Municipal Solid Waste Management in Addis Ababa
IS PRIVATIZATION AN OPTION FOR A BETTER
MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT OF ADDIS
ABABA?
By Tekahun Basha (2007)
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ABSTRACT
In an attempt to analyze the baffled Municipal Waste Management of Addis Ababa and its multifaceted problems and to propose an improved way of waste management, this paper explores the significance of the introduction of formal privatization as a better option. The proposal is based on the implemented experiences drawn basically from African cities and from around the world too. It is also rooted in ongoing practices but uncoordinated private initiatives in the city with a community cooperation, which has displayed glimmering hopes signaling the possibility to make a difference, if it gets due attention.
The way Municipal Solid Waste of Addis Ababa currently handled is unsustainable, shapeless, inefficient, uncoordinated and unrepresentative. The practical and efficiently unsolved Municipal Waste Management problems and their health risks are sensible and felt by consumers, decision makers and producers on the ground. The theoretical option of privatization but backed up with practically applied experiences and generally with satisfactory results, of course, depending on how it is implemented, are put here forward for implementation with adaptation to the local conditions. The proposed option will alleviate the existing problem and hence making the city a healthy, productive and fitting place for its current inhabitants including the coming generation.
July, 2007
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ACRONYM
AEO - Africa Environment Outlook
AMA - Accra Metropolitan Area
CBOs - Community Based Organizations
CSA - Central Statistical Authority
FSS - Forum for Social Studies
GAMA – Gashe Abera Molla Association
ILO - International Labor Organization
IMF - International Monetary Fund
JICA - Japanese International Development Cooperation Agency
NGOs -Non Governmental Organizations
NIRP - Netherlands Israel Development Research Program
NTNU - Norwegian University of Science and Technology
SBPDA - Sanitation, Beautification and Park Development Agency
UNCHS - United Nation’s Center for Human Settlement
UNDP - United Nation’s Development Program
UNEP - United Nation’s Environment Program
WEDC- Water, Engineering and Development Centre
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
7
1.1. Background……………………………………………………….…………........7
1.2. Objectives of the study…………………………………………………………...9
1.3. Organization of the chapters…...........…………………………….………….…..9
1.4. Definition of oncepts……………………………………………………………10
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK
12
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
16
3.1. Document Analysis: National and international……………………………….16
3.2. Field surveys and personal experiences…………………………………………16
CHAPTER FOUR: MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT (MSWM) IN
ADDIS ABABA
18
4.1 . Brief background of Addis Ababa………………………………………………18
4.2 . How MSW is currently ‘managed’ in Addis Ababa?.………..…………………19
4.2.1. Generation…………………..…………….……………….………………......19
4.2.2. Sources …………………………..…………………………………………...20
4.2.3. Composition…………………………………………………………………..21
4.2.4. Collection……………………………………………………………………..22
4.2.5. Transportation…………………………………………………………………23
4.2.6. Disposal: open dump site –‘Repi’……………………………..………………23
4.3 . Factors contributing to the failure of the sector…………………………….......25
4.3.1. Urban management problems …………………………………………………25
4.3.2. Urban political unrest………………………………………………………….27
4.3.3. Role of NGOs…………………………………………………………...….....28
4.3.4. Information gap…………………………………………………………….....29
4.3.5. Poor community participation…………….…………………………………..31
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CHAPTER FIVE: PRIVATIZATION OF MSWM
33
5.1. What is privatization?...............…………………………………...…………......34
5.2. Methods of private sector participation …………………………………………36
5.2.1. Contracting…………………………………………………………………….36
5.2.2. Concession ………………………………………………………...………….37
5.2.3. Franchise…………………………………………...………………………….36
5.2.4. Open competition..…………………………….……………………………...37
5.3. MSW privatization experiences in three African cities………………………….37
5.3.1. Dar-es-Salaam – Tanzania……………………………………………………..37
5.3.2. Accra –Ghana………...……………………………………………………….39
5.3.3. Nairobi – Kenya…………………..…………………………………………..40
CHAPTER SIX: PRIVATIZATION EXPERIENCE IN ETHIOPIA
42
6.1. General introduction …………………………………………………………….42
6.2. ‘Private’ sectors in MSWM: are there any private sectors?..................................42
6.2.1. ‘Private’ initiatives: individuals and groups how they started. ………..…...…42
6.2.2. The working condition………...……………………………………….……...44
6.2.3. Government’s response…………….…………………..……………………..45
6.2.4. Community, CBOs and NGOs response...………………………………..…..45
6.2.5. The impact of the urban clean and green mobilization…………………….....45
CHAPTER SEVEN: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
47
LITERATURE
53
5
List of tables
4.1. Sources of solid waste in percentages ……………………………………………..……21
4.2. Solid waste composition…………………………………………………………...…….21
4.3. NGOs involvement in urban development projects…………………………………..…28
6.1. ‘Private’ pioneers waste collectors in Addis Ababa……………………………….…….46
List of boxes
4.1. ‘Repi’ – the only ‘functional’ open dump site………………………….……..…….….24
5.1. Benefits of privatization …………………………………………….………………….34
6.1. Major reasons for the start of the initiatives………………………………………….....44
List of graph
4.1. Solid waste management …………………………………………………………..…...22
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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1. BACKGROUND
What is waste and to whom? It is differently understood subjectively or objectively by different scholars, sections of societies, countries and in different time ranges and technological level. For more it is seen as a burden but for some like Francisco, it is bread and butter. It is noted in Ackerman, F. and Miza, S. (2000) in ‘Waste in the inner city; asset or assault?’ what Francisco from Peru, who is a recycler said: “I believe that sometimes the garbage is a blessing from God in Heaven”. Some throws it away haphazardly and hazardously, while others do it in a pattern integrating into environmental and economic management. Global researchers in the field are trying to work out for a common understanding, what waste is and how it is understood by defining and redefining as it is important for communication, designing strategies and collaboration; otherwise, any effort against the waste problem without common understanding is a futile attempt. How to deal with it in general and in a beneficiary way in particular depends on how we understand it. Perceptions of waste, as Dracker, M. (2005) argues, are important parts of local waste management systems, and the understanding of such perceptions might increase the effectiveness of waste management campaigns.
The urban centers are important for administration, economic development, technological, educational and cultural advancement. They play important role in manufacturing, processing, commercial activities, employment and income creation. In majority of nations, cities generate the lion’s share of economic activities. They consume most of the natural resources and ultimately producing most of the pollution and wastes (UNEP, 2003). Local resources seldom cope with the actual need for basic amenities and the management of the solid waste is an acute problem. Then, the question is how to manage these ever mounting waste problems and related health risks in developing cities, like Addis Ababa?
The city of Addis Ababa suffers from a chronic shortage of essential socio-economic services, an awfully inadequate physical infrastructure and unhealthy environmental condition. An inept administration that has failed to maintain, upgrade and expand the city’s infrastructure and services inline with the growing population and economic activity has
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exacerbated its woes (Meheret, 1999). The urban health problems are practical and riskful in which the inhabitants unfortunately take part in living and working. Some of the inhabitants suffer from various infectious diseases and many children dies. The urban poor, who lack many life supporting assets, are by far affected disproportionately from these negative impacts. Waste management problems are getting complex as a result of urbanization in Addis Ababa and regional towns of Ethiopia. Population growth, expansion of informal settlement and business, lack of proper regulatory mechanisms, poor awareness of the inhabitants on the subject or carelessness, incapacitated approach of municipal authority coupled with poor governance are exacerbating the Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSWM) problems.
The way Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) of Addis Ababa currently handled is unsustainable, shapeless, inefficient, uncoordinated and unrepresentative. The solid waste generation is increasing, as the trend promises even vigorously fueled by population boom and business expansion in volume, type, and level of hazard. The understanding of the community and how they relate themselves to the SWM problem is critical. There are obvious problems in collection, transportation and final disposal. The scattered solid wastes are creating environmental pollution posing health risks for human being, domestic and wild animals. The poorly managed open dumping site, which is currently no more at periphery is causing air, land and water pollution. The site is posing practical health risks especially to the inhabitants surrounding it. It is open for all kinds of scavengers: human beings, domestic and wild animals. Thus, the MSWM question is critical and needs to be addressed in all its levels from its source to the final disposal including elements of managements and stakeholders’ involvement. There is high and crystal clear pressure emanating from the complicated problem. There is dire need of putting in place legal procedures, introducing appropriate and efficient way of dealing with this challenging problem. And this needs desire, will and resources to bring about a positive and visible change.
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1.2. Objective of the study
The major aim of the study is to explore, analyze and discuss solid waste problems and option of privatization as a better solution for Addis Ababa’s MSWM problem from global in general and from African cities experiences in particular. For this purpose experiences are drawn from 3 African cities considering them relevant to Addis Ababa’s situation as they are in similar developing city situation, though could be some differences. The lessons include how and why in these cities privatization option introduced for their MSWM problems, the successes and finally challenges to be addressed.
The study will try to address the following questions:
1. Understanding of solid waste, its current status and pollution problems in Addis
Ababa
2. Major management problems and factors contributing towards its poor management
3. Looking into better alternative way for MSWM, i.e. introduction of the privatization sector 1.3. Organization of the Chapters
The paper is organized in seven chapters. Chapter one has dealt with the general introduction on the solid waste and its understanding globally and locally including the objectives of the study. Chapter two will focus on the literature review, looking into the various works done on the subject area, its problems with management options globally and locally.
Chapter three will deal with research methodology looking up into the sources, which are the foundations and pillars for the building up of the paper with arguments, facts, figures, discussions, conclusions, etc.
Chapter four will dowel on the problem of the subject: municipal solid waste of Addis Ababa, its current status and management problems and factors contributed to the mishandling of the wastes. 9
Chapter five will come up with basics of understanding on privatization, and its experiences and challenges in general and from African countries in particular. It is laying foundation to look into the privatization as better alternative solution for the waste management problem that Addis Ababa currently faced.
Chapter six will introduce into the general privatization history and experience in Ethiopia, especially about the private initiatives in the solid waste management with its opportunities and challenges.
And finally, chapter seven will deal with the discussion and conclusion over the existing problems and proposed privatization option and what cares must be taken into consideration during implementation, if successful and sustainable management of the municipal waste is desired. And it winds up the main ideas of paper leading into the final conclusion that privatization is an alternative option for improved management of municipal waste of Addis
Ababa from view points of like efficiency, promoting integrated waste management, improving urban environmental health, job and income creation based on the drawn experiences especially from the three selected African cities.
1.4. Definition of concepts
The main working definitions in the study are the following. They comprise of solid waste, its management, pollution and privatization, which are the main pillars in the study. They are taken from website: www.iseg.giees.uncc.edu.dictionary/cfm and Kobala, L. (1996).
Solid waste: it is defined here as all wastes generated through residential, commercial, industrial and institutional activities and comprising all forms of solid matter such as organic matter (vegetable rest, paper, wood, textiles, etc), plastic, metals, glass and screening materials. This kind of waste is distinguished from liquid waste that runs through the sewer system. Solid Waste Management: this term refers to the entire process of taking care of the solid waste generated. This involves collection of waste, transportation, waste disposal, re-use and recycling. It also involves control and regulation of the above mentioned activities in the waste management process to promote sound environmental quality as well as information
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dissemination on how it must be done and implications of its proper management or otherwise. This also presupposes what parties are involved in the management process.
Pollution: Any condition or substance, resulting from human activity, that adversely affects the quality of the environment; contamination of air, water, land or other natural resources that will or are likely to create a public nuisance or to render such air, water, land or other natural resources harmful, detrimental or injurious to public health.
Privatization: it is defined in a simple way as the transfer of service or ownership from the public sector (government) to the private sector (business).
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CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
The main purpose of this chapter is to review the available literatures to draw lessons on the
SWM problems and experiences of privatization in the public service, namely in the solid waste management sector, which gives sufficient evidences and back ups for suggestion of privatization as a better alternative for MSWM of Addis Ababa. The literature review will begin from the scarce and scattered sources from Addis Ababa on the problem under investigation. Then, reach out and review international experiences with the main focus on
African continent. This is because, firstly Ethiopia is a developing country, secondly, it is located in Africa, thirdly, the countries in Africa share almost the same MSWM and urban environmental risks and problems, though they are diverse in some aspects.
Cities will be bigger than ever and are promising better life and getting overflowing response from rural-urban migration. The challenging issue that the global community faced today is how to keep all fast changing factors in harmony for the sustainable future. And one of the most pressing issue, especially in developing urban centers, like Addis Ababa is how to provide clean and healthy city for its inhabitants.
Humans are by their very nature careless with waste. It is not a trait of the 20th century.
Garbologists, who studies the materials discarded by a society to learn what it reveals about social or cultural patterns, have discovered that people let trash fall where it may. As the timeline of garbage history suggests there has been a problem of waste from man's earliest time. Waste has played a tremendous role in history. The Bubonic Plague, cholera and typhoid fever, to mention a few, were diseases that altered the populations of Europe and influenced monarchies. They were perpetuated by filth that harbored rats, and contaminated water supply. It was not uncommon for Europeans to throw their garbage and even human wastes out of the window. They figured that stray dogs would eat whatever they threw out
(Barbalace, 2003).
Urban environmental issue in Ethiopia in general and in Addis Ababa in particular is not getting due attention. The so far conducted studies are few and focused mainly on social issues like poverty and housing. Urban environmental problems those Addis Ababa exhibit today are not something myth but practically established truth and a daily woes of its residents. And the irksome conditions continue. If the urban solid wastes are not managed
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properly, enormous and scaled up negative impacts continue to harm the environment, economy and human life, especially the urban poor.
Uncollected wastes often end up in drains, causing blockages which result in flooding and unsanitary conditions. Flies and Mosquitoes breed in some constituents of solid wastes, and spread diseases. Rats find shelter and food in waste dumps as well spread disease (Cointreau and Coad, 2000).
There are some researches, reports and policy documents concerning how to deal with the
SWM questions of the country as a whole and of Addis Ababa in particular. But, when it comes to the privatization of MSWM of Addis Ababa, owing to the new experience of privatization issue, it is limited and now some piece of studies started to come out. The following policy documents could be mentioned as an important framework and steps in the field of environmental and MSWM, though their practical impact is not seen vibrant in improving the problem under question.
1. The Constitution of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (1995) under article 92 concerning the environmental objectives it says that the government, its people and activities should not damage or destroy the environment and the government shall endeavor to have clean and healthy environment for all Ethiopians (summarized).
2. Environmental policy of Ethiopia was launched in 1997 with the over all policy goal to improve and enhance the health and quality of life through appropriate environmentally friendly interventions.
3. Environmental Impact Assessment proclamation was launched under Proclamation
No. 299/2002.
4. Environmental Pollution Control was proclaimed under No. 300/2002.
5. Addis Ababa Solid Waste Management Policy was launched in 2003.
6. A waste management, collection and disposal regulation of the Addis Ababa City
Government was proclaimed under Regulations No. 13/2004.
7. Addis Ababa City Development Plan 2001-2010, in which MSWM its problems and ways of management was hinted in brief (2004).
8. Sanitation, Beautification and Park Development Agency (which is responsible for
MSWM) has produced a document in 2005 with details for the public about the kinds of service deliveries.
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9. Reports and researches are also part of this, which will be used in accessing the relevant information while developing the paper.
The double-capital, Addis Ababa is expanding geographically, demographically, culturally, socially and economically. As a result of faster, uncontrolled and unorganized dynamics of many domains coupled with lack of or absence of appropriate management policies or their application triggers the city almost to slip out of the managerial capacity of the municipality.
The whole ethos about the environmental health situation of the city could be synthesized as a complete doom. Organized approach, knowledge and information on the concept of solid waste and its management in Addis Ababa are limited, new practice and difficult for reference and built up techniques.
The current data which is employed in SWM literatures, planning and discussions are older than a decade. They will make obstructions to any kind of plans and practical approaches.
Thus the issue of data is critical and demands urgent study, if grounded improvement is sought to the MSWM problems (SBPDA, 2004).
Solid Waste (SW) pollution places fresh water system at risk and threatens the availability of safe water for human consumption, by disrupting essential ecosystem services (AEO, 2000).
The Soil and water sample analysis research of Itana, F. and Olsson, M. (2004), is also signaling alert of environmental contamination. In their findings they made clear that as result of dumping of municipal and industrial wastes into the rivers or farmlands, heavy metals build up in the river water, soils and consequently in vegetables, which are consumed by city’s inhabitants and beyond.
The city is in need of competent management that can address the urban problems in general and MSWM in particular. The city government should explore alternative means of service delivery, including contracting, privatization and joint management of municipal services
(Meheret, 1999). Developing cities in third world countries, which are in the same grip, are looking for alternative approaches of MSWM and as a result some have implemented privatization. Despite concerns, privatization of urban services is now a policy pursued in most parts of the world. Will this work for Addis Ababa?
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The provision of municipal solid waste service is a costly and vexing problem for local authorities everywhere. In the cities of developing countries, service coverage is low, resources are inefficient, and uncontrolled dumping is widespread, resulting in environmental problems. More over, substantial inefficiencies are typically observed. One solution commonly proposed is to contract service provision with the private sector in the belief that service coverage and efficiency can be improved and environmental protection enhanced.
Field studies conducted by the World Bank and others tend to substantiate these claims that the private delivery of the municipal solid waste service can be successful in terms of greater efficiency, coverage and quality of service. Keys to successful private sector involvement in municipal solid waste management include creating contestable markets, establishing an appropriate regulatory framework and operation standards for contractors, and strengthening local government capacity to negotiate contracts and monitor performance. In simplest terms, the focus must be on competition, transparency and accountability (Cointreau and Coad,
2000)
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CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The study is mainly based on analysis of the national and international secondary sources and partly on the findings of the author’s previous practical work experiences and field surveys.
3.1. Document Analysis: National and International
Generally, at national level, like in many developing countries information in the environmental management field is limited due to the poor attention given to the matter. But, the Ethiopian environmental conditions like land degradation, desertification and urban pollution are worsening from time to time putting human survival at risk. I have tried to highlight the documentation problem in the literature review. The exiting limited, unorganized and outdated documents are not easily accessible. However, there are some government policy documents, reports and discussion papers out of which I have tried to make use of it. In addition to that, I have explored few research papers carried out in the urban environmental problems of Addis Ababa. In comparison with some of the African cities, where research and management of MSW is relatively better, I found out that Addis
Ababa is poorly researched and data are limited or not well studied especially with regards to seeking alternative means of solving the problem like taking the option of privatization. Some of the African cities, like Dar Es Salaam which is practicing privatization since 1994, are more than 10 years old in privatizing MSW, while Addis Ababa is struggling with confusions what to do.
3.2. Field studies and personal experiences
During the last 5 years (2001-2006), I was coordinating the activities of an environmental
NGO, called “GAMA”, which was advocating and campaigning for the greening and cleaning of Addis Ababa through implementations of pilot projects with the participation of youngsters and community. This gave me an ample opportunity to observe closely and ponder over urban environmental problems, especially in the solid waste management aspect.
I had many discussions with the local authorities, the communities and their representatives, the CBOs and the international NGOs which are working in the field.
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I have also tried to produce some elementary studies and did documentations. They are the results from the participation in this evolving system, be at my organizational level or urban administration and critical observation of the issues in the field. All these contributed to shape my outlook towards the problems, internalize them and be initiated to work to get better options for the urban environmental management in general and in the solid waste management in particular.
Thus, my personal living experiences, observations made, reflections depicted and images created in mind, I hope they are valuable assets in making the analysis and judgment to make the research credible.
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CHAPTER FOUR: MSWM IN ADDIS ABABA
4.1. Brief background of Addis Ababa
The city of Addis Ababa is a little more than hundred years old and serves as national and
African Union’s capital. It was established in the late 19th century by Emperor Menelik II as the permanent capital of the then emerging modern Ethiopian state. Over the years, the city has grown into an important urban center following the modernization and economic development which Emperor Haile Silassie I zealously pursued in the aftermath of the World
War II. The city covers a total area of 540 square kilometers with a population of approximately 5 million. It has self governing status according to the proclamation No.
87/1999 and has 10 sub-cities and 100 kebels (lowest level administrative body) (CSA,
1998).
The name of the capital “Addis Ababa” in national language Amharic means “New Flower”, though its current urban environmental picture doesn’t reflect that. But, it was true in its time when it was founded. It was the wife of Emperor Menelik, Empress Taitu, who called “Addis
Ababa” the then green field, when she found a new flower on the ground, where today millions of people, buildings, businesses, cultural and educational centers and the consequence, the urban environmental ills like the solid waste pollution flowered as well.
When Addis Ababa was founded, only one hundred years ago, it had a huge potential to offer a beautiful and healthy environment for its inhabitants. The topography of the one of the highest capital in the world varies from the mountainous scenery in the north, which once was covered with dry evergreen montage forest and grassland, over rolling hills and valley’s in the central part of the city, to predominantly flat, agricultural land in the south. Some romanticists are still encourages to describe the beauty of Addis Ababa, lying among others in its natural sites and its forest covered hill-slopes, particularly the Entoto range (Dierig,
1999).
But now, as depicted in Dierig, S. (1999) and we can practically witness is that most of its beauty and much of its natural environment has been destroyed. Forests have been cleared or partly substituted with eucalyptus plantations which encourage increasing erosion. The rivers
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of Addis carry the domestic and industrial wastes into the countryside. The uncontrolled growth of the city encroaches up onto the agricultural land on the outskirts.
4.2. How MSW is currently ‘managed’ in Addis Ababa?
The MSWM of Addis Ababa is challenged with many combined problems and getting complex from time to time. These problems will be dealt in one or another way in the course of the paper. These are:
Increased amount of solid waste generation with its composition and hazard of urban environmental pollution (land, air and water bodies).
Low level of management capacity (financial, technical and human resources).
Lack of coordination between the municipality and other stakeholders (NGOs,
Community, CBOs and others) including even among stakeholders.
Lack of enforcement of the existing SWM policy and regulation.
Lack of proper involvement of private sector.
4.2.1. Generation
In all communities, people generate wastes. Be it in developed or developing countries; in urban or rural, waste is a must as far as production and living continues. The difference is in amount, composition, and rate, level of hazard and management approach. It is generated even when waste is managed in a sanitary way, though the quantity and the risks are reduced.
It is hard to fix the exact figure as to how much solid waste is generated daily since there is no updated, well documented and reliable information, except repeating decades of old data, which is in complete contradiction with the current dynamics. According to the Sturdy
Gordon 1994 study (SBPDA, 2004) the total waste generated was about 671 ton/day. It is calculated based on the 0.221kg/person/day in relation to 3 million population. The agency for MSWM is still quoting the 1994 Sturdy Gordon’s study for total waste generation, which is in my opinion doesn’t concur with the current reality where a lot of changes happened since then. The presented data is arrested with the year when it was studied but not the number of population and its dynamics. Thus, it is possible to guess that the city generates approximately about or over 2,000 tons MSW daily. It is my assumption that taking the
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population of the city about 5 million and the per capita waste generation about 0.5 kg/person/day. My assumption though still low but close to most African countries per capital like 0.7kg for Harare (UNEP, 2003); 1.2kg for Kinshasa (UNEP, 2003); 0.6kg for Nairobi
(JICA, 1998); 0.69 for Dar es Salaam (JICA, 1997) and 0.51kg for Accra (Obrih-Oparen, et al, 2004).
It is obvious in Addis Ababa that the number of population is increasing from time to time both naturally coupled with rural – urban and urban – urban migration. The economical activities of consumption, production and their interactions triggered by the population boom and this will have a direct impact on the volume of SW generation and its composition. On page 23 at graph 4.1 is shown how much is collected, recycled, reused and left unattended from the daily generation in the city. The data is taken from Clean and Green Addis Ababa
Development plan 2004-2025 compiled by Clean and Green Addis Ababa society (2004).
But, it is difficult to consent with the data on the reports and the reality on the ground. It is like some 30% is collected and the rest is diffused into different channels of pollution, reuse and recycle. To know the real reflection of the current status it needs to update the data base with new researches. The agency itself which is responsible for the MSWM of Addis Ababa is not comfortable with the aged data and calling for new studies (SBPDA, 2004).
4.2.2. Sources
Sources of wastes are also important sources of information. Good knowledge of the SW by its source, composition, level of hazard and related issues are very vital in designing strategies to tackle the problem effectively. Overleaf from the table 4.1 we can understand major part of the MSW is coming from the households. This hints that to work closely with the community over the SWM can offer an opportunity in solving the problem. Awareness raising, creating conducive environment for their participation in discussion, recycling, reusing, proper storage and disposal of the generated wastes are important elements to be worked out.
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Table 4.1: sources of solid waste in percentages.
No.
Sources
Contribution in %
1
Domestic
76
2
Commercial centers
9
3
Street sweepings
6
4
Industrial
5
5
Hotels
3
6
Hospitals
1
Total
100
Source: Addis Ababa Health Bureau, 1997: in SBPDA, 2004
4.2.3. Composition
The composition of the MSW of Addis Ababa is presented below in table 4.2. The type of source (household, commercial, etc), income level, season and some events will have influence on the composition of SW. The current composition can have different image than depicted below in the table. Especially the plastic bags waste stream is increasing dramatically in the last few years. The SWM status report (Idris, 2003), shows that 60% the total wastes are organic, 15% comprises of recyclables materials and others are about 25%.
Table 4. 2: Solid waste composition
No.
Major constituents
%
1
Ash, dust, fines
65
2
Combustible leaves and grasses
15
3
Vegetables and fruits
4.2
4
Rubber and plastics
2.9
5
Non-combustibles
2.5
6
Papers
2.5
7
Textiles
2.4
8
Wood
2.3
9
Bones
1.1
10
Metals
0.9
11
Glasses and ceramics
0.5
Source: SBPDA, 2004
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4.2.4. Collection
The Municipality of Addis Ababa totteringly covers the expenses for collection, transportation, dumping, administration and purchase of working materials to deal with the half or so of the total generated waste in the city. The collections of the wastes include from street sweepings, domestic, commercial centers, factories and various institutions.
With the staggering financial, human, technical and administrative capacity the municipality of Addis Ababa is trying to ‘manage’ the ever increasing streams of solid waste and claims according to SBPDA (2004) that it is collecting and disposing of about 50-60% of the daily generated urban waste with the exception that some 5-10% re-used and recycled and the rest is left scattered every where in the city uncollected posing health risk to the human and physical environment. The collection report in percentage of the municipality is what we hear over and over as well quoted in various publications and research papers. Intentionally I put the word ‘manage’ in quotation to draw the attention. The municipal solid waste is not managed in a way that deserves to employ the word ‘manage.’
Graph 4.1: solid waste management
Solid waste management
70
% 65
60
50
40
% 25
30
20
%5
10
%5
recycled
composted
0 collected unattended
Source: Clean and Green Addis Ababa Society, 2004
According to the information from Addis Ababa Health Bureau report (1997), the
Municipality employs 3 modes of collection systems:
1. Communal container collection using lift and compacting trucks
2. Institutional collection using lift trucks
3. Door-to-door collection using the compactor and side loader trucks
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The lion’s share of the municipal waste is served with the container system which accounts for about 67%, while the rest 33% is covered by door - to - door collection. The institutions are charged some 13 Eth. Birr (approx. US$ 1.5) for 8m3 steel containers (SBPDA, 2004).
However in both cases there has been and are currently complains arising from vivid problems in relation to regularity of collection, location or lack of containers, overflowing and open to all kinds of scavenging and disease breading. The working tools and the trucks are also at desperate condition and making the problems more sensible.
4.2.5. Transportation
The draft report (2004) of Clean and Green Addis Ababa Society shows that out of 72 trucks, on average only 36 trucks work daily because of the old age of trucks, lack of proper and timely maintenance, lack of proper care for the trucks by the drivers during working time and managerial problems. Imagine! For the city of millions the municipality functions at 50% capacity. From the city’s picture, which is open to all, what we can judge is could be even less of that percentage are at work and operates with bounded problems.
4.2.6. Disposal: Open dump site –‘Repi’
Where do all wastes go? In Addis Ababa all wastes do not go to the open dump ‘Repi’.
According SBPDA (2004) report, about 50-60% will reach here while the rest allowed polluting the city except some recycled and reused, which is estimated at the range between
5-10%. The open dump ‘Repi’ is located some 13kms from the center. Some 40 years back considered outside, however, currently it is surrounded by inhabitants, agricultural land and
Addis Ababa’s ring road. The MSW from all sources with out any care and segregation dumped here which is the only open dumping site ‘functional’ since the 1960’s. Regarding the dumping site, findings of the field study are presented in box 4.1 on page 25.
I can’t see the profound difference between the household’s or any other institutions’ open dumping and the municipality’s. Practically both are dumping in a way that harms the environment and human health. Both are dumping hazardous and non-hazardous wastes indiscriminately at one site. The only difference that I can note is that, the municipality is dumping a little far at ‘Repi’ while others nearby. Municipality is paying from public’s
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budget while others are paying from their own or using their energy and time to dump the waste. Box:4. 1 ‘Repi’ : the only ‘functional’ open dumping site
The other name, rather more common than its institutional name ‘Repi’ is ‘Koshe’ which means the informal short name for waste in the national language, Amharic (‘Koshasha’ long word for waste, while
‘koshe’, in short ).
Possible to observe that when it was decided to dump here, the ‘plan’ didn’t consider many factors like environmental impacts, rate of urbanization and waste dynamics. It is like a random selection just to find where to do away with the wastes.
According to the SBPDA (2004), the open dump site started its function at the late 1960’s. ‘Repi’ is only
13km away from the center with dumping area of about 30 hectares. It is estimated that so far dumped on the site is about 9.3 million cubic meters of solid wastes.
The site is filled and overflowing, however, dumping continues and no new site is designed so far.
The solid and semi-solid wastes from households, business centers, hospitals, from factories including chemical and street sweepings are dumped indifferently on the site. No soil covering is practiced on the site.
The open dumping site has got artificial height over its surroundings. Little, branchy colored streams of water polluted with different chemicals are trickling down to the lower area of the environment, over the ring road and to the nearby river.
It is smoking, producing hazardous air polluting gases, causing negative health impacts to the physical environment, the residents and their belongings.
Unprotected, open for all scavengers: birds, wild and domestic animals and humans are scrambling.
No written information on the board about what it is, what cares must be taken, how to dump, where, etc.
Things are going both haphazardly and hazardously like burying time-fixed bombs. In some case, it is not waiting time and exploding causing harms to physical environment (air, water bodies, land, etc), humans and domestic animals. No impact research is carried out to what extent the pollution is causing damages to all. Local communities are bitterly complaining but no one came to the rescue.
Probably more than 2,000 human scavengers are making their living in this stinky and dangerous site.
They constitute of all ages, both sexes but mostly of poor economical background are scrambling over the materials to pick up the possibly potential useful scraps of metals, plastics and glasses bottles and food stuffs. The scenario will be intensified when new trucks are arriving. No care at all will be taken for self and others during the fight over the materials and neither do the drivers. The focus is over what to pick even when the trucks and bulldozers are moving which could bring body damages or even loss of life.
One of the scavengers told me that, he lost his friend when the bulldozer dumped him down together with the wastes during such event.
Some farmers are even growing food crops over this waste dumping site, collect some grown vegetables, use for personal consumption and sell to the public. Hard to comprehend how the situation is terrible at the dumping site!!
Source: author, field visit 2005
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4.3 Factors contributing to the failure of the sector.
Below I have tried to point out and discuss some of the most important influential factors which are behind the negligence of the MSWM of the city. If attention were given to them, most of the solid waste management problems would have been solved.
4.3.1. Urban management problems
As there are preachers of the good side of urbanization like symbol of prosperity, civilization and as engine of economic growth, while on the other end, there are opponents of this view that urbanization is source of human misery with the increasing of the crimes, pollution, slum conditions and sharp layers of living conditions.
I consider that we can agree on the
importance of urbanization. But, we must have decisive commitment to work to have healthy urban centers for the benefit of the physical environment, its inhabitants and economic growth. Otherwise, if it is covered with pollution and ravaged with slums, which backfires with multitudes of risks, then it is not an urban center rather resembles to a concentration camp. Though urban centers historically remembered as fountains of civilization, but centers like Addis Ababa became fountains of slums and solid wastes.
The socio-economic conditions prevalent in third world cities differ markedly from those in industrialized countries. They are experiencing rapid urbanization brought about by fast population growth, as well as high immigration rates. Urbanization often takes place as the expansion or creation of new slum areas and squatter settlements. Typically these settlements grow organically and lack any planning, resulting in twisting and narrow streets, as well as in the occupation of environmentally sensitive and disaster-prone areas, such as wetlands, river beds, creeks, flooding plains, and steep slopes.
The physical characteristics of third world cities, their rapid expansion, and the luck of resources to provide them with the necessary infrastructure and urban services translates into inefficient collection of the waste generated, as well as their improper disposal on the streets, vacant lots and in municipal open dumps. Most third world cities don’t collect the totality of wastes they generate. Despite spending 30 to 50% of their operational budgets on waste management, they collect only 50 to 80% of the refuse generated (Medina, 1997). Many current problems with solid waste management have resulted from increased urban
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population with its production and consumption character and with its inevitable increase in waste generation. In addition, there are often less resources provided for solid waste management, and waste management staff often has low professional status. In case of Addis
Ababa solid waste management staff at different levels only 20 are professionals out of the total 1,917 employees (SBDPA, 2003).
The stability, documentation and the accumulation of experiences through life time of the institution plays critical role for assessing the past to get lessons for today’s activities and future planning. In this regard, the institution responsible for waste management was not stable, strong and continual. According to the information from municipality and SBPDA
(2004), at the beginning of the early 1900s, the MSWM was instituted with in the municipality. Then in 1994 it was moved to the Health Bureau of Addis Ababa, from where again now moved to the current newly formed institution under municipality called Sanitation
Beautification and Park development Agency (SBPDA) in 2002.
It is my opinion that unreasonable change of locations and names could harm the documentations and continuity of the working conditions and smooth transfer of all related arrangements. And importantly, it is not the movement of the institution from one place to another that improves the municipal waste management system, rather the understanding of the problem, the commitment, good governance and concern to the community. Despite the formation of the new institution, the problems are multiplying and the guiding compass as to how effectively manage the urban waste is still missing.
In the city the wastes are increasing in per capita, composition, rate of generation and their damages to the physical environment, human beings, domestic and wild animals. These definitely demands competent, effective with managerial skills, capacity with know-how, experience rich, visionary and oriented professionals. On the top of that the administration must be committed, flexible, accountable and participatory. In the face of such mammoth task, the city is indeed, in need of competent, genuine and skilled managers, who are not driven by the winds of the politics but rather with the enthusiasm to bring about positive changes that could make the city safer and sustainable for its residents and beyond.
Meheret, A. (1999) in his discussion paper entitled “The city of Addis Ababa: policy options for the governance and management of a city with multiple identity” argued that Addis
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Ababa’s city governance and management structure is not participatory and transparent. He continues in his argument that urban management in Ethiopia has a long-standing tradition of upward accountability to the government rather than to the people. What is needed is, he stressed, a democratically elected municipal council that will be accountable to the electorate and a career public service that will be judged by its performance in managing the city.
Public participation and the involvement of institutions of civil society in urban management are aspects of democratic governance. This practice can enhance the responsiveness of the municipal administration to the needs and problems of the community.
Infrastructures in the city are old and traditional. They were built decades ago to accommodate some hundreds of thousands of people, now overloaded with serving millions of people every day. They are not getting proper maintenance in time, like in case of public toilets, which are overflowing and collapsing. These are practical and daily threats to the human life and physical environment and its components.
The government complains over lack of its financial, human, and technical capacity to manage the problems. This complains has been for so long and still exists. On the other hand, the community expresses its dissatisfaction over the provided public services by the municipality. Though not with words, the urban environment of Addis Ababa vividly exhibits all kinds of pollutions reigned over, pointing to the poor urban management systems of the municipality. 4.3.2. Urban political unrest
The governance of Addis Ababa will continue to be an important issue for solving the facing stumbling blocks. The city, with its multiple identities, is a fast growing urban center carrying multitudes of rolling over social, economical and environmental problems. It is exceedingly devastated with urban poverty, joblessness, inadequate sanitary services, over crowding and recently (2005) engulfed with political unrest.
Studies (Nnadozie (ed.)), (2003) indicate that there exists mutual interdependence between development and political instability. It means that political instability can affect performance of the general economy including its pace and on the other way also poor economic performance can trigger political unrest. The controversial outcome of the May, 2005
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national election resulted in conflicts, arrests and deaths. It led finally to some political unrest in the city. The inhabitants of the city voted for the opposition party, whose leaders were jailed (but now, at the time writing this paper, 38 of them released under certain agreed preconditions in July, 2007 after being in jail for a year and half). Now (2006/07) Addis Ababa is governed by a Provisional Trustee Administration appointed by the ruling party without the consent of the inhabitants of Addis Ababa until another round of election is held. Such kind of incidents can hamper the collaboration between the government and the community slowing the urban management efforts. Thus, the question of administration, especially building up the trust for good governance of the city with accountability to the community is a key to the successful management of the city benefiting the community and urban environment. 4.3.3. Role of NGOs
NGOs are important development partners in filling the gaps that the government is unable to meet due to various reasons. The benefits could be maximized and sustained when the development projects are designed and implemented with the involvement of communities and local authorities. As shown overleaf in table 4.3, a number of various NGOs are involved in different urban developmental projects. However, the progress made is not as such impressive as their numbers. There is no integrated, planned, participatory and visionary approach to the urban problems. The question of integrating urban environmental management into development is poorly exercised and the understanding is at its lowest level.
Various developmental activities conducted by different stakeholders like National and
International NGOs, CBOs and governmental institutions are not well coordinated. They are rather competing instead of complementing for better outcome. Here it is easy to see the duplication of efforts and wastage of resources.
“There are no official internal or horizontal coordination mechanisms which will enable municipal policy makers to ensure complimentary and mutual reinforcement in the implementation of the various sectoral programs. Similarly, external coordination mechanisms with other entities operating at municipal level often are also inadequate for this purpose, as are vertical coordination mechanisms with higher levels of government” (Dierig, 1999).
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Table 4. 3: NGOs involvement in urban development projects
No.
Development Projects
No. of NGOs in the sectors 1
Income generation
31
2
Education
15
3
Health
14
4
Sanitation/solid waste management
8
5
Shelter
8
6
Water
5
7
Environment Greening
3
8
Transport
2
9
Land tenure
2
10
Others
13
Source: squaring the urban circle, Addis Ababa 2000: in Basha. T. 2005
4.3.4. Information gap
Documentation of the dynamics of the municipal solid waste is critical for its management.
To learn from the historical back ground about the generation rate, amount, composition and its management aspects and what measures have been taken are important indicators to get lessons and plan for the future. The bench mark information is paramount for what factors contributed for the changes in the nature of solid wastes so that when designing management strategies, it hints in which direction and how to go about. Otherwise, without having proper, up-to-date and relevant information, trying to solve the municipal solid waste management problems is like walking in the darkness. The existing information, though few, on this sector are not practiced. Rather they remain at the level of officials discussion or experts workshop and warming the office shelves than create awareness and mobilizing the communities for practical actions. There is a big gap between the discussions and seminars (theory) and their application, translation into action (practice). Then, what is the meaning of all the sponsors money went on only for conducting workshops and related expenses and bearing no practical fruits? 29
According to Addis Ababa Health Bureau (1997) the first three studies which gave way to look into the world of MSWM of Addis Ababa are the ones which quoted over and over almost in all reports, workshops and studies. They were made by Norconsultant, French
Mission and Gordon Sturdy sponsored by World Bank. The first ever domestic solid waste generation study was conducted by Norconsultant in 1983 and the French Study Mission carried out their similar study in 1986. The World Bank sponsored Gordon Sturdy
Consultants also conducted the study in 1994 and 1995. All the studies found out that there are problems of management and generation amount is steadily increasing though per capita is small which is less than a kilogram per day in relation to other countries. However, the paradox is that this little amount of waste generated is not well managed. The amount of wastes produced can matter but more important role is played by how the concern and management is set up.
Dierig, S. from Hamburg Africa Studies program conducted in 1998, field study in Addis
Ababa on urban environmental management and published the findings in “Urban
Environmental Management in Addis Ababa: Problems, Policies, Perspectives, and the Role of NGOs” in 1999. Probably this is the first comprehensive study conducted giving insights in to the general urban environmental situation in Addis Ababa. One of the challenges during her study she faced was lack of information. There could be some recent research results.
However, unless they are incorporated into the documentation system of the SBPDA, which is responsible for MSWM of Addis Ababa, the effect of the study is less and the agency can’t make use of it in its planning and day to day activities. As a result of which the agency is using old data and calling for new research (SBPDA, 2004). Any way, to get some insights, I have bulleted down what Dierig, S. has practically experienced during her field study over the issue, which are stated in section 2.6.2.3 in her publication.
“Hardly any investigations have been made in the field of environmental studies, and information is sparse and not up-to-date. Institutions responsible for measuring water, air quality and soil contamination are usually not sufficiently equipped to carry out the research.”
“The information system in Ethiopia is ill organized, and most governmental institutions do not seem to realize the critical importance of such system.”
“Urban environment is a very new topic in the city and few investigations have been made. Monitoring is hardly takes place, and information is very limited.”
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“Even for the little information that exists, access is difficult, as documents, maps or statistical data are scattered in different offices and no network system has been developed. Information is not processed or distributed, and often when people in responsible positions leave their jobs, the information they have gathered in the course of their work goes as well. Libraries, if existing, are badly organized and documents are often not found.”
“Information generally, and information regarding activities of government institutions in particular, is held back and regarded as secret. One reason given for this phenomenon was called the “post dictatorial trauma” that results in general suspicion.”
The sustainable management of the solid waste demands documentation and its regular updating mechanism. It is critical to have the documentation of the dynamics that how much waste is generated, from which source (domestic, commercial, etc.), its composition and hazardousness. This gives the possibility to plan for the future and get lessons from the past.
In addition to that, by knowing the composition of the wastes, possible to develop environmentally friendly, economically feasible and socially acceptable and integrated waste management system in which reduce, reuse and re-cycle are fundamentals.
Thus, we can see how wide the information gap and this critically indicates and hence invites more researchers to the field. The limited information, the access to even the scarce and ill organized data coupled with the unwillingness officials to open their information drawer to the public not only hinders the communication and proper planning but can confuse and result in worsening the developmental activities and their steps.
4.3.5. Poor community participation
These days community participation in development activities and consecutively their empowerment is getting wider acknowledgment for sustainable development. The principle behind is that if some one invested his energy, time, knowledge or finance in a useful activity, thus he tends to take care of that. On the other hand, if he is not consulted and didn’t take part in the activities, even if it is useful, he will be aware of that he is out of the stake and feels less responsible. That is what practically we experience in everyday life how people
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relate themselves to their own property and to others differently. Observation of Dierig’s on the problem is quoted overleaf.
“The participation of the individual citizens, Community Based Organizations
(CBOs), and private investors were not given due attention. These actor groups’ contribution in decision making and implementation of different urban programs was ignored or left aside. As a result there was failurity in the programs and damaging of scarce resources in urban areas.” (Dierig, 1999)
There must be a free environment allowing people to discuss and forward better options for the city’s problem. The development and betterment of the urban center is important to all parties. It is not the way that “I know what fits you” rather will be better when the community forwards what their needs and concerns and get implemented with their participation. If projects, plans and activities are needed to be sustainable in relation to the urban development, they should be community driven and not fueled by political agendas and its campaigns. The possibility to mobilize the community for the urban development activities was proved in some of the implemented urban projects. The communities were consulted and they took part in implementation and follow ups through their representatives. I have been working in one of the famous urban project called “GAMA”, a local NGO, which was dealing with urban sanitation problems. The project mobilized thousands of youngsters and community members, created awareness and implemented a pilot “Urban Clean and Green” project which was further scaled up by the community themselves. What I took as a lesson and impressed me was that, communities will be more interested to be involved and committed to take part from the very beginning to the end is that when their real problems are addressed.
This could be a lesson to the municipality to test out itself that the projects or what so ever developmental activities which are going in the city are of the interest of the wider communities or not.
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CHAPTER FIVE: PRIVATIZATION OF MSWM
5.1. What is privatization?
What is privatization? There is no single definition for privatization. There are many other definitions like the one I used in working definition. However, here I would like to take the detailed and understandable definition of Peterson, W. (1986):
“Privatization is a means of getting goods and services produced privately that were previously produced publicly. Some times it means the government will continue to finance the production of a good or service but with the private sector actually producing goods and services. One such practice is contracting out. Another such practice is giving individuals vouchers with which to purchase goods or services from private suppliers. Sometimes privatization involves the outright sale of state owned enterprises to private investors. Sometimes it involves deregulation, the removal of legal restrictions on private provisions of goods and services, and hence the allowing of a transition from a public or quasi-public to unhampered private supply. A city’s cancellation of limited number of taxi licenses to open the cab business to all comers is a case in point.”
Privatization is not a new concept. The idea that private ownership has advantages over public ownership in terms of being inherently more efficient, as well as that it induces a better public sector financial health, is not new at all. In 1776, Adam Smith wrote:
“In every great monarchy in Europe the sell of the crown lands would produce a very large sum of money which, if applied to the payments of the public debts, would deliver from mortgage a much greater revenue than any which those lands have ever afforded to the crown … when the crown lands had become private property, they would, in the course of a few years, become well improved and well cultivated” (Smith 1776, P. 824: in Sheshinski, E. 2003)
Why privatization? Examples of the gains to be made from the formal private sector in waste management systems are listed overleaf in the box 5.1. The points are taken from van de
Klundert, A. and Lardiniois I. (1995) presentation in a workshop held in Switzerland. The objective of the paper was to assess and present overview of the community, private and informal sector participation in urban solid waste management in different developing countries. It should be emphasized, however, that these potential gains, whose realization
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depends not only on the quality of the private sector actors available, but on the degree of oversight and control retained by the municipal or regional government responsible for the jurisdiction. Where this emphasis is missed, dozens of literatures are with sufficient evidence revealing the failure of the privatization. It is of paramount importance for the municipality of
Addis Ababa to consider such critical moments, which can hit the balance either for success or failure. As the saying goes, the wise learns from the mistakes of others’ while the fool at his own.
Box 5.1: Benefits of privatization
Potential benefits to the waste management system include:
Greater efficiency and enhanced performance, due to more flexible employee compensation procedures, and sometimes also to the introduction of competition into waste management operations.
Better management and accountability, due in part to the fact that the private business functions as a contractor, and could lose the contract.
Faster response, associated with the ability of private business people to raise capital, as opposed to the relatively long lead times involved in government decision making and/or the donor grant process, or with government procurement procedures.
Higher service ethics, associated with the business's image and their ability to attract new clients.
Greater flexibility in terms of purchase of land and siting of facilities.
Greater access to experience and technology, due to the potential to create partnerships with experienced private businesses in other countries and regions.
Risk reduction, by transferring unpredictable costs or unreliable revenues onto the private operator.
Potential benefits to the local economy include:
Creation of a more robust commercial sector in the country.
Generation of sustainable employment in the private sector.
The recovery of valuable materials from recycling activities, which can be locally used without loss of hard currency or foreign exchange.
Social and environmental benefits include:
The insulating of waste management activities from political patronage of civil service systems (although patronage in the form of contractor choice is a danger of private sector participation in contracts)
Conservation of resources when materials are recovered
Reduction in environmental damage from exploiting primary resources, including mining and deforestation.
Source: van de Klundert and Lardinois, 1995
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Privatization is becoming a key component of development strategy in developing countries.
The rationale behind it is that it allows to achieve economic growth and development by lowering unnecessary expenditures taking the experience of developed and some developing countries with the push from IMF and World Bank under structural adjustment program since
1980s. Both developed and developing countries are involved and the rate and number of privatization are increasing over years along with its controversies.
Though success stories of privatization are recorded both in developed and developing countries, on the other hand, there are growing concerns on its effects, usually unwanted or unforeseen because of lack of experience at the beginning of its implementation such as inefficiency, job insecurity, lower quality operation, monopoly, corruption, profit driven service and unfitting to low income areas and so on.
The above points which are revealing negative sides of privatization are important and I want to stress in my paper that before the introduction of the privatization in MSWM, the city administration should be willing and open to as many as possible experiences and choose the best model of privatization taking into consideration the local situation. For example there are cases when some countries allow full privatization while others half. In case of full privatization, the Malaysian experience as it is studied and analyzed by Yoshida, K. (2003) under United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development, proved that full privatization of solid waste management will not achieve efficiency and will cause environmental pollution and promote inequality. This is because of low monitoring of the performance of the private company, monopolistic nature and low level of willingness to pay from the low income community.
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5.2. Methods of private sector participation
Most common methods in solid waste management are the following ones. However, mostly recommended for developing countries to begin with is contracting. Below are the four main types of private participation methods (World Bank, 1994).
5.2.1. Contracting
The government awards a finite-term contract to a private firm for the delivery of solid waste collection service, street sweeping service, the collection of recyclables transfer station operation, disposal site operation or fleet maintenance. The contract award is made after a competitive procurement process. The private firm is paid for service delivery by the government under the terms of contract. Among the options for private sector participation, contracting for solid waste service holds the greatest promise to developing countries as a way of lowering cost.
5.2.2. Concession
The government awards a concession to a private firm to set up a facility that utilizes the government owned resource – refuse. This concession may enable the private firm to recycle materials (paper, plastic, metal, glass, etc) from refuse; to recover resources, (compost, heat, electricity) from refuse; or to transfer or dispose of refuse. The concession is in the form of a long term contractual agreement, whereby the private firm builds the facility. In some cases, the private firm may maintain indefinitely the ownership and operation of the facility. In others, the private firm may transfer ownership of the facility to the government after a specified period of private ownership and operation.
5.2.3. Franchise
The government awards a finite-term zonal monopoly (a franchise) to a private firm for the delivery of solid waste collection service. The franchise award is made after a competitive qualification process. The private firm deposits a performance bond with the government and pays a license fee to cover the government’s costs of monitoring. The private firm recovers
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its cost and profit through direct charges to the households and establishments that are served.
Government provides control over the tariff charged to the consumer.
5.2.4. Open competition
The government freely allows qualified private firms to compete for refuse collection, recycling, or disposal services. In open competition, individual households and establishments make private arrangements with individual firms for refuse collection and /or recycling. No firm holds a zonal monopoly, and numbers of firms may compete with in the same zone. Similarly, in open competition, the government grants a license to qualified individual firms for the private provisions of services. One city may be served by several disposal sites competing for business from the arena’s local governments and private haulers, as well as for business from remote governments and haulers. The government’s role in open competition is to license, monitor, and as needed, sanction private firms. Under open competition, costs are directly billed by the private firms to their customers.
5.3. MSW Privatization experiences in three African cities
Privatization lessons and experiences from three African cities are briefly presented below.
The experiences are drawn from Dar es Salaam (Tanzania), Nairobi (Kenya) and Accra
(Ghana). These cities faced at the beginning confusions as to how to introduce private sectors and work with them to better the MSWM. Though still some concerns, they witness that working with private sector will contribute to better the urban environmental health while creating jobs, income, competition and promoting integrated solid waste management.
5.3.1. Dar es Salaam - Tanzania
Tanzania is an East African Country with an area of 945, 045 km2 and has about 39 million population. Capital city: Dodoma (since 1996) with a population 324, 347 (2002). Dar es
Salaam (was capital until 1996) is the largest city in Tanzania with a population of 2.5 million. Solid waste generation per capita for Dar es Salaam: 0.69kg/day (JICA, 1997).
Concluding remarks:
When and reasons for the intervention of the private sector:
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o ILO was the initiator and supporter for the involvement of the private sector in
SWM of Dar es Salaam. It has been actively supporting the private contractors to start and improve their waste collection business, and promote recycling too. The focus of ILO lies primarily with the labor side of the waste management. Issues such as job creation, employment conditions and gender are important from ILO point of view. The introduction of the private sector in
1994 was caused by the fact that the local authority was unable to cope up with the ever growing amount of solid waste, with the caused environmental pollution and complains from the community. o Closely related to the activities of the Sustainable Dar es Salaam Project
(SDP)
Performance of the private sector: o According to Isengoma, A. (2000) and the initiator ILO report (2001), the involvement of the private sectors demonstrated clear contribution to the improved SWM in, Dar es Salaam. Their services are more efficient than the cash constrained city authority. Contractors collect and dispose off about 40% of the generated solid waste. Before their involvement, collection and disposal of MSW constituted only 20%. The city is getting cleaner, while more than
1,000 new jobs have been created, with 60% of these being for women and many unemployed youths.
What are the major obstacles currently private sectors are facing (to be addressed)? o The privatization process is still at a very early stage of development and contractors especially women still facing many constraints. ILO has a pioneer in supporting SWM thus decreasing the constraints to a tolerable level. Most
(90%) of contractors who started are still operating. Some of those who stopped because of some difficulties are coming back.
Lessons for future plans: o It has been realized that there is an opportunity of employment/income generation mechanisms. o Given its satisfactory results, other municipalities in Tanzania (such as
Mwanza, Arusha, Moshi, Dodoma and others) have shown interest to follow a
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similar approach. As a response to the mentioned demand, a national replication program is being designed aiming at improving solid waste management whilst creating a maximum number of jobs in major cities/municipalities in Tanzania. The new ILO project will strengthen the capacities in both the public and private sectors, to introduce this approach in other major cities/municipalities.
5.3.2. Accra - Ghana
Ghana is a West African country with an area of 239,000 km2 and population about 22 million 2005 (Est.); its capital is Accra with a population of 1.9 million (2005). Per capita solid waste generation of Accra: 0.51 kg/person/day (Obrih-Oparen, et al, 2004).
Concluding remarks:
When and reasons for the intervention of the private sector: o To promote efficiency in public service, Ghana started decentralization process as a liberal-democratic governance system in 1988, perhaps under pressure from World Bank and IMF, since these international organizations advocates for such steps. Although the decentralization has brought some positive changes, still it is far from efficiency. o Closely related to the 1988, decentralization exercise is the policy of privatization, which became a key component of Ghana’s reform policy. o In MSWM, private sectors involved in house-to-house collection for high income and middle income households while provision of communal container collection services for low income and some middle income areas. o One of the pioneers and known private SWM companies are Gee Waste and
Daben Cleansing operating under contractual agreement with the local authority. They provide their services using all manner of vehicles and found to offer good quality services and well attuned to the variation in the local situation.
Performance of the private sector:
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o The findings of Obrih-Oparen, N., et al, (2004) has shown that an overwhelming majority of consumers in Accra (i.e. 98%) in all localities prefer private service providers to the public sector. They also believe that private service providers perform better services than the public ones. The dissatisfaction with past government performance translates into a strong pro-privatization attitude. This was supported by the findings on efficiency and effectiveness gains through privatization of solid waste collection, which hold up the general theoretical claims that the private sector performs better in terms of user charge collection, improved cleanliness, and higher efficiency. The ability of the private contractors to work with very limited resources as compared to the public sector ones echoes familiar theoretical claims of private sector managerial capabilities, its dynamism and superiority over the public sector.
What are the major obstacles private sector facing (to be addressed)? o Regarding problems faced by the private sector the findings in Obrih-Oparen,
N., et al, (2004), concludes that corruption and political patronage (perhaps greatest) threats to the successful privatization of urban services. Privatization in SWM of Accra lacks genuine political commitment. Thus for the situation to improve, attention has to be paid to the creation of the enabling working environment with proper regulatory mechanisms which allows the involvement of all stakeholders.
5.3.3. Nairobi - Kenya:
Kenya is an East African Country with an area of 582,650 km2. It has about 39 million population. Its capital Nairobi has a population between 3 and 4 million. Solid waste generation per capita: 0.6kg/day (JICA, 1998)
Concluding remarks:
When and reasons for the intervention of the private sector: o Nairobi City Council opted to privatize, its solid waste management in 1997, when it was recognized that solid waste generation was outstripping financial,
40
technical and managerial capacity of the local authority to collect and dispose properly (UNCHS, 1998 and Henery, et al. 2005)).
Performance of the private sector: o An effective provider of waste management services to upper income business and residential areas (Peters, K. 1998). o Private sectors like BINS (established in 1989) and KRH (established 1987), who are commissioned by Nairobi City Council, are participating in collecting and disposal of solid waste. They are equipped with sufficient working materials like trucks, trolleys, compactors, containers, etc. and hired professional workers. They also mobilize communities through awareness creation and cleaning campaigns.
What are the major obstacles private sectors facing (to be addressed)? o No bylaws to enforce the users charge fee for the section of the society who can afford. Within the informal settlements, the private sector can’t provide waste management services because of the inability of the residents to pay for these services and the poor accessibility to these areas. Therefore, there is still a need for local authorities to work with CBOs in providing services to these areas. o The institutional and organizational arrangements at the national level have become deficient due to the remarkable increase of solid waste, and some important SWM responsibilities at the national level seem to necessitate urgent improvement. o The present coordination and linkages among institutions involved in SWM such as the coordination of policy, planning and legislation through the interministerial committee on the environmental issues chaired by the National
Environmental Secretariat (NES) may have to be augmented.
41
CHAPTER SIX: PRIVATIZATION EXPERIENCE IN ETHIOPIA
6.1. General introduction
Privatization and entrepreneurship now days are becoming a buzz word in Ethiopia following the introduction of market oriented economy. The Ethiopian government launched the
Privatization Program in accordance with proclamation No. 87/1994. It was introduced after the change in both economic and political system from East Communists oriented development path to the West Liberal and Market oriented system. The country has been under centralized economic and political system for about 2 decades. The objective of introduction of privatization falls with in the general frameworks of the global privatization which is backed by the justification license that it promotes development with lowering the public expenditure with the increase of efficiency.
Some of the studies which are conducted by Ethiopians on the Ethiopian privatization experiences (Gebeyehu, 2004) reflected that the privatization is in its infancy stage, has mix of results and because of lack of data most of the studies are focused on the industrial sector.
However, the study has proved what theory of privatization argues for i.e. the inefficiency in the public enterprises. It is reported in the study that the achievement of the most of the public sector is below expectation; the sectors faced economical and financial problems and widespread inefficiency. In case of the privatization also their argument is neither for nor against it. I think the problems could be the country is learning how to do, the political interference, corruption and also probably too early to judge as there is no sufficient experience and conducive environment for implementing it properly.
6.2. ‘Private’ sectors in MSWM: are there any ‘private’ sectors?
6.2.1 ‘Private’ initiatives: individuals and groups how they started.
In Ethiopia private sector is common mostly in business sectors like in the areas of manufacturing and transportation. In the municipal service area, which is taken as granted responsibility by the local authority, is less attractive to see as a business opportunity. So far there is no picture of well organized, recognized, documented private sector involvement with follow up strategies and structures. As to me, it is difficult to categorize the current
‘private’ sector as a legal, recognized with defined responsibilities and so related issues.
Rather easy to define under informal. If we look back to the private initiatives involvement in
42
urban waste management of Addis Ababa, though some existed before at informal level, the current wave of private initiatives have only 5-6 years of experiences. It started in 2000/2001 after the popular urban clean and green “GAMA” project by a popular artist Sileshi Demissie, with campaigns of awareness creation, cleaning, community mobilization especially in which more than 10,000 youngsters involved and practical implementation of urban sanitation pilot projects were carried out (Basha. T. 2004). All of them could be described as “poverty driven” jobless youngsters. After their participation they got the lesson that it is possible to make living while working with urban waste. It was just like ready-go-work but was uncoordinated, inexperienced and mostly learning by doing. It was exciting with hopes and full of risks. They are working at individual and group level at different capacity of operating.
It was real competition in some way.
Some but very few who are some what better equipped with working materials and trucks like Dynamic Waste Management, which is a pioneer and functions in the area of Bole (high income residential area), Embassies and big hotels providing the service of collecting of wastes and dumping. The other private waste management organization, which is also in better operating condition is called “Shumeta”, also serving its clients from collection to dumping. Otherwise generally, most of private sectors activities are collecting and transporting to the municipal storage containers. However, most of the youngsters use wheelbarrows, donkey carts, hauling carts and even carrying on their backs. Generally the working materials are old, depreciated, breaks often and hamper their activities.
At the beginning, when the youngsters has mushroomed the city with cleaning campaigns, the local government itself was not ready for such experience. For people, to be interested in such smelly and neglected activities was something revolutionary. Usually, people look down on such business, stigmatize who are involved and no one shows piece of interest and consider the business as a shame. The mobilization and the awareness creation were like a head of the government thoughts. The campaigns were like the awakening bell for the local authority to look after the urban environmental health. There were problems from local authority’s side that they didn’t incorporate in time and manner that the mobilization could be boosted for the environmental, economical and social benefits. Rather, the communities welcomed the movement and started to cooperate in any way they could. Thus, the cooperation of the community even furthered the impact signaling that it is possible to bring positive changes if people are mobilized with their involvement.
43
Box 6.1: Major reasons for the start of the initiatives
When I summarize, from my field study findings, the major reasons why the private initiatives started in the MSW business of Addis Ababa were:
The urban clean and green initiative (mobilized and hinted the possibility of job and income creation)
Economical reasons – major reason ( poverty, joblessness, etc)
Possible to start with low capital input
No bureaucracies of registration or formalization; no involvement of government. Just ready-go-work!
Profitability of the activity (relatively)
Community awareness creation over the urban sanitation
The gap created between the demand and supply of the solid waste service (more waste produced but less managed)
The demand of the health bureau for the neatness of the business area of the enterprises
The far distanced placement of the containers from households and business centers
The flexible nature of the work
The positive reaction from the community and business centers (willingness to pay, cheap) Source: author, 2005
6.2.2. The working condition
They started the work just for survival as a means of income and not primarily concerned with the urban environmental health problems. In general from the situation in which they are, we can conclude that they are marginalized economically. They are struggling to survive day after day saving nothing that could give them future.
Their meager capital easily
dwindles; the working equipments are breaking and being damaged. The working condition is totally unsanitary posing high health risk, since they work with bare hand, breath in the dusts, touch their mouths and noses while they are working and rarely wash their hands after such risky work. They are open to communicable diseases and also could transmit to their family members and others. In my 2005 field study, the interview revealed that they came across with health problems like diarrhea, skin diseases, asthma, flu and others.
44
6.2.3. Government’s response
Instead of welcoming, formalizing and encouraging, what the local authority did to these private initiatives was not cheering. Actually the campaign was fast and engulfing the whole country. The municipality was not ready and may be not in a position financially and technically to scale up the mobilization and mainstream into its plan of development. So, there were some confusions and chaotic pictures. It was really a good ‘miss-not’ opportunity, which could have been encouraged, organized and scaled up for better performance but the momentum was missed. However, the mobilization gave important lesson to all stakeholders that it is possible to make a difference when all are working together.
6.2.4 Community, CBOs and NGOs response
Rather it was encouraging how the community, CBOs and NGOs were cooperating since the youngsters are filling the gap that the municipality was unable to deal with. The youngsters are coming to their clients and take away the wastes at lower prices on the agreed time frame.
The community, CBOs and NGOs were aware of the social and environmental waste problem but confused how to deal with newly vibrant campaign. However, they have been encouraging the youngsters, especially some community leaders, known individuals, commercial centers with offering materials, finances and with good and hopeful advices. So, this campaign to some extent opened the way for participation and dialogue.
The communities being part of the campaign, they were watching carefully how it is progressing and the differences that it made. Then the community started to criticize the local authority, while it was possible to bring positive changes that the local authority are not doing enough only escaping with many unjustifiable excuses.
6.2.5. The impact of the urban clean and green mobilization
The major impact or lesson that these initiatives which were rooted in the “clean and green urban project” has brought about was that it is possible to bring a change through awareness creation, community mobilization and participation in practical benefiting activities. It showed clearly that there was a gap to be filled between the government and the community, the demand and the supply in urban service and that there are opportunities to cerate jobs and
45
income and improve the life of the jobless especially the youngsters. In addition to fueling critics on the government because of the low attention given to the urban environment and social problems, it also sent clear messages to the government what the community can do when they are organized and mobilized. Generally it was a good start which was in need of encouragement, support and formalization. Below in table 6.1, presented the pioneers
‘private’ solid waste collectors who were operating at different capacity in different areas.
However, their current picture could be different. At the beginning a lot of them started but some disappeared after some time while others survived for longer time with scaled up services like Dynamics Waste Management.
Table 6.1: ‘private’ pioneers waste collectors in Addis Ababa
Number of
Family
Members
Name of ‘Private’ Collectors
Zone
Woreda
Number of
House Holds
Served
G.F.S. Solid Waste Collection
Service
Dan Family Planning & sanitary
Service
Yehibret chora Sanitary Service
Ritch Integrated Sanitary Service
Dereje Sanitary Service Agency
M.G Sanitary Service
Tesfa Waste Disposal Service
A-Z Small Waste Business
Creation
Dolphin Waste Collection
Service
Senay Solid Waste Collection
Service
Dynamic Waste management
Lafto Solid Waste management
Andinet Solid Waste Collection
Service
2
23
300
1,500
5
7
350
1,750
5
5
2
3
3
3
1&2
10
23
17
17
17
200
250
100
500
1000
1000
1,500
1,250
500
2,500
3,400
4,800
3
17
Not known
-
3
17
Not known
5,000
3
3
4
17
19
9
1,000
Not known
Not known
-
Source: Reporter Feb. 26, 2003: in Basha. T. 2004
The impacts could be summed up in three aspects: Firstly, in terms of urban waste - the rate of collection from waste sources and coverage has increased. Secondly, the urban environment and waste problem came to the dialogue among the CBOs, NGOs and local authorities with the possibility and job and income creation for jobless section of the society
46
and finally that the community were willing to cooperate and pay for their own produced waste feeling responsible, though low payment.
CHAPTER SEVEN: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
In general, if not at microscopic level, MSWM problems of Addis Ababa are clear in terms of the SW itself, in relation to the government, community, business sectors and
NGOs. The volume of MSW is dramatically increasing while the capacity to manage lags by far behind. The composition and hazardousness are also growing. The open dumpsite, which is now practically in the inner city, because of the faster rate of urbanization needs consideration. The problem of scavenging, which is basically economical and the farming on the risk full dumpsite should get due attention. The population boom influenced by natural and migration factors; dynamics and interactions of production and consumption experience; lack of responsibility of the business enterprises’ and people towards their wastes and to the physical environment; poor governance of the local authority and related factors which are responsible for the chaotic MSWM situation in the capital need to be tackled strategically.
My great concerns and arguments, which drove me to look for the better options of
MSWM, are wired with urban environmental health problems and risks, efficiency, income and job creation. Concerning the urban environmental health, a number of studies, ranging from Uganda and Ethiopia to Brazil and Panama, have established the greater prevalence of diarrhea and various helminthes in environments with poor housing, water and sanitation facilities (World Bank, 1992). In case of Accra (Ghana), according the study conducted in 1993 it was found that out of 16 significant diseases in the capital, 13 are linked to poor housing and ventilation, unsanitary environment, contaminated drinking water, poor drainage and lack of facilities for solid waste disposal (World Bank, 2002: in Boadi, 2004). Unmanaged urban solid waste is the major causes of environmental pollution. Study conducted (Worku, et al. 1999) to examine the chemical, physical and micro-biological characteristics of various water sources in and around Addis Ababa revealed that rivers like Bulbula, Akaki and Aba
47
Samuel Lake are highly polluted with all kinds of solid and liquid wastes which are directly discharged to them from households, various private and government institutions and industrial establishments. The odor and the color of the rivers have changed. Various polluting chemicals were detected beyond the maximum permissible level.
Problems must be clearly and genuinely understood by the relevant stakeholders before heading for any possible solution. However, the willingness, readiness and commitment to make the first steps forward with clear mind and genuine approach are critical for success. It is not satisfactory and moreover unethical just to complain over the financial, technical and human resource problems as a means to escape from the scenario. This could generate intriguing questions as to how these resources are utilized, how the institutional system functioned; is it open or closed; how much the government is concerned with the urban environmental health problems, how willing is government for proposals coming from communities and scholars for bettering the situation, etc. They are fundamentals to be addressed, if real changes are desired.
I am convinced that it is possible to bring positive changes if the local authorities are politically willing to cooperate for the solution. I am saying this because; I have seen and participated in the urban health campaigns and projects. There are some exemplary success stories which survived and able to come out. And when there is concern and support from the government, such initiatives could be multiplied, strengthened and let to benefit the people and the physical environment.
Governments at different levels intervene in the process of urban development, whether directly or through systems of urban planning and management or indirectly, through interventions in the wider economic system which have consequences for urban development. While planning a city wide development program, the rational utilization of human, material and natural resources with due attention to the general welfare of the population must be accorded full recognition. Such recognition can be achieved when there is clear political will and support of the government. The full and active participation of all stakeholders on the continuous basis, particularly in planning, implementation and evaluation of the progress made in MSWM must be
48
given greater emphasis.
In my study of the Ghanaian privatization experience, the
political patronage was indicated as one of the obstacles, perhaps the most threat to the privatization sector. This is just one example. There are countless numbers of political interventions. It is known fact that government has a leading role in developmental activities to intervene. But, the intervention must be constructive not destructive. It must be tuned to enhance efforts for solutions and not to sluggish down the progressive steps.
Competition is a key factor to getting low cost solid waste service from private contractors. Data from several cities suggest that competition encourages the public sector to significantly improve its efficiency and lower costs (Counitreau, 1994). This is because public solid waste management system in developing countries are commonly plagued by excessive staff, obsolescent equipment, cumbersome procurement procedures for spare parts, inflexible work schedules, limitations on management changes, inadequate supervision, and strong worker unions, in such conditions it is difficult for the public service to implement the changes necessary to match the efficiency of the private sector.
It is advisable and feasible, according to John Donahue (Cointreau, 1994) for the beginners in private sector who are in the developing countries to start with small scale, simple technology and moderate investment costs. Study of the private sector participation in Latin America showed that most of the firms were small-to-mediumsized. In Seoul (S. Korea), approximately 35 percent of the solid waste is collected by
85 private contractors, each of which is a relatively small firm with an average of 6 vehicles. In Lagos, there are nearly 100 private contractors, most with only 1 or 2 vehicles and less than 10 with more than 5 vehicles. Then, depending on the experience, management capacity, technical and financial resources possible to expand the service.
To decide whether to have private sector participation, according to World Bank
Urban Management Program (Cointreau, 1994), many factors needs to be analyzed.
For the analysis the program basis itself on the experiences and researches conducted and evaluated mainly in developing countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America. The
49
factors to be considered are cost recovery, efficiency, public accountability, management, finance, economies of scale, legislation, Institutions and cost (separately for collection, cleansing, transfer and disposal).
The provision of solid waste management at present is the responsibility of municipality. Efforts by NGOs, the private sector and the community are very low or uncoordinated. An inventory of community based sanitary projects made by the
UNDP, World Bank Regional Water and Sanitation Group shows that among 118 such projects identified only 8 consists of solid waste disposal. Similarly, the private sector has almost no role because the government has not designed the proper mechanism to accommodate, manage, and integrate partnership and cooperation
(Yami, 1999).
With regards to the private sector involvement, the government should have clear objectives and understanding of the sector and strategies achieving them that why it should be involved and make conditions and arrangements for collaboration.
Currently the local authority is positive to private sector involvement but no further clarification and strategies are worked out. The situation demands more practical steps than just being positive. For example in future plans and strategies of the Sanitation,
Beatification and Park Development Agency (SBPDA, 2003), the institution which is responsible for urban waste management, has some undefined general saying:
“encourage private sector involvement.” But, this must be plainly outlined in an unambiguous way. The willingness to participate them is welcoming, but how, at what level, with whom, etc must be defined. It is because of such kind of confusing calls, that the private sector is unable to take part vigorously and contribute to the betterment of urban environmental health, creating income and jobs for jobless section of the society at the same time.
On the other side, if we look on the document of the Clean and Green Addis Ababa
Society, which is a civil society, it has tried to assess the sector’s current activities and recommended the importance of the private sector’s contribution. In its major strategies, to achieve healthy urban living environment, the society stresses the importance to initiate and maintain a strong Public-Private-Community Participation
50
(PPCP) and adopt approaches which foster community mobilization and participation for community based waste management and beautification. Moreover, the society in its draft document of 2004, it targets by 2010 about 40% and by 2025 about 70% of the total urban waste generated will be collected by private sector. The society tried to define the role of the government and the private sector, in which it said that public cleansing services and SWM will be gradually delegated to the private sector. The role of the government agencies will then be focused on the planning, follow-up, and control functions within a set of clearly cut licensing and contracting conditions in accordance to the prevailing legislative and regulatory framework, as well as grounded “Public-Private-Partnership” (PPP) approach. The initiative envisages that the involvement of the sector will scale up the integrated waste management like recycling contributing to resource conservation and wise waste management.
Locally some researches and surveys (Dierig, 1999; Birke, 1999; Geleta, 1999; Idris,
2003; Alebachew, 2003; Kebbede, 2004; Clean and Green Addis Ababa Society,
2004; Bjerkli, 2005; Dinku, 2005; Basha. T., 2005; Chekole, 2006 and others) and regionally on African level (Palczynski, 2002; Osiche, 2005; Rotich, et al, 2005; and others) and globally mostly World Bank sponsored researches
Cointreau, 1994;
Cointreau and Coad, 2000 and others are recommending for the formalization of the informal sector and participation of private sector in the urban municipal services namely in solid waste management. Their recommendation is backed by the encouraging results in Latin America, Africa and Asia. In their studies it is shown that the participation of the private sector enhances the efficiency; hence cost reduction that is possible to provide efficient service at lower price. It increases job and income opportunities and creates healthy environment by cutting the chains of communicable diseases. It decreases burden of diseases, promote productivity and saves millions of lives and extends life expectancy by offering healthy living and working environment.
It also allows creative approaches in using various appropriate, cheap, and local techniques in waste management. In this regard, it is worth mentioning here that during the urban environmental health mobilization of Addis Ababa, it was the NGOs and private initiatives who actively introduced new adaptable techniques and working materials like mobile toilets and dust bins, which never existed before in the service.
The introduced technologies were appreciated and scaled up by the community members then by the government.
51
The stability of the responsible institution is critical for success. For example, when we look back at the historical landscape of the institution, which is currently responsible for MSWM has been moving from one institution to another with a change in its naming. First it was born and hosted in the municipality, then after some years moved to health bureau and now in SBPDA. The making, unmaking and remaking of an institution has a lot to do with the provision and continuity of the stabilized, experienced and sustainable service. It will also have an impact on recording of performances, experienced technical and human resources, the working environment, the smooth flow or take over of the activities and so on.
Local government is expected to be responsible for the regulations, quality control, monitoring, long term planning, for sustainable growth and development and general supervision to ensure that all categories of the population in the locality are served at all times. A crucial aspect in waste management is an appropriate system of monitoring and evaluation of private sector contractors which has several aspects. The first is the creation of a set of performance indicators. Frequency of sweeping, lifting of garbage and safe disposal to the dumping/transfer site, general cleanliness and an impact assessment on the health of citizens are some of the common indicators. While the enforcement of contract is the best and most appropriate aspect, the impact assessment by the users and beneficiaries is also vital. Formats of monitoring should be carefully determined that must involve participation of users and beneficiaries.
Another aspect is the system of lodging complaints and the follow up response from the service provider. In many developed countries this structure is fairly simple.
Complaints are registered through phone calls, e-mails, SMS, etc. and are attended with in 24 hours. Such practices help in building up users’ confidence. We are soon catching up with such experiences.
Addis Ababa, which means “new flower” in local language, should keep it original name. Why and how the “new flower” became wilted and looks old? In my paper, I have argued that there are possibilities and options to improve the urban environment through proper and careful privatization mechanism of MSWM of Addis Ababa. My arguments, as shown in the body of the paper, are based on the practical international, especially African experiences, the modest but commendable ‘private’ initiatives of
52
Addis Ababa and personal involvement experiences. The experiences have shown that if privatization sector is properly involved, it is an alternative for the incapacitated public sector, complaining consumers, job and income seekers and for the private sector itself. The practical solid waste management problems and their health risks
(Kebbde, 2004, Wolrld Bank 2002 in Boadi 2004) are sensible and felt by the consumers, decision makers and producers on the ground. The theoretical alternative option but backed up with practical experiences is put here forward for application to make Addis Ababa a healthy urban center with the genuine involvement of all stakeholders to alleviate the problem.
And finally when developing the MSWM documents, plans and agreements, the planners should be visionary; they are required to have pictures of the would be situation, based on today’s reality and experiences, interactions in the coming decades concerning the growth of population, demand, technological options and taking into account the related factors.
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MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT OF ADDIS
ABABA?
By Tekahun Basha (2007)
1
ABSTRACT
In an attempt to analyze the baffled Municipal Waste Management of Addis Ababa and its multifaceted problems and to propose an improved way of waste management, this paper explores the significance of the introduction of formal privatization as a better option. The proposal is based on the implemented experiences drawn basically from African cities and from around the world too. It is also rooted in ongoing practices but uncoordinated private initiatives in the city with a community cooperation, which has displayed glimmering hopes signaling the possibility to make a difference, if it gets due attention.
The way Municipal Solid Waste of Addis Ababa currently handled is unsustainable, shapeless, inefficient, uncoordinated and unrepresentative. The practical and efficiently unsolved Municipal Waste Management problems and their health risks are sensible and felt by consumers, decision makers and producers on the ground. The theoretical option of privatization but backed up with practically applied experiences and generally with satisfactory results, of course, depending on how it is implemented, are put here forward for implementation with adaptation to the local conditions. The proposed option will alleviate the existing problem and hence making the city a healthy, productive and fitting place for its current inhabitants including the coming generation.
July, 2007
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ACRONYM
AEO - Africa Environment Outlook
AMA - Accra Metropolitan Area
CBOs - Community Based Organizations
CSA - Central Statistical Authority
FSS - Forum for Social Studies
GAMA – Gashe Abera Molla Association
ILO - International Labor Organization
IMF - International Monetary Fund
JICA - Japanese International Development Cooperation Agency
NGOs -Non Governmental Organizations
NIRP - Netherlands Israel Development Research Program
NTNU - Norwegian University of Science and Technology
SBPDA - Sanitation, Beautification and Park Development Agency
UNCHS - United Nation’s Center for Human Settlement
UNDP - United Nation’s Development Program
UNEP - United Nation’s Environment Program
WEDC- Water, Engineering and Development Centre
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
7
1.1. Background……………………………………………………….…………........7
1.2. Objectives of the study…………………………………………………………...9
1.3. Organization of the chapters…...........…………………………….………….…..9
1.4. Definition of oncepts……………………………………………………………10
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK
12
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
16
3.1. Document Analysis: National and international……………………………….16
3.2. Field surveys and personal experiences…………………………………………16
CHAPTER FOUR: MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT (MSWM) IN
ADDIS ABABA
18
4.1 . Brief background of Addis Ababa………………………………………………18
4.2 . How MSW is currently ‘managed’ in Addis Ababa?.………..…………………19
4.2.1. Generation…………………..…………….……………….………………......19
4.2.2. Sources …………………………..…………………………………………...20
4.2.3. Composition…………………………………………………………………..21
4.2.4. Collection……………………………………………………………………..22
4.2.5. Transportation…………………………………………………………………23
4.2.6. Disposal: open dump site –‘Repi’……………………………..………………23
4.3 . Factors contributing to the failure of the sector…………………………….......25
4.3.1. Urban management problems …………………………………………………25
4.3.2. Urban political unrest………………………………………………………….27
4.3.3. Role of NGOs…………………………………………………………...….....28
4.3.4. Information gap…………………………………………………………….....29
4.3.5. Poor community participation…………….…………………………………..31
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CHAPTER FIVE: PRIVATIZATION OF MSWM
33
5.1. What is privatization?...............…………………………………...…………......34
5.2. Methods of private sector participation …………………………………………36
5.2.1. Contracting…………………………………………………………………….36
5.2.2. Concession ………………………………………………………...………….37
5.2.3. Franchise…………………………………………...………………………….36
5.2.4. Open competition..…………………………….……………………………...37
5.3. MSW privatization experiences in three African cities………………………….37
5.3.1. Dar-es-Salaam – Tanzania……………………………………………………..37
5.3.2. Accra –Ghana………...……………………………………………………….39
5.3.3. Nairobi – Kenya…………………..…………………………………………..40
CHAPTER SIX: PRIVATIZATION EXPERIENCE IN ETHIOPIA
42
6.1. General introduction …………………………………………………………….42
6.2. ‘Private’ sectors in MSWM: are there any private sectors?..................................42
6.2.1. ‘Private’ initiatives: individuals and groups how they started. ………..…...…42
6.2.2. The working condition………...……………………………………….……...44
6.2.3. Government’s response…………….…………………..……………………..45
6.2.4. Community, CBOs and NGOs response...………………………………..…..45
6.2.5. The impact of the urban clean and green mobilization…………………….....45
CHAPTER SEVEN: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
47
LITERATURE
53
5
List of tables
4.1. Sources of solid waste in percentages ……………………………………………..……21
4.2. Solid waste composition…………………………………………………………...…….21
4.3. NGOs involvement in urban development projects…………………………………..…28
6.1. ‘Private’ pioneers waste collectors in Addis Ababa……………………………….…….46
List of boxes
4.1. ‘Repi’ – the only ‘functional’ open dump site………………………….……..…….….24
5.1. Benefits of privatization …………………………………………….………………….34
6.1. Major reasons for the start of the initiatives………………………………………….....44
List of graph
4.1. Solid waste management …………………………………………………………..…...22
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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1. BACKGROUND
What is waste and to whom? It is differently understood subjectively or objectively by different scholars, sections of societies, countries and in different time ranges and technological level. For more it is seen as a burden but for some like Francisco, it is bread and butter. It is noted in Ackerman, F. and Miza, S. (2000) in ‘Waste in the inner city; asset or assault?’ what Francisco from Peru, who is a recycler said: “I believe that sometimes the garbage is a blessing from God in Heaven”. Some throws it away haphazardly and hazardously, while others do it in a pattern integrating into environmental and economic management. Global researchers in the field are trying to work out for a common understanding, what waste is and how it is understood by defining and redefining as it is important for communication, designing strategies and collaboration; otherwise, any effort against the waste problem without common understanding is a futile attempt. How to deal with it in general and in a beneficiary way in particular depends on how we understand it. Perceptions of waste, as Dracker, M. (2005) argues, are important parts of local waste management systems, and the understanding of such perceptions might increase the effectiveness of waste management campaigns.
The urban centers are important for administration, economic development, technological, educational and cultural advancement. They play important role in manufacturing, processing, commercial activities, employment and income creation. In majority of nations, cities generate the lion’s share of economic activities. They consume most of the natural resources and ultimately producing most of the pollution and wastes (UNEP, 2003). Local resources seldom cope with the actual need for basic amenities and the management of the solid waste is an acute problem. Then, the question is how to manage these ever mounting waste problems and related health risks in developing cities, like Addis Ababa?
The city of Addis Ababa suffers from a chronic shortage of essential socio-economic services, an awfully inadequate physical infrastructure and unhealthy environmental condition. An inept administration that has failed to maintain, upgrade and expand the city’s infrastructure and services inline with the growing population and economic activity has
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exacerbated its woes (Meheret, 1999). The urban health problems are practical and riskful in which the inhabitants unfortunately take part in living and working. Some of the inhabitants suffer from various infectious diseases and many children dies. The urban poor, who lack many life supporting assets, are by far affected disproportionately from these negative impacts. Waste management problems are getting complex as a result of urbanization in Addis Ababa and regional towns of Ethiopia. Population growth, expansion of informal settlement and business, lack of proper regulatory mechanisms, poor awareness of the inhabitants on the subject or carelessness, incapacitated approach of municipal authority coupled with poor governance are exacerbating the Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSWM) problems.
The way Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) of Addis Ababa currently handled is unsustainable, shapeless, inefficient, uncoordinated and unrepresentative. The solid waste generation is increasing, as the trend promises even vigorously fueled by population boom and business expansion in volume, type, and level of hazard. The understanding of the community and how they relate themselves to the SWM problem is critical. There are obvious problems in collection, transportation and final disposal. The scattered solid wastes are creating environmental pollution posing health risks for human being, domestic and wild animals. The poorly managed open dumping site, which is currently no more at periphery is causing air, land and water pollution. The site is posing practical health risks especially to the inhabitants surrounding it. It is open for all kinds of scavengers: human beings, domestic and wild animals. Thus, the MSWM question is critical and needs to be addressed in all its levels from its source to the final disposal including elements of managements and stakeholders’ involvement. There is high and crystal clear pressure emanating from the complicated problem. There is dire need of putting in place legal procedures, introducing appropriate and efficient way of dealing with this challenging problem. And this needs desire, will and resources to bring about a positive and visible change.
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1.2. Objective of the study
The major aim of the study is to explore, analyze and discuss solid waste problems and option of privatization as a better solution for Addis Ababa’s MSWM problem from global in general and from African cities experiences in particular. For this purpose experiences are drawn from 3 African cities considering them relevant to Addis Ababa’s situation as they are in similar developing city situation, though could be some differences. The lessons include how and why in these cities privatization option introduced for their MSWM problems, the successes and finally challenges to be addressed.
The study will try to address the following questions:
1. Understanding of solid waste, its current status and pollution problems in Addis
Ababa
2. Major management problems and factors contributing towards its poor management
3. Looking into better alternative way for MSWM, i.e. introduction of the privatization sector 1.3. Organization of the Chapters
The paper is organized in seven chapters. Chapter one has dealt with the general introduction on the solid waste and its understanding globally and locally including the objectives of the study. Chapter two will focus on the literature review, looking into the various works done on the subject area, its problems with management options globally and locally.
Chapter three will deal with research methodology looking up into the sources, which are the foundations and pillars for the building up of the paper with arguments, facts, figures, discussions, conclusions, etc.
Chapter four will dowel on the problem of the subject: municipal solid waste of Addis Ababa, its current status and management problems and factors contributed to the mishandling of the wastes. 9
Chapter five will come up with basics of understanding on privatization, and its experiences and challenges in general and from African countries in particular. It is laying foundation to look into the privatization as better alternative solution for the waste management problem that Addis Ababa currently faced.
Chapter six will introduce into the general privatization history and experience in Ethiopia, especially about the private initiatives in the solid waste management with its opportunities and challenges.
And finally, chapter seven will deal with the discussion and conclusion over the existing problems and proposed privatization option and what cares must be taken into consideration during implementation, if successful and sustainable management of the municipal waste is desired. And it winds up the main ideas of paper leading into the final conclusion that privatization is an alternative option for improved management of municipal waste of Addis
Ababa from view points of like efficiency, promoting integrated waste management, improving urban environmental health, job and income creation based on the drawn experiences especially from the three selected African cities.
1.4. Definition of concepts
The main working definitions in the study are the following. They comprise of solid waste, its management, pollution and privatization, which are the main pillars in the study. They are taken from website: www.iseg.giees.uncc.edu.dictionary/cfm and Kobala, L. (1996).
Solid waste: it is defined here as all wastes generated through residential, commercial, industrial and institutional activities and comprising all forms of solid matter such as organic matter (vegetable rest, paper, wood, textiles, etc), plastic, metals, glass and screening materials. This kind of waste is distinguished from liquid waste that runs through the sewer system. Solid Waste Management: this term refers to the entire process of taking care of the solid waste generated. This involves collection of waste, transportation, waste disposal, re-use and recycling. It also involves control and regulation of the above mentioned activities in the waste management process to promote sound environmental quality as well as information
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dissemination on how it must be done and implications of its proper management or otherwise. This also presupposes what parties are involved in the management process.
Pollution: Any condition or substance, resulting from human activity, that adversely affects the quality of the environment; contamination of air, water, land or other natural resources that will or are likely to create a public nuisance or to render such air, water, land or other natural resources harmful, detrimental or injurious to public health.
Privatization: it is defined in a simple way as the transfer of service or ownership from the public sector (government) to the private sector (business).
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CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
The main purpose of this chapter is to review the available literatures to draw lessons on the
SWM problems and experiences of privatization in the public service, namely in the solid waste management sector, which gives sufficient evidences and back ups for suggestion of privatization as a better alternative for MSWM of Addis Ababa. The literature review will begin from the scarce and scattered sources from Addis Ababa on the problem under investigation. Then, reach out and review international experiences with the main focus on
African continent. This is because, firstly Ethiopia is a developing country, secondly, it is located in Africa, thirdly, the countries in Africa share almost the same MSWM and urban environmental risks and problems, though they are diverse in some aspects.
Cities will be bigger than ever and are promising better life and getting overflowing response from rural-urban migration. The challenging issue that the global community faced today is how to keep all fast changing factors in harmony for the sustainable future. And one of the most pressing issue, especially in developing urban centers, like Addis Ababa is how to provide clean and healthy city for its inhabitants.
Humans are by their very nature careless with waste. It is not a trait of the 20th century.
Garbologists, who studies the materials discarded by a society to learn what it reveals about social or cultural patterns, have discovered that people let trash fall where it may. As the timeline of garbage history suggests there has been a problem of waste from man's earliest time. Waste has played a tremendous role in history. The Bubonic Plague, cholera and typhoid fever, to mention a few, were diseases that altered the populations of Europe and influenced monarchies. They were perpetuated by filth that harbored rats, and contaminated water supply. It was not uncommon for Europeans to throw their garbage and even human wastes out of the window. They figured that stray dogs would eat whatever they threw out
(Barbalace, 2003).
Urban environmental issue in Ethiopia in general and in Addis Ababa in particular is not getting due attention. The so far conducted studies are few and focused mainly on social issues like poverty and housing. Urban environmental problems those Addis Ababa exhibit today are not something myth but practically established truth and a daily woes of its residents. And the irksome conditions continue. If the urban solid wastes are not managed
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properly, enormous and scaled up negative impacts continue to harm the environment, economy and human life, especially the urban poor.
Uncollected wastes often end up in drains, causing blockages which result in flooding and unsanitary conditions. Flies and Mosquitoes breed in some constituents of solid wastes, and spread diseases. Rats find shelter and food in waste dumps as well spread disease (Cointreau and Coad, 2000).
There are some researches, reports and policy documents concerning how to deal with the
SWM questions of the country as a whole and of Addis Ababa in particular. But, when it comes to the privatization of MSWM of Addis Ababa, owing to the new experience of privatization issue, it is limited and now some piece of studies started to come out. The following policy documents could be mentioned as an important framework and steps in the field of environmental and MSWM, though their practical impact is not seen vibrant in improving the problem under question.
1. The Constitution of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (1995) under article 92 concerning the environmental objectives it says that the government, its people and activities should not damage or destroy the environment and the government shall endeavor to have clean and healthy environment for all Ethiopians (summarized).
2. Environmental policy of Ethiopia was launched in 1997 with the over all policy goal to improve and enhance the health and quality of life through appropriate environmentally friendly interventions.
3. Environmental Impact Assessment proclamation was launched under Proclamation
No. 299/2002.
4. Environmental Pollution Control was proclaimed under No. 300/2002.
5. Addis Ababa Solid Waste Management Policy was launched in 2003.
6. A waste management, collection and disposal regulation of the Addis Ababa City
Government was proclaimed under Regulations No. 13/2004.
7. Addis Ababa City Development Plan 2001-2010, in which MSWM its problems and ways of management was hinted in brief (2004).
8. Sanitation, Beautification and Park Development Agency (which is responsible for
MSWM) has produced a document in 2005 with details for the public about the kinds of service deliveries.
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9. Reports and researches are also part of this, which will be used in accessing the relevant information while developing the paper.
The double-capital, Addis Ababa is expanding geographically, demographically, culturally, socially and economically. As a result of faster, uncontrolled and unorganized dynamics of many domains coupled with lack of or absence of appropriate management policies or their application triggers the city almost to slip out of the managerial capacity of the municipality.
The whole ethos about the environmental health situation of the city could be synthesized as a complete doom. Organized approach, knowledge and information on the concept of solid waste and its management in Addis Ababa are limited, new practice and difficult for reference and built up techniques.
The current data which is employed in SWM literatures, planning and discussions are older than a decade. They will make obstructions to any kind of plans and practical approaches.
Thus the issue of data is critical and demands urgent study, if grounded improvement is sought to the MSWM problems (SBPDA, 2004).
Solid Waste (SW) pollution places fresh water system at risk and threatens the availability of safe water for human consumption, by disrupting essential ecosystem services (AEO, 2000).
The Soil and water sample analysis research of Itana, F. and Olsson, M. (2004), is also signaling alert of environmental contamination. In their findings they made clear that as result of dumping of municipal and industrial wastes into the rivers or farmlands, heavy metals build up in the river water, soils and consequently in vegetables, which are consumed by city’s inhabitants and beyond.
The city is in need of competent management that can address the urban problems in general and MSWM in particular. The city government should explore alternative means of service delivery, including contracting, privatization and joint management of municipal services
(Meheret, 1999). Developing cities in third world countries, which are in the same grip, are looking for alternative approaches of MSWM and as a result some have implemented privatization. Despite concerns, privatization of urban services is now a policy pursued in most parts of the world. Will this work for Addis Ababa?
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The provision of municipal solid waste service is a costly and vexing problem for local authorities everywhere. In the cities of developing countries, service coverage is low, resources are inefficient, and uncontrolled dumping is widespread, resulting in environmental problems. More over, substantial inefficiencies are typically observed. One solution commonly proposed is to contract service provision with the private sector in the belief that service coverage and efficiency can be improved and environmental protection enhanced.
Field studies conducted by the World Bank and others tend to substantiate these claims that the private delivery of the municipal solid waste service can be successful in terms of greater efficiency, coverage and quality of service. Keys to successful private sector involvement in municipal solid waste management include creating contestable markets, establishing an appropriate regulatory framework and operation standards for contractors, and strengthening local government capacity to negotiate contracts and monitor performance. In simplest terms, the focus must be on competition, transparency and accountability (Cointreau and Coad,
2000)
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CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The study is mainly based on analysis of the national and international secondary sources and partly on the findings of the author’s previous practical work experiences and field surveys.
3.1. Document Analysis: National and International
Generally, at national level, like in many developing countries information in the environmental management field is limited due to the poor attention given to the matter. But, the Ethiopian environmental conditions like land degradation, desertification and urban pollution are worsening from time to time putting human survival at risk. I have tried to highlight the documentation problem in the literature review. The exiting limited, unorganized and outdated documents are not easily accessible. However, there are some government policy documents, reports and discussion papers out of which I have tried to make use of it. In addition to that, I have explored few research papers carried out in the urban environmental problems of Addis Ababa. In comparison with some of the African cities, where research and management of MSW is relatively better, I found out that Addis
Ababa is poorly researched and data are limited or not well studied especially with regards to seeking alternative means of solving the problem like taking the option of privatization. Some of the African cities, like Dar Es Salaam which is practicing privatization since 1994, are more than 10 years old in privatizing MSW, while Addis Ababa is struggling with confusions what to do.
3.2. Field studies and personal experiences
During the last 5 years (2001-2006), I was coordinating the activities of an environmental
NGO, called “GAMA”, which was advocating and campaigning for the greening and cleaning of Addis Ababa through implementations of pilot projects with the participation of youngsters and community. This gave me an ample opportunity to observe closely and ponder over urban environmental problems, especially in the solid waste management aspect.
I had many discussions with the local authorities, the communities and their representatives, the CBOs and the international NGOs which are working in the field.
16
I have also tried to produce some elementary studies and did documentations. They are the results from the participation in this evolving system, be at my organizational level or urban administration and critical observation of the issues in the field. All these contributed to shape my outlook towards the problems, internalize them and be initiated to work to get better options for the urban environmental management in general and in the solid waste management in particular.
Thus, my personal living experiences, observations made, reflections depicted and images created in mind, I hope they are valuable assets in making the analysis and judgment to make the research credible.
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CHAPTER FOUR: MSWM IN ADDIS ABABA
4.1. Brief background of Addis Ababa
The city of Addis Ababa is a little more than hundred years old and serves as national and
African Union’s capital. It was established in the late 19th century by Emperor Menelik II as the permanent capital of the then emerging modern Ethiopian state. Over the years, the city has grown into an important urban center following the modernization and economic development which Emperor Haile Silassie I zealously pursued in the aftermath of the World
War II. The city covers a total area of 540 square kilometers with a population of approximately 5 million. It has self governing status according to the proclamation No.
87/1999 and has 10 sub-cities and 100 kebels (lowest level administrative body) (CSA,
1998).
The name of the capital “Addis Ababa” in national language Amharic means “New Flower”, though its current urban environmental picture doesn’t reflect that. But, it was true in its time when it was founded. It was the wife of Emperor Menelik, Empress Taitu, who called “Addis
Ababa” the then green field, when she found a new flower on the ground, where today millions of people, buildings, businesses, cultural and educational centers and the consequence, the urban environmental ills like the solid waste pollution flowered as well.
When Addis Ababa was founded, only one hundred years ago, it had a huge potential to offer a beautiful and healthy environment for its inhabitants. The topography of the one of the highest capital in the world varies from the mountainous scenery in the north, which once was covered with dry evergreen montage forest and grassland, over rolling hills and valley’s in the central part of the city, to predominantly flat, agricultural land in the south. Some romanticists are still encourages to describe the beauty of Addis Ababa, lying among others in its natural sites and its forest covered hill-slopes, particularly the Entoto range (Dierig,
1999).
But now, as depicted in Dierig, S. (1999) and we can practically witness is that most of its beauty and much of its natural environment has been destroyed. Forests have been cleared or partly substituted with eucalyptus plantations which encourage increasing erosion. The rivers
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of Addis carry the domestic and industrial wastes into the countryside. The uncontrolled growth of the city encroaches up onto the agricultural land on the outskirts.
4.2. How MSW is currently ‘managed’ in Addis Ababa?
The MSWM of Addis Ababa is challenged with many combined problems and getting complex from time to time. These problems will be dealt in one or another way in the course of the paper. These are:
Increased amount of solid waste generation with its composition and hazard of urban environmental pollution (land, air and water bodies).
Low level of management capacity (financial, technical and human resources).
Lack of coordination between the municipality and other stakeholders (NGOs,
Community, CBOs and others) including even among stakeholders.
Lack of enforcement of the existing SWM policy and regulation.
Lack of proper involvement of private sector.
4.2.1. Generation
In all communities, people generate wastes. Be it in developed or developing countries; in urban or rural, waste is a must as far as production and living continues. The difference is in amount, composition, and rate, level of hazard and management approach. It is generated even when waste is managed in a sanitary way, though the quantity and the risks are reduced.
It is hard to fix the exact figure as to how much solid waste is generated daily since there is no updated, well documented and reliable information, except repeating decades of old data, which is in complete contradiction with the current dynamics. According to the Sturdy
Gordon 1994 study (SBPDA, 2004) the total waste generated was about 671 ton/day. It is calculated based on the 0.221kg/person/day in relation to 3 million population. The agency for MSWM is still quoting the 1994 Sturdy Gordon’s study for total waste generation, which is in my opinion doesn’t concur with the current reality where a lot of changes happened since then. The presented data is arrested with the year when it was studied but not the number of population and its dynamics. Thus, it is possible to guess that the city generates approximately about or over 2,000 tons MSW daily. It is my assumption that taking the
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population of the city about 5 million and the per capita waste generation about 0.5 kg/person/day. My assumption though still low but close to most African countries per capital like 0.7kg for Harare (UNEP, 2003); 1.2kg for Kinshasa (UNEP, 2003); 0.6kg for Nairobi
(JICA, 1998); 0.69 for Dar es Salaam (JICA, 1997) and 0.51kg for Accra (Obrih-Oparen, et al, 2004).
It is obvious in Addis Ababa that the number of population is increasing from time to time both naturally coupled with rural – urban and urban – urban migration. The economical activities of consumption, production and their interactions triggered by the population boom and this will have a direct impact on the volume of SW generation and its composition. On page 23 at graph 4.1 is shown how much is collected, recycled, reused and left unattended from the daily generation in the city. The data is taken from Clean and Green Addis Ababa
Development plan 2004-2025 compiled by Clean and Green Addis Ababa society (2004).
But, it is difficult to consent with the data on the reports and the reality on the ground. It is like some 30% is collected and the rest is diffused into different channels of pollution, reuse and recycle. To know the real reflection of the current status it needs to update the data base with new researches. The agency itself which is responsible for the MSWM of Addis Ababa is not comfortable with the aged data and calling for new studies (SBPDA, 2004).
4.2.2. Sources
Sources of wastes are also important sources of information. Good knowledge of the SW by its source, composition, level of hazard and related issues are very vital in designing strategies to tackle the problem effectively. Overleaf from the table 4.1 we can understand major part of the MSW is coming from the households. This hints that to work closely with the community over the SWM can offer an opportunity in solving the problem. Awareness raising, creating conducive environment for their participation in discussion, recycling, reusing, proper storage and disposal of the generated wastes are important elements to be worked out.
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Table 4.1: sources of solid waste in percentages.
No.
Sources
Contribution in %
1
Domestic
76
2
Commercial centers
9
3
Street sweepings
6
4
Industrial
5
5
Hotels
3
6
Hospitals
1
Total
100
Source: Addis Ababa Health Bureau, 1997: in SBPDA, 2004
4.2.3. Composition
The composition of the MSW of Addis Ababa is presented below in table 4.2. The type of source (household, commercial, etc), income level, season and some events will have influence on the composition of SW. The current composition can have different image than depicted below in the table. Especially the plastic bags waste stream is increasing dramatically in the last few years. The SWM status report (Idris, 2003), shows that 60% the total wastes are organic, 15% comprises of recyclables materials and others are about 25%.
Table 4. 2: Solid waste composition
No.
Major constituents
%
1
Ash, dust, fines
65
2
Combustible leaves and grasses
15
3
Vegetables and fruits
4.2
4
Rubber and plastics
2.9
5
Non-combustibles
2.5
6
Papers
2.5
7
Textiles
2.4
8
Wood
2.3
9
Bones
1.1
10
Metals
0.9
11
Glasses and ceramics
0.5
Source: SBPDA, 2004
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4.2.4. Collection
The Municipality of Addis Ababa totteringly covers the expenses for collection, transportation, dumping, administration and purchase of working materials to deal with the half or so of the total generated waste in the city. The collections of the wastes include from street sweepings, domestic, commercial centers, factories and various institutions.
With the staggering financial, human, technical and administrative capacity the municipality of Addis Ababa is trying to ‘manage’ the ever increasing streams of solid waste and claims according to SBPDA (2004) that it is collecting and disposing of about 50-60% of the daily generated urban waste with the exception that some 5-10% re-used and recycled and the rest is left scattered every where in the city uncollected posing health risk to the human and physical environment. The collection report in percentage of the municipality is what we hear over and over as well quoted in various publications and research papers. Intentionally I put the word ‘manage’ in quotation to draw the attention. The municipal solid waste is not managed in a way that deserves to employ the word ‘manage.’
Graph 4.1: solid waste management
Solid waste management
70
% 65
60
50
40
% 25
30
20
%5
10
%5
recycled
composted
0 collected unattended
Source: Clean and Green Addis Ababa Society, 2004
According to the information from Addis Ababa Health Bureau report (1997), the
Municipality employs 3 modes of collection systems:
1. Communal container collection using lift and compacting trucks
2. Institutional collection using lift trucks
3. Door-to-door collection using the compactor and side loader trucks
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The lion’s share of the municipal waste is served with the container system which accounts for about 67%, while the rest 33% is covered by door - to - door collection. The institutions are charged some 13 Eth. Birr (approx. US$ 1.5) for 8m3 steel containers (SBPDA, 2004).
However in both cases there has been and are currently complains arising from vivid problems in relation to regularity of collection, location or lack of containers, overflowing and open to all kinds of scavenging and disease breading. The working tools and the trucks are also at desperate condition and making the problems more sensible.
4.2.5. Transportation
The draft report (2004) of Clean and Green Addis Ababa Society shows that out of 72 trucks, on average only 36 trucks work daily because of the old age of trucks, lack of proper and timely maintenance, lack of proper care for the trucks by the drivers during working time and managerial problems. Imagine! For the city of millions the municipality functions at 50% capacity. From the city’s picture, which is open to all, what we can judge is could be even less of that percentage are at work and operates with bounded problems.
4.2.6. Disposal: Open dump site –‘Repi’
Where do all wastes go? In Addis Ababa all wastes do not go to the open dump ‘Repi’.
According SBPDA (2004) report, about 50-60% will reach here while the rest allowed polluting the city except some recycled and reused, which is estimated at the range between
5-10%. The open dump ‘Repi’ is located some 13kms from the center. Some 40 years back considered outside, however, currently it is surrounded by inhabitants, agricultural land and
Addis Ababa’s ring road. The MSW from all sources with out any care and segregation dumped here which is the only open dumping site ‘functional’ since the 1960’s. Regarding the dumping site, findings of the field study are presented in box 4.1 on page 25.
I can’t see the profound difference between the household’s or any other institutions’ open dumping and the municipality’s. Practically both are dumping in a way that harms the environment and human health. Both are dumping hazardous and non-hazardous wastes indiscriminately at one site. The only difference that I can note is that, the municipality is dumping a little far at ‘Repi’ while others nearby. Municipality is paying from public’s
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budget while others are paying from their own or using their energy and time to dump the waste. Box:4. 1 ‘Repi’ : the only ‘functional’ open dumping site
The other name, rather more common than its institutional name ‘Repi’ is ‘Koshe’ which means the informal short name for waste in the national language, Amharic (‘Koshasha’ long word for waste, while
‘koshe’, in short ).
Possible to observe that when it was decided to dump here, the ‘plan’ didn’t consider many factors like environmental impacts, rate of urbanization and waste dynamics. It is like a random selection just to find where to do away with the wastes.
According to the SBPDA (2004), the open dump site started its function at the late 1960’s. ‘Repi’ is only
13km away from the center with dumping area of about 30 hectares. It is estimated that so far dumped on the site is about 9.3 million cubic meters of solid wastes.
The site is filled and overflowing, however, dumping continues and no new site is designed so far.
The solid and semi-solid wastes from households, business centers, hospitals, from factories including chemical and street sweepings are dumped indifferently on the site. No soil covering is practiced on the site.
The open dumping site has got artificial height over its surroundings. Little, branchy colored streams of water polluted with different chemicals are trickling down to the lower area of the environment, over the ring road and to the nearby river.
It is smoking, producing hazardous air polluting gases, causing negative health impacts to the physical environment, the residents and their belongings.
Unprotected, open for all scavengers: birds, wild and domestic animals and humans are scrambling.
No written information on the board about what it is, what cares must be taken, how to dump, where, etc.
Things are going both haphazardly and hazardously like burying time-fixed bombs. In some case, it is not waiting time and exploding causing harms to physical environment (air, water bodies, land, etc), humans and domestic animals. No impact research is carried out to what extent the pollution is causing damages to all. Local communities are bitterly complaining but no one came to the rescue.
Probably more than 2,000 human scavengers are making their living in this stinky and dangerous site.
They constitute of all ages, both sexes but mostly of poor economical background are scrambling over the materials to pick up the possibly potential useful scraps of metals, plastics and glasses bottles and food stuffs. The scenario will be intensified when new trucks are arriving. No care at all will be taken for self and others during the fight over the materials and neither do the drivers. The focus is over what to pick even when the trucks and bulldozers are moving which could bring body damages or even loss of life.
One of the scavengers told me that, he lost his friend when the bulldozer dumped him down together with the wastes during such event.
Some farmers are even growing food crops over this waste dumping site, collect some grown vegetables, use for personal consumption and sell to the public. Hard to comprehend how the situation is terrible at the dumping site!!
Source: author, field visit 2005
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4.3 Factors contributing to the failure of the sector.
Below I have tried to point out and discuss some of the most important influential factors which are behind the negligence of the MSWM of the city. If attention were given to them, most of the solid waste management problems would have been solved.
4.3.1. Urban management problems
As there are preachers of the good side of urbanization like symbol of prosperity, civilization and as engine of economic growth, while on the other end, there are opponents of this view that urbanization is source of human misery with the increasing of the crimes, pollution, slum conditions and sharp layers of living conditions.
I consider that we can agree on the
importance of urbanization. But, we must have decisive commitment to work to have healthy urban centers for the benefit of the physical environment, its inhabitants and economic growth. Otherwise, if it is covered with pollution and ravaged with slums, which backfires with multitudes of risks, then it is not an urban center rather resembles to a concentration camp. Though urban centers historically remembered as fountains of civilization, but centers like Addis Ababa became fountains of slums and solid wastes.
The socio-economic conditions prevalent in third world cities differ markedly from those in industrialized countries. They are experiencing rapid urbanization brought about by fast population growth, as well as high immigration rates. Urbanization often takes place as the expansion or creation of new slum areas and squatter settlements. Typically these settlements grow organically and lack any planning, resulting in twisting and narrow streets, as well as in the occupation of environmentally sensitive and disaster-prone areas, such as wetlands, river beds, creeks, flooding plains, and steep slopes.
The physical characteristics of third world cities, their rapid expansion, and the luck of resources to provide them with the necessary infrastructure and urban services translates into inefficient collection of the waste generated, as well as their improper disposal on the streets, vacant lots and in municipal open dumps. Most third world cities don’t collect the totality of wastes they generate. Despite spending 30 to 50% of their operational budgets on waste management, they collect only 50 to 80% of the refuse generated (Medina, 1997). Many current problems with solid waste management have resulted from increased urban
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population with its production and consumption character and with its inevitable increase in waste generation. In addition, there are often less resources provided for solid waste management, and waste management staff often has low professional status. In case of Addis
Ababa solid waste management staff at different levels only 20 are professionals out of the total 1,917 employees (SBDPA, 2003).
The stability, documentation and the accumulation of experiences through life time of the institution plays critical role for assessing the past to get lessons for today’s activities and future planning. In this regard, the institution responsible for waste management was not stable, strong and continual. According to the information from municipality and SBPDA
(2004), at the beginning of the early 1900s, the MSWM was instituted with in the municipality. Then in 1994 it was moved to the Health Bureau of Addis Ababa, from where again now moved to the current newly formed institution under municipality called Sanitation
Beautification and Park development Agency (SBPDA) in 2002.
It is my opinion that unreasonable change of locations and names could harm the documentations and continuity of the working conditions and smooth transfer of all related arrangements. And importantly, it is not the movement of the institution from one place to another that improves the municipal waste management system, rather the understanding of the problem, the commitment, good governance and concern to the community. Despite the formation of the new institution, the problems are multiplying and the guiding compass as to how effectively manage the urban waste is still missing.
In the city the wastes are increasing in per capita, composition, rate of generation and their damages to the physical environment, human beings, domestic and wild animals. These definitely demands competent, effective with managerial skills, capacity with know-how, experience rich, visionary and oriented professionals. On the top of that the administration must be committed, flexible, accountable and participatory. In the face of such mammoth task, the city is indeed, in need of competent, genuine and skilled managers, who are not driven by the winds of the politics but rather with the enthusiasm to bring about positive changes that could make the city safer and sustainable for its residents and beyond.
Meheret, A. (1999) in his discussion paper entitled “The city of Addis Ababa: policy options for the governance and management of a city with multiple identity” argued that Addis
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Ababa’s city governance and management structure is not participatory and transparent. He continues in his argument that urban management in Ethiopia has a long-standing tradition of upward accountability to the government rather than to the people. What is needed is, he stressed, a democratically elected municipal council that will be accountable to the electorate and a career public service that will be judged by its performance in managing the city.
Public participation and the involvement of institutions of civil society in urban management are aspects of democratic governance. This practice can enhance the responsiveness of the municipal administration to the needs and problems of the community.
Infrastructures in the city are old and traditional. They were built decades ago to accommodate some hundreds of thousands of people, now overloaded with serving millions of people every day. They are not getting proper maintenance in time, like in case of public toilets, which are overflowing and collapsing. These are practical and daily threats to the human life and physical environment and its components.
The government complains over lack of its financial, human, and technical capacity to manage the problems. This complains has been for so long and still exists. On the other hand, the community expresses its dissatisfaction over the provided public services by the municipality. Though not with words, the urban environment of Addis Ababa vividly exhibits all kinds of pollutions reigned over, pointing to the poor urban management systems of the municipality. 4.3.2. Urban political unrest
The governance of Addis Ababa will continue to be an important issue for solving the facing stumbling blocks. The city, with its multiple identities, is a fast growing urban center carrying multitudes of rolling over social, economical and environmental problems. It is exceedingly devastated with urban poverty, joblessness, inadequate sanitary services, over crowding and recently (2005) engulfed with political unrest.
Studies (Nnadozie (ed.)), (2003) indicate that there exists mutual interdependence between development and political instability. It means that political instability can affect performance of the general economy including its pace and on the other way also poor economic performance can trigger political unrest. The controversial outcome of the May, 2005
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national election resulted in conflicts, arrests and deaths. It led finally to some political unrest in the city. The inhabitants of the city voted for the opposition party, whose leaders were jailed (but now, at the time writing this paper, 38 of them released under certain agreed preconditions in July, 2007 after being in jail for a year and half). Now (2006/07) Addis Ababa is governed by a Provisional Trustee Administration appointed by the ruling party without the consent of the inhabitants of Addis Ababa until another round of election is held. Such kind of incidents can hamper the collaboration between the government and the community slowing the urban management efforts. Thus, the question of administration, especially building up the trust for good governance of the city with accountability to the community is a key to the successful management of the city benefiting the community and urban environment. 4.3.3. Role of NGOs
NGOs are important development partners in filling the gaps that the government is unable to meet due to various reasons. The benefits could be maximized and sustained when the development projects are designed and implemented with the involvement of communities and local authorities. As shown overleaf in table 4.3, a number of various NGOs are involved in different urban developmental projects. However, the progress made is not as such impressive as their numbers. There is no integrated, planned, participatory and visionary approach to the urban problems. The question of integrating urban environmental management into development is poorly exercised and the understanding is at its lowest level.
Various developmental activities conducted by different stakeholders like National and
International NGOs, CBOs and governmental institutions are not well coordinated. They are rather competing instead of complementing for better outcome. Here it is easy to see the duplication of efforts and wastage of resources.
“There are no official internal or horizontal coordination mechanisms which will enable municipal policy makers to ensure complimentary and mutual reinforcement in the implementation of the various sectoral programs. Similarly, external coordination mechanisms with other entities operating at municipal level often are also inadequate for this purpose, as are vertical coordination mechanisms with higher levels of government” (Dierig, 1999).
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Table 4. 3: NGOs involvement in urban development projects
No.
Development Projects
No. of NGOs in the sectors 1
Income generation
31
2
Education
15
3
Health
14
4
Sanitation/solid waste management
8
5
Shelter
8
6
Water
5
7
Environment Greening
3
8
Transport
2
9
Land tenure
2
10
Others
13
Source: squaring the urban circle, Addis Ababa 2000: in Basha. T. 2005
4.3.4. Information gap
Documentation of the dynamics of the municipal solid waste is critical for its management.
To learn from the historical back ground about the generation rate, amount, composition and its management aspects and what measures have been taken are important indicators to get lessons and plan for the future. The bench mark information is paramount for what factors contributed for the changes in the nature of solid wastes so that when designing management strategies, it hints in which direction and how to go about. Otherwise, without having proper, up-to-date and relevant information, trying to solve the municipal solid waste management problems is like walking in the darkness. The existing information, though few, on this sector are not practiced. Rather they remain at the level of officials discussion or experts workshop and warming the office shelves than create awareness and mobilizing the communities for practical actions. There is a big gap between the discussions and seminars (theory) and their application, translation into action (practice). Then, what is the meaning of all the sponsors money went on only for conducting workshops and related expenses and bearing no practical fruits? 29
According to Addis Ababa Health Bureau (1997) the first three studies which gave way to look into the world of MSWM of Addis Ababa are the ones which quoted over and over almost in all reports, workshops and studies. They were made by Norconsultant, French
Mission and Gordon Sturdy sponsored by World Bank. The first ever domestic solid waste generation study was conducted by Norconsultant in 1983 and the French Study Mission carried out their similar study in 1986. The World Bank sponsored Gordon Sturdy
Consultants also conducted the study in 1994 and 1995. All the studies found out that there are problems of management and generation amount is steadily increasing though per capita is small which is less than a kilogram per day in relation to other countries. However, the paradox is that this little amount of waste generated is not well managed. The amount of wastes produced can matter but more important role is played by how the concern and management is set up.
Dierig, S. from Hamburg Africa Studies program conducted in 1998, field study in Addis
Ababa on urban environmental management and published the findings in “Urban
Environmental Management in Addis Ababa: Problems, Policies, Perspectives, and the Role of NGOs” in 1999. Probably this is the first comprehensive study conducted giving insights in to the general urban environmental situation in Addis Ababa. One of the challenges during her study she faced was lack of information. There could be some recent research results.
However, unless they are incorporated into the documentation system of the SBPDA, which is responsible for MSWM of Addis Ababa, the effect of the study is less and the agency can’t make use of it in its planning and day to day activities. As a result of which the agency is using old data and calling for new research (SBPDA, 2004). Any way, to get some insights, I have bulleted down what Dierig, S. has practically experienced during her field study over the issue, which are stated in section 2.6.2.3 in her publication.
“Hardly any investigations have been made in the field of environmental studies, and information is sparse and not up-to-date. Institutions responsible for measuring water, air quality and soil contamination are usually not sufficiently equipped to carry out the research.”
“The information system in Ethiopia is ill organized, and most governmental institutions do not seem to realize the critical importance of such system.”
“Urban environment is a very new topic in the city and few investigations have been made. Monitoring is hardly takes place, and information is very limited.”
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“Even for the little information that exists, access is difficult, as documents, maps or statistical data are scattered in different offices and no network system has been developed. Information is not processed or distributed, and often when people in responsible positions leave their jobs, the information they have gathered in the course of their work goes as well. Libraries, if existing, are badly organized and documents are often not found.”
“Information generally, and information regarding activities of government institutions in particular, is held back and regarded as secret. One reason given for this phenomenon was called the “post dictatorial trauma” that results in general suspicion.”
The sustainable management of the solid waste demands documentation and its regular updating mechanism. It is critical to have the documentation of the dynamics that how much waste is generated, from which source (domestic, commercial, etc.), its composition and hazardousness. This gives the possibility to plan for the future and get lessons from the past.
In addition to that, by knowing the composition of the wastes, possible to develop environmentally friendly, economically feasible and socially acceptable and integrated waste management system in which reduce, reuse and re-cycle are fundamentals.
Thus, we can see how wide the information gap and this critically indicates and hence invites more researchers to the field. The limited information, the access to even the scarce and ill organized data coupled with the unwillingness officials to open their information drawer to the public not only hinders the communication and proper planning but can confuse and result in worsening the developmental activities and their steps.
4.3.5. Poor community participation
These days community participation in development activities and consecutively their empowerment is getting wider acknowledgment for sustainable development. The principle behind is that if some one invested his energy, time, knowledge or finance in a useful activity, thus he tends to take care of that. On the other hand, if he is not consulted and didn’t take part in the activities, even if it is useful, he will be aware of that he is out of the stake and feels less responsible. That is what practically we experience in everyday life how people
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relate themselves to their own property and to others differently. Observation of Dierig’s on the problem is quoted overleaf.
“The participation of the individual citizens, Community Based Organizations
(CBOs), and private investors were not given due attention. These actor groups’ contribution in decision making and implementation of different urban programs was ignored or left aside. As a result there was failurity in the programs and damaging of scarce resources in urban areas.” (Dierig, 1999)
There must be a free environment allowing people to discuss and forward better options for the city’s problem. The development and betterment of the urban center is important to all parties. It is not the way that “I know what fits you” rather will be better when the community forwards what their needs and concerns and get implemented with their participation. If projects, plans and activities are needed to be sustainable in relation to the urban development, they should be community driven and not fueled by political agendas and its campaigns. The possibility to mobilize the community for the urban development activities was proved in some of the implemented urban projects. The communities were consulted and they took part in implementation and follow ups through their representatives. I have been working in one of the famous urban project called “GAMA”, a local NGO, which was dealing with urban sanitation problems. The project mobilized thousands of youngsters and community members, created awareness and implemented a pilot “Urban Clean and Green” project which was further scaled up by the community themselves. What I took as a lesson and impressed me was that, communities will be more interested to be involved and committed to take part from the very beginning to the end is that when their real problems are addressed.
This could be a lesson to the municipality to test out itself that the projects or what so ever developmental activities which are going in the city are of the interest of the wider communities or not.
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CHAPTER FIVE: PRIVATIZATION OF MSWM
5.1. What is privatization?
What is privatization? There is no single definition for privatization. There are many other definitions like the one I used in working definition. However, here I would like to take the detailed and understandable definition of Peterson, W. (1986):
“Privatization is a means of getting goods and services produced privately that were previously produced publicly. Some times it means the government will continue to finance the production of a good or service but with the private sector actually producing goods and services. One such practice is contracting out. Another such practice is giving individuals vouchers with which to purchase goods or services from private suppliers. Sometimes privatization involves the outright sale of state owned enterprises to private investors. Sometimes it involves deregulation, the removal of legal restrictions on private provisions of goods and services, and hence the allowing of a transition from a public or quasi-public to unhampered private supply. A city’s cancellation of limited number of taxi licenses to open the cab business to all comers is a case in point.”
Privatization is not a new concept. The idea that private ownership has advantages over public ownership in terms of being inherently more efficient, as well as that it induces a better public sector financial health, is not new at all. In 1776, Adam Smith wrote:
“In every great monarchy in Europe the sell of the crown lands would produce a very large sum of money which, if applied to the payments of the public debts, would deliver from mortgage a much greater revenue than any which those lands have ever afforded to the crown … when the crown lands had become private property, they would, in the course of a few years, become well improved and well cultivated” (Smith 1776, P. 824: in Sheshinski, E. 2003)
Why privatization? Examples of the gains to be made from the formal private sector in waste management systems are listed overleaf in the box 5.1. The points are taken from van de
Klundert, A. and Lardiniois I. (1995) presentation in a workshop held in Switzerland. The objective of the paper was to assess and present overview of the community, private and informal sector participation in urban solid waste management in different developing countries. It should be emphasized, however, that these potential gains, whose realization
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depends not only on the quality of the private sector actors available, but on the degree of oversight and control retained by the municipal or regional government responsible for the jurisdiction. Where this emphasis is missed, dozens of literatures are with sufficient evidence revealing the failure of the privatization. It is of paramount importance for the municipality of
Addis Ababa to consider such critical moments, which can hit the balance either for success or failure. As the saying goes, the wise learns from the mistakes of others’ while the fool at his own.
Box 5.1: Benefits of privatization
Potential benefits to the waste management system include:
Greater efficiency and enhanced performance, due to more flexible employee compensation procedures, and sometimes also to the introduction of competition into waste management operations.
Better management and accountability, due in part to the fact that the private business functions as a contractor, and could lose the contract.
Faster response, associated with the ability of private business people to raise capital, as opposed to the relatively long lead times involved in government decision making and/or the donor grant process, or with government procurement procedures.
Higher service ethics, associated with the business's image and their ability to attract new clients.
Greater flexibility in terms of purchase of land and siting of facilities.
Greater access to experience and technology, due to the potential to create partnerships with experienced private businesses in other countries and regions.
Risk reduction, by transferring unpredictable costs or unreliable revenues onto the private operator.
Potential benefits to the local economy include:
Creation of a more robust commercial sector in the country.
Generation of sustainable employment in the private sector.
The recovery of valuable materials from recycling activities, which can be locally used without loss of hard currency or foreign exchange.
Social and environmental benefits include:
The insulating of waste management activities from political patronage of civil service systems (although patronage in the form of contractor choice is a danger of private sector participation in contracts)
Conservation of resources when materials are recovered
Reduction in environmental damage from exploiting primary resources, including mining and deforestation.
Source: van de Klundert and Lardinois, 1995
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Privatization is becoming a key component of development strategy in developing countries.
The rationale behind it is that it allows to achieve economic growth and development by lowering unnecessary expenditures taking the experience of developed and some developing countries with the push from IMF and World Bank under structural adjustment program since
1980s. Both developed and developing countries are involved and the rate and number of privatization are increasing over years along with its controversies.
Though success stories of privatization are recorded both in developed and developing countries, on the other hand, there are growing concerns on its effects, usually unwanted or unforeseen because of lack of experience at the beginning of its implementation such as inefficiency, job insecurity, lower quality operation, monopoly, corruption, profit driven service and unfitting to low income areas and so on.
The above points which are revealing negative sides of privatization are important and I want to stress in my paper that before the introduction of the privatization in MSWM, the city administration should be willing and open to as many as possible experiences and choose the best model of privatization taking into consideration the local situation. For example there are cases when some countries allow full privatization while others half. In case of full privatization, the Malaysian experience as it is studied and analyzed by Yoshida, K. (2003) under United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development, proved that full privatization of solid waste management will not achieve efficiency and will cause environmental pollution and promote inequality. This is because of low monitoring of the performance of the private company, monopolistic nature and low level of willingness to pay from the low income community.
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5.2. Methods of private sector participation
Most common methods in solid waste management are the following ones. However, mostly recommended for developing countries to begin with is contracting. Below are the four main types of private participation methods (World Bank, 1994).
5.2.1. Contracting
The government awards a finite-term contract to a private firm for the delivery of solid waste collection service, street sweeping service, the collection of recyclables transfer station operation, disposal site operation or fleet maintenance. The contract award is made after a competitive procurement process. The private firm is paid for service delivery by the government under the terms of contract. Among the options for private sector participation, contracting for solid waste service holds the greatest promise to developing countries as a way of lowering cost.
5.2.2. Concession
The government awards a concession to a private firm to set up a facility that utilizes the government owned resource – refuse. This concession may enable the private firm to recycle materials (paper, plastic, metal, glass, etc) from refuse; to recover resources, (compost, heat, electricity) from refuse; or to transfer or dispose of refuse. The concession is in the form of a long term contractual agreement, whereby the private firm builds the facility. In some cases, the private firm may maintain indefinitely the ownership and operation of the facility. In others, the private firm may transfer ownership of the facility to the government after a specified period of private ownership and operation.
5.2.3. Franchise
The government awards a finite-term zonal monopoly (a franchise) to a private firm for the delivery of solid waste collection service. The franchise award is made after a competitive qualification process. The private firm deposits a performance bond with the government and pays a license fee to cover the government’s costs of monitoring. The private firm recovers
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its cost and profit through direct charges to the households and establishments that are served.
Government provides control over the tariff charged to the consumer.
5.2.4. Open competition
The government freely allows qualified private firms to compete for refuse collection, recycling, or disposal services. In open competition, individual households and establishments make private arrangements with individual firms for refuse collection and /or recycling. No firm holds a zonal monopoly, and numbers of firms may compete with in the same zone. Similarly, in open competition, the government grants a license to qualified individual firms for the private provisions of services. One city may be served by several disposal sites competing for business from the arena’s local governments and private haulers, as well as for business from remote governments and haulers. The government’s role in open competition is to license, monitor, and as needed, sanction private firms. Under open competition, costs are directly billed by the private firms to their customers.
5.3. MSW Privatization experiences in three African cities
Privatization lessons and experiences from three African cities are briefly presented below.
The experiences are drawn from Dar es Salaam (Tanzania), Nairobi (Kenya) and Accra
(Ghana). These cities faced at the beginning confusions as to how to introduce private sectors and work with them to better the MSWM. Though still some concerns, they witness that working with private sector will contribute to better the urban environmental health while creating jobs, income, competition and promoting integrated solid waste management.
5.3.1. Dar es Salaam - Tanzania
Tanzania is an East African Country with an area of 945, 045 km2 and has about 39 million population. Capital city: Dodoma (since 1996) with a population 324, 347 (2002). Dar es
Salaam (was capital until 1996) is the largest city in Tanzania with a population of 2.5 million. Solid waste generation per capita for Dar es Salaam: 0.69kg/day (JICA, 1997).
Concluding remarks:
When and reasons for the intervention of the private sector:
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o ILO was the initiator and supporter for the involvement of the private sector in
SWM of Dar es Salaam. It has been actively supporting the private contractors to start and improve their waste collection business, and promote recycling too. The focus of ILO lies primarily with the labor side of the waste management. Issues such as job creation, employment conditions and gender are important from ILO point of view. The introduction of the private sector in
1994 was caused by the fact that the local authority was unable to cope up with the ever growing amount of solid waste, with the caused environmental pollution and complains from the community. o Closely related to the activities of the Sustainable Dar es Salaam Project
(SDP)
Performance of the private sector: o According to Isengoma, A. (2000) and the initiator ILO report (2001), the involvement of the private sectors demonstrated clear contribution to the improved SWM in, Dar es Salaam. Their services are more efficient than the cash constrained city authority. Contractors collect and dispose off about 40% of the generated solid waste. Before their involvement, collection and disposal of MSW constituted only 20%. The city is getting cleaner, while more than
1,000 new jobs have been created, with 60% of these being for women and many unemployed youths.
What are the major obstacles currently private sectors are facing (to be addressed)? o The privatization process is still at a very early stage of development and contractors especially women still facing many constraints. ILO has a pioneer in supporting SWM thus decreasing the constraints to a tolerable level. Most
(90%) of contractors who started are still operating. Some of those who stopped because of some difficulties are coming back.
Lessons for future plans: o It has been realized that there is an opportunity of employment/income generation mechanisms. o Given its satisfactory results, other municipalities in Tanzania (such as
Mwanza, Arusha, Moshi, Dodoma and others) have shown interest to follow a
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similar approach. As a response to the mentioned demand, a national replication program is being designed aiming at improving solid waste management whilst creating a maximum number of jobs in major cities/municipalities in Tanzania. The new ILO project will strengthen the capacities in both the public and private sectors, to introduce this approach in other major cities/municipalities.
5.3.2. Accra - Ghana
Ghana is a West African country with an area of 239,000 km2 and population about 22 million 2005 (Est.); its capital is Accra with a population of 1.9 million (2005). Per capita solid waste generation of Accra: 0.51 kg/person/day (Obrih-Oparen, et al, 2004).
Concluding remarks:
When and reasons for the intervention of the private sector: o To promote efficiency in public service, Ghana started decentralization process as a liberal-democratic governance system in 1988, perhaps under pressure from World Bank and IMF, since these international organizations advocates for such steps. Although the decentralization has brought some positive changes, still it is far from efficiency. o Closely related to the 1988, decentralization exercise is the policy of privatization, which became a key component of Ghana’s reform policy. o In MSWM, private sectors involved in house-to-house collection for high income and middle income households while provision of communal container collection services for low income and some middle income areas. o One of the pioneers and known private SWM companies are Gee Waste and
Daben Cleansing operating under contractual agreement with the local authority. They provide their services using all manner of vehicles and found to offer good quality services and well attuned to the variation in the local situation.
Performance of the private sector:
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o The findings of Obrih-Oparen, N., et al, (2004) has shown that an overwhelming majority of consumers in Accra (i.e. 98%) in all localities prefer private service providers to the public sector. They also believe that private service providers perform better services than the public ones. The dissatisfaction with past government performance translates into a strong pro-privatization attitude. This was supported by the findings on efficiency and effectiveness gains through privatization of solid waste collection, which hold up the general theoretical claims that the private sector performs better in terms of user charge collection, improved cleanliness, and higher efficiency. The ability of the private contractors to work with very limited resources as compared to the public sector ones echoes familiar theoretical claims of private sector managerial capabilities, its dynamism and superiority over the public sector.
What are the major obstacles private sector facing (to be addressed)? o Regarding problems faced by the private sector the findings in Obrih-Oparen,
N., et al, (2004), concludes that corruption and political patronage (perhaps greatest) threats to the successful privatization of urban services. Privatization in SWM of Accra lacks genuine political commitment. Thus for the situation to improve, attention has to be paid to the creation of the enabling working environment with proper regulatory mechanisms which allows the involvement of all stakeholders.
5.3.3. Nairobi - Kenya:
Kenya is an East African Country with an area of 582,650 km2. It has about 39 million population. Its capital Nairobi has a population between 3 and 4 million. Solid waste generation per capita: 0.6kg/day (JICA, 1998)
Concluding remarks:
When and reasons for the intervention of the private sector: o Nairobi City Council opted to privatize, its solid waste management in 1997, when it was recognized that solid waste generation was outstripping financial,
40
technical and managerial capacity of the local authority to collect and dispose properly (UNCHS, 1998 and Henery, et al. 2005)).
Performance of the private sector: o An effective provider of waste management services to upper income business and residential areas (Peters, K. 1998). o Private sectors like BINS (established in 1989) and KRH (established 1987), who are commissioned by Nairobi City Council, are participating in collecting and disposal of solid waste. They are equipped with sufficient working materials like trucks, trolleys, compactors, containers, etc. and hired professional workers. They also mobilize communities through awareness creation and cleaning campaigns.
What are the major obstacles private sectors facing (to be addressed)? o No bylaws to enforce the users charge fee for the section of the society who can afford. Within the informal settlements, the private sector can’t provide waste management services because of the inability of the residents to pay for these services and the poor accessibility to these areas. Therefore, there is still a need for local authorities to work with CBOs in providing services to these areas. o The institutional and organizational arrangements at the national level have become deficient due to the remarkable increase of solid waste, and some important SWM responsibilities at the national level seem to necessitate urgent improvement. o The present coordination and linkages among institutions involved in SWM such as the coordination of policy, planning and legislation through the interministerial committee on the environmental issues chaired by the National
Environmental Secretariat (NES) may have to be augmented.
41
CHAPTER SIX: PRIVATIZATION EXPERIENCE IN ETHIOPIA
6.1. General introduction
Privatization and entrepreneurship now days are becoming a buzz word in Ethiopia following the introduction of market oriented economy. The Ethiopian government launched the
Privatization Program in accordance with proclamation No. 87/1994. It was introduced after the change in both economic and political system from East Communists oriented development path to the West Liberal and Market oriented system. The country has been under centralized economic and political system for about 2 decades. The objective of introduction of privatization falls with in the general frameworks of the global privatization which is backed by the justification license that it promotes development with lowering the public expenditure with the increase of efficiency.
Some of the studies which are conducted by Ethiopians on the Ethiopian privatization experiences (Gebeyehu, 2004) reflected that the privatization is in its infancy stage, has mix of results and because of lack of data most of the studies are focused on the industrial sector.
However, the study has proved what theory of privatization argues for i.e. the inefficiency in the public enterprises. It is reported in the study that the achievement of the most of the public sector is below expectation; the sectors faced economical and financial problems and widespread inefficiency. In case of the privatization also their argument is neither for nor against it. I think the problems could be the country is learning how to do, the political interference, corruption and also probably too early to judge as there is no sufficient experience and conducive environment for implementing it properly.
6.2. ‘Private’ sectors in MSWM: are there any ‘private’ sectors?
6.2.1 ‘Private’ initiatives: individuals and groups how they started.
In Ethiopia private sector is common mostly in business sectors like in the areas of manufacturing and transportation. In the municipal service area, which is taken as granted responsibility by the local authority, is less attractive to see as a business opportunity. So far there is no picture of well organized, recognized, documented private sector involvement with follow up strategies and structures. As to me, it is difficult to categorize the current
‘private’ sector as a legal, recognized with defined responsibilities and so related issues.
Rather easy to define under informal. If we look back to the private initiatives involvement in
42
urban waste management of Addis Ababa, though some existed before at informal level, the current wave of private initiatives have only 5-6 years of experiences. It started in 2000/2001 after the popular urban clean and green “GAMA” project by a popular artist Sileshi Demissie, with campaigns of awareness creation, cleaning, community mobilization especially in which more than 10,000 youngsters involved and practical implementation of urban sanitation pilot projects were carried out (Basha. T. 2004). All of them could be described as “poverty driven” jobless youngsters. After their participation they got the lesson that it is possible to make living while working with urban waste. It was just like ready-go-work but was uncoordinated, inexperienced and mostly learning by doing. It was exciting with hopes and full of risks. They are working at individual and group level at different capacity of operating.
It was real competition in some way.
Some but very few who are some what better equipped with working materials and trucks like Dynamic Waste Management, which is a pioneer and functions in the area of Bole (high income residential area), Embassies and big hotels providing the service of collecting of wastes and dumping. The other private waste management organization, which is also in better operating condition is called “Shumeta”, also serving its clients from collection to dumping. Otherwise generally, most of private sectors activities are collecting and transporting to the municipal storage containers. However, most of the youngsters use wheelbarrows, donkey carts, hauling carts and even carrying on their backs. Generally the working materials are old, depreciated, breaks often and hamper their activities.
At the beginning, when the youngsters has mushroomed the city with cleaning campaigns, the local government itself was not ready for such experience. For people, to be interested in such smelly and neglected activities was something revolutionary. Usually, people look down on such business, stigmatize who are involved and no one shows piece of interest and consider the business as a shame. The mobilization and the awareness creation were like a head of the government thoughts. The campaigns were like the awakening bell for the local authority to look after the urban environmental health. There were problems from local authority’s side that they didn’t incorporate in time and manner that the mobilization could be boosted for the environmental, economical and social benefits. Rather, the communities welcomed the movement and started to cooperate in any way they could. Thus, the cooperation of the community even furthered the impact signaling that it is possible to bring positive changes if people are mobilized with their involvement.
43
Box 6.1: Major reasons for the start of the initiatives
When I summarize, from my field study findings, the major reasons why the private initiatives started in the MSW business of Addis Ababa were:
The urban clean and green initiative (mobilized and hinted the possibility of job and income creation)
Economical reasons – major reason ( poverty, joblessness, etc)
Possible to start with low capital input
No bureaucracies of registration or formalization; no involvement of government. Just ready-go-work!
Profitability of the activity (relatively)
Community awareness creation over the urban sanitation
The gap created between the demand and supply of the solid waste service (more waste produced but less managed)
The demand of the health bureau for the neatness of the business area of the enterprises
The far distanced placement of the containers from households and business centers
The flexible nature of the work
The positive reaction from the community and business centers (willingness to pay, cheap) Source: author, 2005
6.2.2. The working condition
They started the work just for survival as a means of income and not primarily concerned with the urban environmental health problems. In general from the situation in which they are, we can conclude that they are marginalized economically. They are struggling to survive day after day saving nothing that could give them future.
Their meager capital easily
dwindles; the working equipments are breaking and being damaged. The working condition is totally unsanitary posing high health risk, since they work with bare hand, breath in the dusts, touch their mouths and noses while they are working and rarely wash their hands after such risky work. They are open to communicable diseases and also could transmit to their family members and others. In my 2005 field study, the interview revealed that they came across with health problems like diarrhea, skin diseases, asthma, flu and others.
44
6.2.3. Government’s response
Instead of welcoming, formalizing and encouraging, what the local authority did to these private initiatives was not cheering. Actually the campaign was fast and engulfing the whole country. The municipality was not ready and may be not in a position financially and technically to scale up the mobilization and mainstream into its plan of development. So, there were some confusions and chaotic pictures. It was really a good ‘miss-not’ opportunity, which could have been encouraged, organized and scaled up for better performance but the momentum was missed. However, the mobilization gave important lesson to all stakeholders that it is possible to make a difference when all are working together.
6.2.4 Community, CBOs and NGOs response
Rather it was encouraging how the community, CBOs and NGOs were cooperating since the youngsters are filling the gap that the municipality was unable to deal with. The youngsters are coming to their clients and take away the wastes at lower prices on the agreed time frame.
The community, CBOs and NGOs were aware of the social and environmental waste problem but confused how to deal with newly vibrant campaign. However, they have been encouraging the youngsters, especially some community leaders, known individuals, commercial centers with offering materials, finances and with good and hopeful advices. So, this campaign to some extent opened the way for participation and dialogue.
The communities being part of the campaign, they were watching carefully how it is progressing and the differences that it made. Then the community started to criticize the local authority, while it was possible to bring positive changes that the local authority are not doing enough only escaping with many unjustifiable excuses.
6.2.5. The impact of the urban clean and green mobilization
The major impact or lesson that these initiatives which were rooted in the “clean and green urban project” has brought about was that it is possible to bring a change through awareness creation, community mobilization and participation in practical benefiting activities. It showed clearly that there was a gap to be filled between the government and the community, the demand and the supply in urban service and that there are opportunities to cerate jobs and
45
income and improve the life of the jobless especially the youngsters. In addition to fueling critics on the government because of the low attention given to the urban environment and social problems, it also sent clear messages to the government what the community can do when they are organized and mobilized. Generally it was a good start which was in need of encouragement, support and formalization. Below in table 6.1, presented the pioneers
‘private’ solid waste collectors who were operating at different capacity in different areas.
However, their current picture could be different. At the beginning a lot of them started but some disappeared after some time while others survived for longer time with scaled up services like Dynamics Waste Management.
Table 6.1: ‘private’ pioneers waste collectors in Addis Ababa
Number of
Family
Members
Name of ‘Private’ Collectors
Zone
Woreda
Number of
House Holds
Served
G.F.S. Solid Waste Collection
Service
Dan Family Planning & sanitary
Service
Yehibret chora Sanitary Service
Ritch Integrated Sanitary Service
Dereje Sanitary Service Agency
M.G Sanitary Service
Tesfa Waste Disposal Service
A-Z Small Waste Business
Creation
Dolphin Waste Collection
Service
Senay Solid Waste Collection
Service
Dynamic Waste management
Lafto Solid Waste management
Andinet Solid Waste Collection
Service
2
23
300
1,500
5
7
350
1,750
5
5
2
3
3
3
1&2
10
23
17
17
17
200
250
100
500
1000
1000
1,500
1,250
500
2,500
3,400
4,800
3
17
Not known
-
3
17
Not known
5,000
3
3
4
17
19
9
1,000
Not known
Not known
-
Source: Reporter Feb. 26, 2003: in Basha. T. 2004
The impacts could be summed up in three aspects: Firstly, in terms of urban waste - the rate of collection from waste sources and coverage has increased. Secondly, the urban environment and waste problem came to the dialogue among the CBOs, NGOs and local authorities with the possibility and job and income creation for jobless section of the society
46
and finally that the community were willing to cooperate and pay for their own produced waste feeling responsible, though low payment.
CHAPTER SEVEN: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
In general, if not at microscopic level, MSWM problems of Addis Ababa are clear in terms of the SW itself, in relation to the government, community, business sectors and
NGOs. The volume of MSW is dramatically increasing while the capacity to manage lags by far behind. The composition and hazardousness are also growing. The open dumpsite, which is now practically in the inner city, because of the faster rate of urbanization needs consideration. The problem of scavenging, which is basically economical and the farming on the risk full dumpsite should get due attention. The population boom influenced by natural and migration factors; dynamics and interactions of production and consumption experience; lack of responsibility of the business enterprises’ and people towards their wastes and to the physical environment; poor governance of the local authority and related factors which are responsible for the chaotic MSWM situation in the capital need to be tackled strategically.
My great concerns and arguments, which drove me to look for the better options of
MSWM, are wired with urban environmental health problems and risks, efficiency, income and job creation. Concerning the urban environmental health, a number of studies, ranging from Uganda and Ethiopia to Brazil and Panama, have established the greater prevalence of diarrhea and various helminthes in environments with poor housing, water and sanitation facilities (World Bank, 1992). In case of Accra (Ghana), according the study conducted in 1993 it was found that out of 16 significant diseases in the capital, 13 are linked to poor housing and ventilation, unsanitary environment, contaminated drinking water, poor drainage and lack of facilities for solid waste disposal (World Bank, 2002: in Boadi, 2004). Unmanaged urban solid waste is the major causes of environmental pollution. Study conducted (Worku, et al. 1999) to examine the chemical, physical and micro-biological characteristics of various water sources in and around Addis Ababa revealed that rivers like Bulbula, Akaki and Aba
47
Samuel Lake are highly polluted with all kinds of solid and liquid wastes which are directly discharged to them from households, various private and government institutions and industrial establishments. The odor and the color of the rivers have changed. Various polluting chemicals were detected beyond the maximum permissible level.
Problems must be clearly and genuinely understood by the relevant stakeholders before heading for any possible solution. However, the willingness, readiness and commitment to make the first steps forward with clear mind and genuine approach are critical for success. It is not satisfactory and moreover unethical just to complain over the financial, technical and human resource problems as a means to escape from the scenario. This could generate intriguing questions as to how these resources are utilized, how the institutional system functioned; is it open or closed; how much the government is concerned with the urban environmental health problems, how willing is government for proposals coming from communities and scholars for bettering the situation, etc. They are fundamentals to be addressed, if real changes are desired.
I am convinced that it is possible to bring positive changes if the local authorities are politically willing to cooperate for the solution. I am saying this because; I have seen and participated in the urban health campaigns and projects. There are some exemplary success stories which survived and able to come out. And when there is concern and support from the government, such initiatives could be multiplied, strengthened and let to benefit the people and the physical environment.
Governments at different levels intervene in the process of urban development, whether directly or through systems of urban planning and management or indirectly, through interventions in the wider economic system which have consequences for urban development. While planning a city wide development program, the rational utilization of human, material and natural resources with due attention to the general welfare of the population must be accorded full recognition. Such recognition can be achieved when there is clear political will and support of the government. The full and active participation of all stakeholders on the continuous basis, particularly in planning, implementation and evaluation of the progress made in MSWM must be
48
given greater emphasis.
In my study of the Ghanaian privatization experience, the
political patronage was indicated as one of the obstacles, perhaps the most threat to the privatization sector. This is just one example. There are countless numbers of political interventions. It is known fact that government has a leading role in developmental activities to intervene. But, the intervention must be constructive not destructive. It must be tuned to enhance efforts for solutions and not to sluggish down the progressive steps.
Competition is a key factor to getting low cost solid waste service from private contractors. Data from several cities suggest that competition encourages the public sector to significantly improve its efficiency and lower costs (Counitreau, 1994). This is because public solid waste management system in developing countries are commonly plagued by excessive staff, obsolescent equipment, cumbersome procurement procedures for spare parts, inflexible work schedules, limitations on management changes, inadequate supervision, and strong worker unions, in such conditions it is difficult for the public service to implement the changes necessary to match the efficiency of the private sector.
It is advisable and feasible, according to John Donahue (Cointreau, 1994) for the beginners in private sector who are in the developing countries to start with small scale, simple technology and moderate investment costs. Study of the private sector participation in Latin America showed that most of the firms were small-to-mediumsized. In Seoul (S. Korea), approximately 35 percent of the solid waste is collected by
85 private contractors, each of which is a relatively small firm with an average of 6 vehicles. In Lagos, there are nearly 100 private contractors, most with only 1 or 2 vehicles and less than 10 with more than 5 vehicles. Then, depending on the experience, management capacity, technical and financial resources possible to expand the service.
To decide whether to have private sector participation, according to World Bank
Urban Management Program (Cointreau, 1994), many factors needs to be analyzed.
For the analysis the program basis itself on the experiences and researches conducted and evaluated mainly in developing countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America. The
49
factors to be considered are cost recovery, efficiency, public accountability, management, finance, economies of scale, legislation, Institutions and cost (separately for collection, cleansing, transfer and disposal).
The provision of solid waste management at present is the responsibility of municipality. Efforts by NGOs, the private sector and the community are very low or uncoordinated. An inventory of community based sanitary projects made by the
UNDP, World Bank Regional Water and Sanitation Group shows that among 118 such projects identified only 8 consists of solid waste disposal. Similarly, the private sector has almost no role because the government has not designed the proper mechanism to accommodate, manage, and integrate partnership and cooperation
(Yami, 1999).
With regards to the private sector involvement, the government should have clear objectives and understanding of the sector and strategies achieving them that why it should be involved and make conditions and arrangements for collaboration.
Currently the local authority is positive to private sector involvement but no further clarification and strategies are worked out. The situation demands more practical steps than just being positive. For example in future plans and strategies of the Sanitation,
Beatification and Park Development Agency (SBPDA, 2003), the institution which is responsible for urban waste management, has some undefined general saying:
“encourage private sector involvement.” But, this must be plainly outlined in an unambiguous way. The willingness to participate them is welcoming, but how, at what level, with whom, etc must be defined. It is because of such kind of confusing calls, that the private sector is unable to take part vigorously and contribute to the betterment of urban environmental health, creating income and jobs for jobless section of the society at the same time.
On the other side, if we look on the document of the Clean and Green Addis Ababa
Society, which is a civil society, it has tried to assess the sector’s current activities and recommended the importance of the private sector’s contribution. In its major strategies, to achieve healthy urban living environment, the society stresses the importance to initiate and maintain a strong Public-Private-Community Participation
50
(PPCP) and adopt approaches which foster community mobilization and participation for community based waste management and beautification. Moreover, the society in its draft document of 2004, it targets by 2010 about 40% and by 2025 about 70% of the total urban waste generated will be collected by private sector. The society tried to define the role of the government and the private sector, in which it said that public cleansing services and SWM will be gradually delegated to the private sector. The role of the government agencies will then be focused on the planning, follow-up, and control functions within a set of clearly cut licensing and contracting conditions in accordance to the prevailing legislative and regulatory framework, as well as grounded “Public-Private-Partnership” (PPP) approach. The initiative envisages that the involvement of the sector will scale up the integrated waste management like recycling contributing to resource conservation and wise waste management.
Locally some researches and surveys (Dierig, 1999; Birke, 1999; Geleta, 1999; Idris,
2003; Alebachew, 2003; Kebbede, 2004; Clean and Green Addis Ababa Society,
2004; Bjerkli, 2005; Dinku, 2005; Basha. T., 2005; Chekole, 2006 and others) and regionally on African level (Palczynski, 2002; Osiche, 2005; Rotich, et al, 2005; and others) and globally mostly World Bank sponsored researches
Cointreau, 1994;
Cointreau and Coad, 2000 and others are recommending for the formalization of the informal sector and participation of private sector in the urban municipal services namely in solid waste management. Their recommendation is backed by the encouraging results in Latin America, Africa and Asia. In their studies it is shown that the participation of the private sector enhances the efficiency; hence cost reduction that is possible to provide efficient service at lower price. It increases job and income opportunities and creates healthy environment by cutting the chains of communicable diseases. It decreases burden of diseases, promote productivity and saves millions of lives and extends life expectancy by offering healthy living and working environment.
It also allows creative approaches in using various appropriate, cheap, and local techniques in waste management. In this regard, it is worth mentioning here that during the urban environmental health mobilization of Addis Ababa, it was the NGOs and private initiatives who actively introduced new adaptable techniques and working materials like mobile toilets and dust bins, which never existed before in the service.
The introduced technologies were appreciated and scaled up by the community members then by the government.
51
The stability of the responsible institution is critical for success. For example, when we look back at the historical landscape of the institution, which is currently responsible for MSWM has been moving from one institution to another with a change in its naming. First it was born and hosted in the municipality, then after some years moved to health bureau and now in SBPDA. The making, unmaking and remaking of an institution has a lot to do with the provision and continuity of the stabilized, experienced and sustainable service. It will also have an impact on recording of performances, experienced technical and human resources, the working environment, the smooth flow or take over of the activities and so on.
Local government is expected to be responsible for the regulations, quality control, monitoring, long term planning, for sustainable growth and development and general supervision to ensure that all categories of the population in the locality are served at all times. A crucial aspect in waste management is an appropriate system of monitoring and evaluation of private sector contractors which has several aspects. The first is the creation of a set of performance indicators. Frequency of sweeping, lifting of garbage and safe disposal to the dumping/transfer site, general cleanliness and an impact assessment on the health of citizens are some of the common indicators. While the enforcement of contract is the best and most appropriate aspect, the impact assessment by the users and beneficiaries is also vital. Formats of monitoring should be carefully determined that must involve participation of users and beneficiaries.
Another aspect is the system of lodging complaints and the follow up response from the service provider. In many developed countries this structure is fairly simple.
Complaints are registered through phone calls, e-mails, SMS, etc. and are attended with in 24 hours. Such practices help in building up users’ confidence. We are soon catching up with such experiences.
Addis Ababa, which means “new flower” in local language, should keep it original name. Why and how the “new flower” became wilted and looks old? In my paper, I have argued that there are possibilities and options to improve the urban environment through proper and careful privatization mechanism of MSWM of Addis Ababa. My arguments, as shown in the body of the paper, are based on the practical international, especially African experiences, the modest but commendable ‘private’ initiatives of
52
Addis Ababa and personal involvement experiences. The experiences have shown that if privatization sector is properly involved, it is an alternative for the incapacitated public sector, complaining consumers, job and income seekers and for the private sector itself. The practical solid waste management problems and their health risks
(Kebbde, 2004, Wolrld Bank 2002 in Boadi 2004) are sensible and felt by the consumers, decision makers and producers on the ground. The theoretical alternative option but backed up with practical experiences is put here forward for application to make Addis Ababa a healthy urban center with the genuine involvement of all stakeholders to alleviate the problem.
And finally when developing the MSWM documents, plans and agreements, the planners should be visionary; they are required to have pictures of the would be situation, based on today’s reality and experiences, interactions in the coming decades concerning the growth of population, demand, technological options and taking into account the related factors.
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LSE / Lent Term – 2013 FM421 – Applied Corporate Finance Case Assignments • • • • You will find an Excel file with exhibits from the case on Moodle. Assignments MUST be submitted before class on Moodle. One per group is enough Please include your candidate numbers (not names) on your assignment In class, you will have 10 minutes to present your solution, followed by a class discussion. You may want to prepare slides (max. 7) to support your presentation.…
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Sev7en sins is a different story in a lot of ways, one of them is that almost all the movies that have a book, the book is written first and then the movie is make. In this case the movie of the sev7en sins was made first and then the book was wrote. The movie was directed by David Fincher and sparring by Morgan Freeman, Kevin Spacey and Brad Pitt. Andrew Kevin Walker was the man who wrote the script for the movie. Raven Gregory, David Mack and David Whol wrote the book. The story is about two detectives that investigate some murders that are happening in the city where the two detectives live. Those detectives were Somerset that is about to retire and Mills that is a young detective. Through all the murders they have been investigated, they start tu realice the murders have something in common with the deadly sins. In that moment they start to Discovery the thruth of each of the murders thay have investigated.…
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There are plenty more problems though in the city due to this immense population. Crime rates in the city grow very…
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Waste management has become an issue of great importance across world cities with growing populations, greater consumerism yet failing incentives. In the UK, 28 million tonnes of municipal waste are produced each year with this figure increasing at 3% per year. The disposal of this waste across the world has local, natural and global consequences. The conditions, issues and problems of urban waste management in the industrialized and developing worlds are different. Though the developed countries generate larger amounts of waste, they have developed adequate facilities and competent government institutions to manage their wastes. Developing countries are still in the transition towards better waste management but they currently have insufficient collection and improper disposal methods of waste. Urbanization can occur at such rapid rates that the local authorities have yet to decide how to cope with the waste disposal, such as in the favelas in the outskirts of…
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Urbanisation can cause a lot of problems. When there are such a large number of people moving into the city there are not enough houses to accommodate them all. In many cases the pull factor towards the city is the prospect of work and this is not always possible. The situation that then occurs it that you have a lot of people moved to the city without any work or housing; so, they simply build their own cheap homes on the side of the main city called a slum. These slums can prevent easy excess in and out of the city; but, not only this because way that the houses are built there…
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As well as inadequate health care, poverty inequality, and racism; urban issues are also depicted by society. Cities is where the heart of society communicates and grows. Urban conflict aims to further divide those who are surrounding the cities. It is obvious how much more a city can accomplish without the distraction of hatred, injustice, high taxes, incompetent roads, and violence. I consider it to be the city's responsibility to overlook those issues and achieve unity.…
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Rapid urbanisation has caused a variety of problems, including transport congestion, lack of sufficient homes and living conditions, sanitary and health care issues, and crime. For all these problems, city planners have attempted potential solutions, each with varying degrees of success. Cities including London, Manila and Mumbai have several of the aforementioned problems, and have each tried their own potential solutions. This essay will discuss how successful these schemes have been in resolving these issues.…
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plethora of problems that this rapid urbanization is causing for the city, however, the pull factors…
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Many organizations within the United States believe that America has been struck with a "trash crisis", however, this is not truly case from the recent Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) facts for 2010. Before, we start let us take a moment to discuss what trash or municipal solid waste (MSW) is. MSW is the collection of commonly used items that discarded by the general populace, many of these include packaging, food scraps, grass clippings, sofas, computers, tires and house appliances (EPA). Although the information from the EPA shows that the waste in pounds per person has increase from 3.66 to 4.43 in the time frame of 1980 and 2010, it is the amount the being recycled that has increased substantially going from a meager 10% in 1980…
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“This thesis proposal is my original work and has not been presented for a Degree or any other academic award in any…
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This portfolio is a collection of findings and research done on different topics relating to sustainability and environmental management systems. This portfolio consists of four reflectives which are:…
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Decision making also faster in this process as a fewer numbers of layer are dealt with…
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Urban areas have many obvious faults insofar as their services to people are concerned. They…
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