMAN SOLDIERS

Trench Warfare was the main from of warfare, it was a defensive strategy * The front line: attack and defence * The support line: retreat during bombardment * Rear wall of support line contained dugouts * The reserve line: troops waited for their leader’s call to battle * Communication trenches dug at right angles, linked the three lines of trenches
Trenches:
* Distance between trench lines varied: * 60-90 metres between front line and support line * 300-500 metres between support and reserve trenches * Armies often had partially constructed trench systems to retreat to several kilometres back * No Man’s land - 100-300 metres * The zigzag formation of trenches was a defensive measure (minimising the impact of a shell landing + preventing a clear line of fire) * a salient (bulging forward into enemy territory); meant that opponents could attack that part of the trench from three directions (front on, and both sides)

German trenches were generally stronger, better equipped, and more complex than the allied ones as they view their trenches as long-term * Made of re-enforced concrete * Ranging from 3.6 metres to as much as three storeys in depth * British dugouts ranged from about 2.4 to 4.8 metres in depth

The Trench System: * Factors determining the condition of any trench system * How long and quickly it had been established * Whether the generals viewed it as temporary (B) or permanent (G) * Nature of the ground it was located * Local weather conditions at different times * Extent to which enemy bombardment had affected trenches

LIFE IN THE TRENCHES
Death in the trenches * When a raid or attack was launched or defeated against * Constant shellfire directed by the enemy brought random death * Many died from precisely aimed sniper’s bullets * It has been estimated that up to one third of Allied causalities on the Western Front were actually sustained in the trenches * Injuries brought on by enemies’ disease wrought a heavy toll.
Rat infestation * Rats in the trenches were found in their millions * Many gorged on human remains and grew to the size of cats * The soldiers attempted to rid the trenches of them by various methods: gunfire, the bayonet and by clubbing them to death * A single rat couple can produce up to 900 offspring a year, spreading infection (rapidly) and contaminating food * The rat problem remained during the duration of the war
Frogs, Lice and Worse * lice was a never-ending problem * lice caused trench fever * frogs were often found in the base of trenches * many men shaved their heads to avoid nits * trench foot

During the war there was a trench cycle which was supposed to rotate regularly but instead was determined by necessities of the situation. As an example (and the numbers varied widely) a man might expect in a year to spend some 70 days in the front line, with another 30 in nearby support trenches. A further 120 might be spent in reserve. Only 70 days might be spent at rest. The amount of leave varied, with perhaps two weeks being granted during the year.

ROUTINE OF TRENCH LIFE: * soldiers felt boredom, comradeship, extreme discomfort, endurance and fear * waiting for action, hard and often dangerous physical labour, hunger, thirst, disease, poor sanitary conditions, mental breakdown and incidences of extraordinary self-sacrifice and heroism * %15 of time in the front line trench * %20 of time in the support trench * %30 of time in the reserve trench * %20 of time in a rest area * Spent time to travel, leave and hospitalisation accounted for the remaining %15 of time * Boredom was a common complaint and waiting for action was a common occurrence * Various tasks include: * Repairing barbed wire or duckboards * Reinforcing sandbags * Being on guard duty * Carrying out reconnaissance of enemy positions and activity * Obtaining new supplies
DANGERS:
* Poor visibility gave the enemy an advantage (dawn and dusk) * Noise of shellfire was deafening * Sniper-fire was an ongoing threat * Many received unsympathetic punishments front line duty, court martial and execution * Gas warfare could cause death within 48 hours, blisters, and damage to lings and eyes by the end of the war, 91 000 soldiers died and 1.2 million suffered its effects * Soldiers sometimes tried to cop a Blighty * Suffered shell shock * Military commanders often viewed shellshock as the cowardly way out, many soldiers received unsympathetic punishments including increased front line duty, court martial and even execution
TRENCH RATIONS: * Low Quality of food * 1916 the impact of blockades meant that both Allied and German commanders struggled to provide soldiers with good diets * Survived on daily rations of corned beef (bully beef), days-old bread and stale biscuits * 1917 cooks made bread from ground turnips and pea soup had become the staple food item hot foods transported from field kitchens often arrived cold * Officers dined well in comparison to soldiers (hierarchy in the military)
HEALTH AND SANITATION: * Rats – feeding off decomposing bodies as big as rats – constant problem * First Winter of war British army had to deal with 20 000 cases of trench foot long periods of time men spent with feet, socks and boots all underwater in unsanitary conditions * Inadequate water supplies led to soldiers drinking often contaminated water from shell holes * Dysentery
Trench warfare (methods of attack) * What was meant to happen * An artillery barrage would be directed against enemy trenches to destroy the barbed wire defences and kill occupants of the trench could last for hours or days * Troops went ‘over the top’, advanced across no man’s land, and captured the enemy trench with little resistance * What usually happened * Advancing soldiers were down by machine-gun fire in no man’s land * Any soldiers who reached the enemy’s barbed wire were usually unable to find a way through and were killed there * Main problem was that the weaponry of defence outranked that of the offensive * Key elements of an attack * Barrage of artillery fire to weaken defences of enemies front line trenches * Soldiers wait until just before sunrise for the order to advance * Officers clarify goals, convey final orders and check equipment * Soldiers fix bayonets to rifles * Officers signal men to go ‘over the top’ of the trenches and out into ‘no man’s land’ * Soldiers begin to move forward as their enemies race to set up machine guns some are wounded and killed as a result of enemy fire * Soldiers attempt to advance towards enemy trenches trying not to be isolated with poor visibility due to smoke and shell holes * Attack succeeds in achieving its aim OR enemy succeeds in defending its territory OR attack is abandoned because of changed conditions * Soldiers return to trenches roll call to see who’s missing, wounded taken to obtain medical care, soldiers wait until dark to retrieve bodies or additional wounded from no man’s land

Weapons of War: * Artillery * Used for attack and defence * Before attack gave warning * Caused 60% of all casualties often own side * Inaccurate more accurate by 1918 * Did not destroy barbed wire/trenches * Damaged no man’s land made offensive more difficult * Bayonet * Offensive warfare * Used much less as a defensive tool of war * Little use to soldier’s facing machine gun fire * Safer to use than bullets as they can’t hit more than one person * Caused psychological impacts on soldiers from fear of wounding * Flame throwers * Burning fuel produced terrified victims * Effective as short-range weapon * Dangerous to soldiers (if cylinder exploded) * Machine guns * Effective against infantry attack firing power 8 bullets/second and able to inflict casualties quickly * Weight (30-60kg) limited portability * Often dependent on availability of water to cool down * Often jammed with mud * Fire from a single machine gun was equivalent to 80 rifles * Most effective as a defensive weapon * Gas * First used by France 1914 Germany eventually adopted 1915 * Impact caused blindness, choking, eventual death * Infringed in troop morale * If winds changed gas could injure firers development of gas shells helped to overcome this problem (dangerous for soldiers) * Became less effective with development of improved detective devices * Attempt at developing offensive strategy * Rifles * Main weapon of all armies * Easier to transport than machine guns * Effectiveness depended on skill of user * Rapid firing mechanisms developed * Accuracy diminished with distance greater than 600m * Tanks * Major offensive technological development allowed war of movement * First used 1916 (Somme) and developed by British problems at this stage * Initially slow, liable to break down, poor manoeuvrability, uncomfortable * Used effectively at Battle of Cambrai 1917 by British * Used in Spring Offensive by allies victory * Effective in coordination with artillery and aircraft to destroy enemy positions ahead * Trench mortars * Tubular weapon firing projectiles at angles above 45 degrees into enemy trenches * Effective when fired from one trench to another against enemy machine gun or sniper positions in a time of static warfare * Little use after the resumption of mobile warfare in 1918 * Aircraft * Beginning of war used for reconnaissance and made out of flimsy material (wood and cloth) * 1916-17 machine gun could be mounted on aircraft * Used to stop single or dual bombs * Became much more advanced by 1918 and when used in conjunction with tanks

German (G) and Allied/ Britain (B) army experiences: * Motive * B fight for neutrality of Belgium + Allies * G defending the fatherland from the Entente and the French people from the British * Food * B rich supplies of food, drink and tobacco * G poorly fed through Allied Blockade * Weaponry * B overwhelming superiority in artillery, tanks and mechanised transport and equipment * G had to rely on superior skill * Army * B entirely volunteer army 1914-1916 * G highly trained officers and experienced NCOs * Soldiers * B inexperienced and raw officers blindly followed orders from their superiors * G battle-hardened and experienced units who had developed their own tactics * Command * B strict command structure, full of incompetent staff officers * G emphasis on individual initiative, commanders were allowed a considerable degree of discretion to act as they saw appropriate tactically unsurpassed but operationally deficient and strategically inept * Trenches * B short-term, not built well, focused on the offensive * G long-term, elaborate, well built, sturdy, maintained well, focused on the defensive * Concrete re-enforced * Piano (lavish) * Offensive warfare * B fear of going ‘over the top’ * G longed to go on the offensive

‘Stand to’ – Stand on the fire step for an hour in the anticipation of an enemy attack
‘Stand down’ – allocated duties and similar to ‘stand to’

Gases Include: * Chlorine: death by asphyxiation * Mustard Gas: symptoms include nausea and body blisters, the gas causes the body to rot * Phosgene: is a weapon more potent than chlorine, caused victims to violently cough and choke

* OVERIVEW OF STRATEGIES AND TACTICS TO BREAK THE STALEMATE INCLUDING KEY BATTLES: VERDUN, THE SOMME AND PASSENCHENDAELE
The tactical problem was: * Problems with communication (delayed) * Heavy artillery was often inaccurate * The troops weren’t fast enough through no man’s land * The advancing troops were advancing into machine gun fire * It took approximately ten times as many men to mount an attack on an enemy trench as it did to defend it. * The trenches themselves are the best defensive method of the troops- barbed wire and machine guns * Tactics were outdated
An attempt in breaking the stalemate relied on the Tactical Changes, 1916-18, that eventually led to a breaking of the stalemate on the Western Front

‘Breakthrough’ A Failure
Battle of the Somme 1916 saw the failure of General Haig’s attempts at ‘Breakthrough’ 1. Linear frontal attack: extended lines, reliance on sheer numbers, waves. 2. Reliance of preliminary artillery barrage was supposed to break enemy resistance prior to infantry attack 3. Attacking troops had to reach enemy’s parapet before he could open fire 4. After ‘breakthrough’ cavalry were to pass through the gap and hit enemy bases and supply lines behind the lines
‘Bite and Hold’ A tactic requiring soldiers to use speed and surprise to occupy a small section of enemy’s front line and then to defeat counter attacks * Successfully used by Canadians at Vimy Ridge, 1917 * Allies at Messines Ridge near Ypres 1917 * Australians at Villers-Bretonneux, 1918 1. Attackers to occupy a limited portion of the defenders front line before their forces could react effectively 2. Attackers then take up defensive position to beat off counterattacks 3. Emphasis on surprise, speed and mobility 4. More effective use of artillery 5. High level of casualties – objective must be significant
‘Leapfrogging’ – used by allies in the Third Battle of Ypres, 1917 1. Successive ‘bite and hold’ operations, moving from objective to objective by stages. Each objective once gained became the jumping off point for the next leap forward 2. When attacking troops gained an objective, new troops came up to that point, relieved them and took her over for the next leap forward
‘Infiltration’ – the tactic came into prominence in 1918 when defences were stretched, weakened or incomplete.
*** grew out of experience of trench raids from 1914, scouting parties, German ‘storm troop’ tactics, and the battle experience of small scale actions such as the taking of machine gun nests and concrete pillboxes/blockhouses 1. Attackers look for soft spots in the enemy line – find an opening – get behind the line 2. Emphasis on decentralized initiative 3. Self- supporting small attack groups, using their own rife fire, Lewis guns (lighter machine guns) and bombs 4. Emphasis on fire and movement 5. Emphasis on flexibility and platoon’s initiative 6. Bypass strong points 7. Assault platoons – did main fighting
Support platoons – flank and protect or follow up and relieve ‘mopping-up’ platoons suppress the strongpoints that had been by-passed. Smoke bombs; attack front. Engage enemy while small groups move on flank.
Verdun 1916: The attempt to ‘bleed the French white’ * French vs. Germans (offensive) * The Germans attempt to break the stalemate * War of attrition and use of technology to wear the enemy down * Front line = 8km long * The longest battle of the war
When/where: fortress site * Fortified French garrison * 200km north-east of Paris
Goals & Tactics: * Superiority of German guns * Falkenhayn is replaced by Hindenburg and Ludendorff * Aim: to exploit Verdun’s huge symbolic value for the French and to fight a lengthy battle and to destroy the French and their ability to fight and force to negotiate for peace or surrender * Campaign of attrition destroyed France’s ability to continue fighting Verdun’s location, on a French salient into German lines, gave the Germans the advantage of being able to approach Verdun from three sides
Nature of the fighting: * Siege (continuous hand-to-hand fighting – Haig) * Called in two additional divisions and began reinforcement of the trench system * Massive German artillery bombardment and flame throwers and attacks from three army corps * %78 of French infantry regiments served at Verdun * Propaganda campaigns (“they shall not pass”) * Diphosgene gas (May 1916) German intro. To chemical warfare * Attempt to break through French lines
Significance:
* The date of the Battle of Somme was brought forward – to relieve pressure on French used other fronts * Neither side made any military gains and high casualty rates * French casualties – 378,000 (32% died) * German casualties – 337,000 (29% died) * 78% of French army served at Verdun (mincing machine) * Lower the French morale ‘lay the seeds of doubt’

The Somme 1916: issue of leadership * Somme- further up towards the English channel * Allies big offensive * British vs. Germans
When/Where:
* June – Nov. – 1916 * 40km of front line * River Somme (north of Paris)
Goals & Tactics * Joffre planned a French offensive with British support – French became a minor role due to Battle of Verdun * General Haig + Rawlinson planned the battle * Allied Forces – French, Australia, Canada, New Zealand and South Africa * Aim: to create a reason to force the Germans to withdraw troops from Verdun * Tactics: mixture of frontal assaults aimed at achieving a breakthrough and attrition * To restore a war of movement * British tactics- repetitive bombardment
Nature & Consequences * Germans- 16 divisions, were well-positioned on high ground and built concrete – lined dugouts up to nine metres below ground level * Allies used massive artillery bombardment * British- 13 divisions * French – 11 divisions * Went ‘over the top’ on first day (advance at walking pace – Haig) -> became easy targets * On first day – July 21st 1916 * 20, 000 allies died * 40,000 were wounded * Allied troops didn’t have the machine gun power needed * Battlefield communications were poor * Failed to achieve a large-scale breakthrough (creeping barrage)
Introduction of the tank * 15th Sept. * Hopes of progress * Pass over barbed wire and withstand machine gun fire * Many were bogged * Early stage of development slow + unreliable
Significance
* Allies gained 13km of land * 3 million men of both sides fought

Passchendaele – 1917: The War of Mud * British + Australian + New Zealand + South African soldiers vs. German soldiers * Allies: 300,000 casualties
Germans: 260,000 casualties * June 7th Nov 6th * Other names; Third Battle of Ypres and Flanders Battle * Haig believed the Germans were suffering from low morale and on verge of collapse and therefore believed a breakthrough was possible
Goals: To gain control of the German railway junction and to draw pressure of the French army * Take control of Passchendaele * To restore a war of movement
Tactics: Use breakthrough, mining, artillery barrage, bite and hold and leap frog
Nature and Consequences: * Drowning (waist high in mud + some further or carrying too much weight) * Exhaustion * 14 weeks later very little gain * Tanks = bogged * Trench warfare at its worst * Artillery shelling * Germans had higher ground most of the time * Use of mustard gas * Troop reinforcements * Germans developed a light, portable machine gun * Allies sent reserves (infiltration)
Significance:
* Used tanks successfully * Germans were reinforcing their troops from eastern front to western (Russia is close to Revolution) * Last major campaign of attrition tactics in WW1 * Symbol of the futility of fighting ^ * Haig received criticism for continuing the offensive and not being more flexible with tactics (topic of debate) * Canadians took Passchendaele (then lost it)

* CHANGING ATTITUDES OF ALLIED AND GERMANS SOLDIERS TO THE WAR OVER TIME

* CHANGES IN TECHNOLOGY * Heavy Artillery * It was found that a creeping barrage immediately followed by the infantry assault could be far more effective * Creeping barrage became a potential solution to the stalemate * U-Boat campaign and Naval Warfare * Both sides used their navies to attempt to break the stalemate * (Naval Battle) Battle of Jutland – off the coast of Denmark in the North Sea, May 1916, resulting in claims of victory for both sides * The Tank * Tank development began in 1915 * Original Aim: To use them as land battleships with single tanks employed in front of an assault wave to destroy machine-gun nests * Allied Victory learnt to use the tanks in formation – eventually became successfully after learning from their mistakes
Christmas Truce 1914 * 4 months into war and already soldiers seemed to have modified there nationalistic, pro-war attitudes and created a shared sense of empathy between soldiers * Military personnel from both sides began negotiations for a Christmas ceasefire (5 days) * Christmas Day, Germans sang silent night encouraging the allies to join * They met with their enemies in no man’s land to exchange gifts of cigarettes, show photos of the families and loved ones, and communicate through carols and broken speech * Leaders on both sides became concerned
1915:
* Soldiers focused on coping with the harsh realities * They now had a realistic awareness of the risks and the costs
1916:
* Questioned their commanders – ‘lions led by donkeys’? * Questioned why they were there and who was the real enemy – the generals of your own army or soldiers themselves from opposing armies
1917: Mud and Mutiny * The failure and high costs of the 1917 Nivelle Offensive had a lasting impact on the French soldiers morale (all-time low on morale) * Troops mutinied – refusing to continue suicidal frontal attacks (nearly 500 soldiers received the death penalty)
1918: Victory and Defeat * War weariness came from: * The long period of time that nations had been engaged in war * The apparent futility of many of the tactics used * Increased difficulties in maintaining supplies to the battlefront as the home fronts of various nations were at or near collapse * Increasingly soldiers became involved in mutinies and desertion

The Home fronts in Britain and Germany

* TOTAL WAR AND ITS SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACT ON CIVILIANS IN BRITAIN AND GERMANY * RECRUITMENT, CONSCRIPTION, CENSORSHIP AND PROPAGANDA IN BRITAIN AND GERMANY * THE VARIETY OF ATTITUDES TO THE WAR AND HOW THEY CHANGED OVER TIME IN BRITAIN AND GERMANY * THE IMPACT OF THE WAR ON WOMEN’S LIVES AND EXPERIENCES IN BRITAIN

TOTAL WAR: * Is a military conflict in which nations mobilise all available resources in order to destroy another nation’s ability to engage in war OR Use all resources for military purposes OR A war that is unrestricted in terms of the weapons used, the territory or combatants involved or the objectives pursued OR ‘Total war; refers to a war where all of a country’s economic, social and political systems become devoted to the waging of the war effort. Thus, war became more than just what the soldiers on the fighting fronts did – it also involved all of the domestic war effort: the ‘home front’

* Middle to the end of the 19th century: identified as a separate class of warfare; because of industrialisation and the fact that some conflicts demanded more resources, so war on a large-scale demanded war efforts from the entire nation (home fronts) * War was made more lethal by technological advances in weaponry (warfare becoming more mechanized) * No country actually achieved ‘total war’, the governments could never gain complete control over all parts of life in that country, the closer a nation was to the fighting front geographically the closer the nation was to a ‘total war’ * Total war affected politics: the changed perception of the role and responsibilities of governments (into post-war periods) * The workplace was replaced by women * Rationing occurred * A feature of Total War in Britain was the use of propaganda posters (used to influence peoples decisions) * As soldiers went to the front line; domestic food production in Britain and Germany fell – the response in Britain was to import more food, which was done despite the German introduction of unrestricted submarine warfare and to introduce rationing * The Royal Navy’s blockade of German ports prevented Germany from importing food, and the Germans failed to introduce food rationing * The Germans capitulation (surrender) was hurried in 1918 by the worsening food crises in Germany * Military success was critically dependent on a country’s ability to produce continuous supply of goods for their armies * Germany had great industrial resources (able to survive the British naval blockade and meet the demands of four years of war, whilst also providing help to Austria- Hungary) * British Industry: capable and versatile although began to lag in output of modernization, and began to rely heavily on U.S production * Throughout the war Germany occupied territory in France with important industrial and mining resources, so France also relied on U.S supplies * Russia: industry was incapable of dealing with demand of armies * Germany gained access to the vast economic resources of Russia in the Spring of 1918 but it was too late to affect the outcome * The combined economic resources of U.S and the British Empire played a significant role in the Allied victory

British Home Front: * World war 1 was a product of the industrial age – demonstrated the killing power of the modern state * Also known as the ‘people’s war’ and was transformed into a Total War * Introduction of automobiles * Diesel driven (ocean-going) submarines * Military superiority - the production of increasingly sophisticated explosives, firearms and artillery along with innovative developments in communications (electric telegraph, telephones and radio) * Objective: to channel all of a nation’s resources into winning the war of attrition * Governments needed power: to convert a peacetime society into a military-orientated system * In an attempt to control and redirect anti-war thoughts governments used increasing propaganda and censorship (restrictions on other political freedoms)
Propaganda: government created the War Propaganda Bureau in sept. 1914
Within a year had over 2.5 million publications in circulation * The development of total war prolonged the fighting and stimulated the ant-war sentiment The British used its navy to blockade German supply ships, preventing them from reaching German ports during the Outbreak of War * Nationalism swept over Britain when war was declared (on Germany) * During the ‘great war’ civilians became targets of military operations * National security was challenged * social, political and economic life of the nation was transformed * Zeppelin raids on London in April 1915 pulled the British people into the war effort * The civilians of Britain became the ‘soldiers’ of the home front
The British Government introduced laws and regulations to provide authorities with the power to restrict people’s lives and transform peacetime communities into military support units * The British Gov’t’s message “they were engaged in a fight against aggression and they had to make sacrifices willingly” namely social and political unity

During the outbreak of war: 1914 * Adopted a ‘business as usual’ policy * Recruitment was on a voluntary basis * Main people responsible in war was the military * There was a naïve spirit of adventure and belief in the empire
Further into the war: 1916 – onwards * The liberal principles of laissez-faire and free war escalated and gave way to state intervention and protection * Manufacturing, farming, shipping, transport and communication systems became part of war effort * Increasing military demands (for goods and services) forced governments to take an active role in controlling the economy

DORA – Defence of the Realm Act (8th August 1914): * Allowed the government to assume special powers in order to conduct the war * Steel, munitions and shipbuilding companies were to produce for the war effort (often at a fixed price)also manufacturing, agriculture, security and information came under the scrutiny of DORA * The government took charge of the nation’s docks and harbours, its shipping and the railway system, and Britain’s 3000 privately owned coal mines, so as to have total control of coal production * expressed the great change that ‘home front’ and ‘total war’ would bring Britain * provided the government with powers to intervene in the British people’s daily life * the act entitled the government to ‘regulate any aspect of life, or any person, that could be seen to impact on the course of war’ * large impact; could be used to imprison without trial, cut social activities (such as sport + entertainment) and introduce daylight saving * manufacturing capabilities were behind those of Germany * inadequately prepared for mass production * chemical and light engineering industries were way behind those of Germany * became reliant on raw materials from its empire and therefore dependent on the security of shipping routes (for a continuous supply of essentials) * serious shortage of skilled labour (war effort increased demand on manufacturing sector)

Shell Shortages – Lord Kitchener * British Commander – Lord Kitchener was appointed Secretary of State for war (1914) * Directed the war strategy * Expanded the army from 20 to 70 divisions * Lord Kitchener was discredited and blamed for the (1915) inefficiency in the production of British munitions
Problem was solved in May 1915 (act was passed after the criticism of the shortage of artillery shells), when a new coalition government took office, and created the Ministry of Munitions with David Lloyd George appointed to manage British industry. The ministry brought an end to the laissez-faire policies and transformed British factories and workers into production line for the front line. * Act gave the government the power to control factories engaged in war production and to setup munitions factories of its own * Lloyd George - dictatorial power over British industry + used it to maximise the production of arms
The shell shortage scandal began the Government control on other areas of British life: * Munitions – 1915 * Rent control – 1915 * Conscription – 1916 * Price control – 1917 * Rationing – 1918

Trade Unions: * ‘political truce’ * renounced strikes and active campaigns for increased wages, in their support of the war effort * (Initial) widespread commitment to war effort * From 1914-18 trade union membership doubled (4 million to 8 million) * war economy : * brought longer working hours without extra pay * a general deterioration in worker’s rights and conditions * inflation and the introduction of rationing; bread, milk, sugar and tea * British women and men between the ages 16-65 were required to carry a National Registration Act certificate at all times, the certificate allowed the government to monitor each individual’s employment status
When wage rates did not follow the cost of living, strikes ensued. The unrest was heightened with accusations of profiteering. * In 1914 over one million British men enlisted for service * The success of recruitment led to a shortage of skilled labour in industry and agriculture * Conflict between need for soldiers vs. need to keep workers producing food and munitions * Industrial Conscription was introduced (to prevent workers from certain vital industries enlisting)

Rationing * Production and distribution of food came under government control, because of German U-Boat campaign of 1917 * German Navy used submarines (U-Boats) and blocked shipping routes * End of 1916 – U-Boats were destroying on average 300 000 tonnes of imports a month * U-Boat attacks combined with the poor harvests of 1916 threatened Britain’s food supplies * Food prices rose * Coal in short supply * Throughout the war the government introduced further administrative and legislative controls * In early 1918 the gov’t used DORA to introduce rationing (to gain a tighter control on the distribution of basic goods) * Rationing; for meat, sugar, and butter (not bread), through progression of the year more and more items were added to the list * The government issued ration cards (requiring all citizens to register with a butcher and a grocer), wasting of food became an act punishable by fines * In 1917 one quarter of all ships leaving British ports were sunk by U-Boats and Britain’s stock of wheat was reduced to four weeks supply and the government took control of agricultural production * Production of staple crops was encouraged (such as wheat and potatoes) * Women’s Land Army was formed * dramatic increase in food production but continuous food shortages

* British government intervened in the economy (became a centrally controlled and highly regulated economy) was to keep up the supply of munitions and food to the army in France * Private property was commandeered for the war effort * In 1916 general conscription was introduced (for the first time) * The governments All foreign bonds and shares owned by British citizens were seized and sold off to an overseas market, the owners were reimbursed in British currency and the government used the foreign currency to purchase goods abroad * few factories geared for mass production in 1914

Conscription: * Mid Sept. 1914 500,000 men had volunteered for service * By 1915 over 1 million had joined * These men were recruited through the campaign of Lord Kitchener so became part of Kitchener’s army * By 1916 conscription ensued as the volunteers had lessened * Military Service Act of January 1916 – all single men between the ages of 18 and 41 were subject to conscription in the army * In May 1916 with the Universal Conscription Act all men were placed under the control of the government and those not forced to join the armed forces could be directed to work in essential industries * Kitchener’s Recruitment Campaign * Public meetings * Bands playing military music * Posters * Recruitment agents travelling through the country * Propaganda * British newspapers and magazines published articles and cartoons on Britain’s bravery and the German’s cruelty, photos supporting the war effort * British church leaders did weekly sermons encouraging men to enlist and do their duty for their nation * Public institutions mobilized to aid in recruitment * Women’s suffrage movement were encouraging men to enlist * Presenting white feathers (the sign of cowardice) in the streets to men of enlistment age not in uniform * for many working-class men enlisting was a way to escape the grinding poverty of their lives * enlistment offered regular pay, good food and clothing, adventure and comradeship * Derby Scheme- persuasion rather than conscription (1915) * By 1918 over five million men had joined the ranks of the British Army

Women: * WW1 revolutionised the role of women in British society * The Suffragette movement had previously had little success * Women were required to fill the mens positions in civilian life * Employed in farms, in transport, offices, shops, hospitals and schools * Women were earning their own living, and increasing independence * Production of munitions gave women the most opportunities and women were employed in tens of thousands – named the ‘munitionettes’ * 1918- all women over the age of 30 were given the vote * 1928 – all women over the age of 18 were give the vote (voting quality achieved) * Changes in women fashions; more practical clothes, skirts became shorter, corsets were abandoned, new forms of underwear (brassiere), and shorter hairstyles on women * Positions in the armed forces in non-combatant roles: * Women’s Land Army was formed – women were recruited as farm labourers- in three sections; agriculture, timber-cutting and forage * Nursing; the Voluntary Aid Detachment (VAD) (nurses, drivers, cooks and cleaners) * Women’s Royal Air Force (1918) * Representation of the People act 1918 (right to vote for women over the 30) * Restoration of Pre-War Practices (1919) act directed women to leave their jobs when war ended – at the end of war the role of women at home and work reverted to traditional practices

Politics: * Outbreak of war (1914-1916) – liberal Herbert Asquith (PM) * December 1916(-22) – David Lloyd George (PM) * The war and division within the ranks of the liberals allowed the British Labour party to expand rapidly, the Labour party opposed the war and broadened the party’s electoral appeal * In the General Election 1918 Labour Party made spectacular gains * became the second largest party in Parliament and the official opposition
Benefits of Total War: * Undermining of the traditional British class system * Breaking down barriers of wealth and class * In 1913 only half of men had the vote, by 1918 all men over the age of 21 were given the vote

Enemy Aliens * Outbreak of war unleashed anti-German sentiment * Fed by stories of atrocity and brutality and led to persecution of anyone with a German sounding name * E.g. British family changed last name from Saxe-Coburg-Gotha to Windsor * May (1915) the sinking of the British Liner Lusitania prompted anti-German riots in the streets of London * The thousands of Germans +Austrians living in Britain were classified as ‘enemy aliens’ and deported, interned or restricted (in the their movements around nation)

German Home Front: * During outbreak of war, Germany was newly unifies and nationalistic * Nation- most prepared for war, massive manufacturing sector and reserves of iron and coal * Germany was self-sufficient in food production and also imported huge quantities of vital raw materials to feed its industries * Power of the economy relied on trade within European community * Germans believed in fighting for the war for the ‘Greater Germany’ * 1914 supportive of the war effort, the Kaiser, and the conservative government * Power was transferred from the Reichstag to the Kaiser and his generals * Economic director (during the war): Walter Rathenau (German industrialist), he believed the biggest challenge was access to raw materials * Rathernau became the Director of the newly established War Raw Materials Department and created a system of centralised control over German industry which he called ‘war socialism’ * Struck by mass famine and starvation * Increase in diseases (e.g. Tuberculosis and Anaemia) * Black market for supplies was introduced; and law and order began to break down * The German government organised and supervised the production of war materials and intervened in the nation’s economic and social life (much like Britain) * Department of Raw Materials (KRA) was the model of cooperation between Germany industry and government * KRA run by businessmen, controlling all raw-materials coming from all German-occupied territory (such as mining and industrial areas) * Germany lacked the resources required to fight a prolonged war and the isolation imposed on her by the British navy meant that from the earliest days of the conflict she experienced chronic shortages of raw materials * Her allies Turkey and Bulgaria were a drain on German resources because they lacked economic self-sufficiency and needed German support * In Germany reserve training had been a matter of standard policy during the 19th century * During the course of the war Germany mobilised over 13 million men, which was 85% of the male population between 17-50

Raw materials: * Germans (unlike Britain) needed to find substitutes for raw materials * New materials and process’ were developed * German’s could no longer import nitrogen so German chemists discovered a technique of extracting nitrogen from the air * Cotton was substituted by wood cellulose * A substitute for copper in munitions and electrical equipment is aluminium extracted from German clay deposits * Petroleum was substituted by animal and vegetable oil * Germany also began to produce synthetic rubber

Food Shortages: * Before 1914 one third of nations food was imported * Government introduced price controls and rationing * Bread was rationed in 1915 and made of turnip, potatoes and flour * A bad harvest in 1916 resulted in severe shortages and food riots – become known as the ‘turnip winter’ with declining morale and health of the civilian workforce further decreasing food production, the transport and coal production also failed * 1918 Germany was only eating 12% of the meat eaten previously * At the end of war starvation and disease were a feature of the German home front * In August 1916 Butter Riots in Berlin * In 1916 the War Food Office enacted 258 new laws (to control the supply and distribution of essential goods, including hours of sale, prices, types of meat etc.) * Imperial Potato Office (controlled this produce)

Industrial Labour: * Experienced a shortage of labour * Government introduced the National Service Law in December 1916; this placed every male in Germany between the ages of 17-60 under the control of the Minister of War * German women now found a ready market for their labour in war industries (like the British women) * Prisoners of War (POW) were put to work in factories * Co-operation with the German Trade Movement was achieved through consultation and the provision of higher wages to workers, they also curbed the power of trade unions by legislation

Politics: * By 1916 the Kaiser’s role had been reduced to a figurehead – Kaiser William had been swept aside as an incompetent fool, seldom consulted and always isolated from major military or political decisions * Position of Chancellor (Bethmann-Hollweg) deteriorated, he lost all real political power and was forced out of office in 1917 * Falkenhayn’s prestige evaporated in 1916 after Verdun and the Somme * August 29th 1916 Falkenhayn was replaced by a military team; Field Marshall Paul von Hindenburg and General Erich Ludendorff which dominated Germany till the end of WW1 * Hindenburg (provided dignity and tradition) became Chief of Staff and Ludendorff (provided the driving energy) became the Quartermaster General (were national heroes due to a win against Russia on eastern front in 1914 and became the real rulers of Germany) * These men directed the German Military strategy and took all the major political decisions, not only in foreign policy but also in such aspects of domestic policy as food supply and labour management * Germany became a military dictatorship and the Reichstag was manipulated by them
Germany had a large anti-war political action; and after 1918 saw the overthrow of the government (revolution)

Propaganda- in Germany mainly private organisations produced the propaganda – lacked the power of Britain’s central coordination and government direction
In 1916 Hindenburg and Ludendorff created the Supreme War Office – Kriegsamt
Aim: a total war effort through total mobilisation of labour in the service of the ‘father-land’
Kriegsamt had total control of: * Civilian labour * Manufacturing * Transport * In 1916 Germany was hit by strikes as the economy crumbled and war carried on * By 1918 around 100,000 workers were on strikes every month
Deaths caused by starvation
1915 – 88 000
1917 – 260 000
1918 – 294,000
November 1918, the Kaiser abdicated elections were called for a new German Republic and the once Powerful German Empire collapsed.

Germany 1916 * Strike action by workers across Germany * A peace demonstration attended by 30 000 people in Frankfurt * Food riots in over 30 German cities * Increased socialist protests against the war and questioning of German war aims * Imprisoning of socialist leaders, such as Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxembourg for anti-war activities * Re-emergence of serious political unrest
Britain 1916 * Food queues and shortages of essential items * Stories of war profiteering from trade of war goods * Unequal distribution of resources * Lack of adequate housing * Long working hours * Bombing raids and British losses at sea * Increase in labour disputes and unofficial strikes

Censorship: * As to not affect community morale with any negativity of the war * Seen as necessary for the protection for national security * Britain (from 1915) the Directorate of Special Intelligence coordinated censorship * Germany the Central Censorship Office and War Press Office checked publications and the Foreign Ministry censored the news, the regulations included what could be discussed in Public * Goal: to promote patriotism, strong government, national unity and morale

Evidence of War- Chapter 3: The impact of war on Germany, Britain and Australia
Changing attitudes to the war
Early attitudes (linked to enthusiasm): * Way of achieving spiritual renewal. * Glorious adventure. * Opportunity for the highest virtues of courage and noble sacrifice to be developed. * Way of proving racial and cultural superiority.
Later attitudes (development of war-weariness): * Wasteful, senseless sacrifice. * Grief at huge casualties and personal losses. * Soic, or resigned, acceptance of restrictions. * Opposition to increasing demands and restrictions and conscription. * Growth of conscientious objection. * Opposition to war profiteers, support for industrial action. * Development, particularly in the working class, of revolutionary ideas and activity. * Increasingly fanatical support for the war effort, demands for further sacrifice.

Propaganda
-An organised scheme for transmission or dissemination of a doctrine or a practice- a deliberate attempt to convince people of a particular set of ideas, or point of view. The presentation of a one-sided view of an issue.
Reasons for Propaganda during WW1
Used on the home fronts to: * Encourage recruitment into the army. * Boost morale of civilians and troops. * Encourage financial investment in the war effort via war bonds and donations. * Encourage acceptance and support of various restrictions, including rationing. * Encourage active participation in the war effort. * Attack those who opposed conscription for military service. * Promote or oppose industrial action by workers.
Censorship
* Ensured that the government propaganda was not undermined by those who opposed the war. * Very strict in Germany, preventing expression of opposition views. * Important aspect of government control in Britain and Australia although opposition groups still existed and were able to express some views. * Included police raids, seizure of printed materials and arrest, prosecution and imprisonment risks faced by those who openly attacked government policies. * Throughout the war, vast majority of newspapers and churchmen supported government efforts to expand war effort.
Types of Propaganda
There was no radio or television at the time!
Films
* Short black-and-white films made of troops in training or on camp. * Intention to present appearance of sound organisation, valuable work and the comradeship of army life. * Scenes of carnage, misery and reference to heavy casualties were avoided.
Newspapers
* Articles by journalists who had mostly never been near the battlefields. * Reported of heroism and endurance of those in the fighting line. * Other articles condemned enemy soldiers as ‘barbarians’. * Invented atrocity stories as part of ‘hate’ campaigns. * Editorials in Britain and Australia urged men to join the army by appealing to a variety of emotions. * Conscription in Germany made recruitment propaganda unnecessary. * Cartoons and illustrations showed the enemy as diabolical or humorously ineffective while others stressed the courage of soldiers in the battle and the excitement of danger. This encouraged recruitment and helped maintain morale on the home fronts. * Some illustrations attempted to encourage men and women to join the Land Army, work in munitions and other war industries, or help groups such as the Red Cross. * War dragged on- articles and illustrations stressed need to save resources and to obey restrictions imposed by rationing. * Photographs published which presented view of war as supporting that of the government.
Posters
* Powerful propaganda medium. * Contained little detail and usually very few words. * Designed to have an immediate visual impact and to appeal directly to the emotions. * Often effect not consciously registered by those who saw them, but many came to absorb their ideas nonetheless. * Used to promote increase in recruitment to buy war bonds, vote on conscription referenda in Australia and to obey government regulations and restrictions. * Posters encouraged young men to enlist themselves as it was a sense of duty and through their natural wish to help their friends. * Encouraged women to put pressure on male relatives and lovers to enlist to show their manliness.

Sermons * Age when most people went to church regularly and level of literacy in population was lower than it is today; many looked to their local minister or priest to express feelings and thoughts of their congregations. * Role of church therefore important. * Parish ministers and priests encouraged enlistment in Britain and Australia, many gave sermons in support of the war effort of their country and claimed God was on their side.
Schools
* Many teachers believed it was their duty to encourage children to support the war and to pressure male relatives of fighting age to enlist.
Books and magazines * Often carried pro-war propaganda in a variety of ways. * Narratives of children’s books, short stories and comics were clearly in support of the war. Magazines for adults also filled with patriotic articles.
Meetings, speeches and marches * Held more frequently in countries that had not introduced conscription as part of recruitment and ‘hate’ campaigns. * Meetings organised by groups which had formed to support the war, and politicians and returned soldiers were invited to address them. * Speeches often written up in the press so propaganda had a wide impact. * Speeches in support of war also made at sports events. * Marches by units of men before embarkation helped create an exciting, martial atmosphere and raise morale. * Recruitment marches were organised to encourage young men to join the march and enlist.
Music- songs and military bands * Songs with simple tunes and easily remembered made a strong emotional appeal. * Sung by women, addressed to men, encouraged enlistment. * Military bands played at many open-air gatherings, bringing about the excitement and glamour of the army, encouraging confidence and high morale in enlistment.
Postcards
* Humorous and poked fun at supposedly incompetent enemy. * Helped to raise morale and deflect thoughts from the grim realities of the battlefield.
Who Used Propaganda? * Governments of combatant countries set up propaganda ministries and organisations. * The importance and power of propaganda was recognised by all governments and by all those groups who opposed war.