Observation In Psychology

This essay will evaluate the use of observation as a method of study within psychology. Initially, the essay will discuss the two traditional methods of investigation experimentation and observation, before undertaking a deeper examination of the observational method itself. It will then consider where the use of the observational method has proven successful, with supporting evidence of research studies in which observation played a key role. Finally, the limitations of the observational method in psychological research will be considered together with why other techniques have to be contemplated when conducting research.

Two traditional methods used in psychological research are the experimental method and the observational method. In the
experimental method, the researcher in a controlled environment manipulates a variable in order to bring about a change such as in the behaviour of a participant. Edgar and Edgar (2012), give a good example of the experiment with the research into attention during the 1950's by Broadbent. The other traditional method of study into behaviour is via the use of observation. The term 'observation' is generally used to describe any situation where an observer records behaviour exhibited by a participant, such as in the Bobo doll experiment carried out by Bandura et al cited in Oates (2010). Observation can either be a technique for gathering data or the design of a study. The observational method contrasts with an experimental study in that the researcher does not manipulate an independent variable. There are four categories of observation; the controlled observation when participants are observed in the environment under the observers control, such as Milgram cited in Banyard (2010), where the filming of participants occurred to observe their emotional reactions; naturalistic observation where behaviour is studied within its natural context; structured observation guided by observational categories and finally, participant and non-participant observation in which the researcher participates in the group being studied or as in non-participant observing from outside the group. An example of participant observation is research by Festinger (1956), into a religious cult and their reaction when a doomsday prophecy they believed in failed to come true.

Examining both of these methods, experimental psychology has received criticism especially in its use of the laboratory setting. The laboratory experimental setting is considered by some as being too controlled, meaning behaviour studied may be artificial and therefore, not generalisable beyond the laboratory setting. Further criticisms include confounding variables such as 'demand characteristics', may impact upon results. Demand characteristics occur when participants develop ideas of the purpose of the experiment and alter behaviour accordingly. Furthermore, the experimental method is hampered by its inability to study naturally occurring behaviour which occurs would be considered 'unethical' to study if artificially created. For example, Oates (2012), cites concerns over the effects of participation in research of young children, who may be detrimentally affected by being exposed to things which they would not encounter in their day to day living. One possible way to avoid some of these criticisms and problems is using observational methods.

Observation is one of the most common methods of data collection taking an inductive approach to research, meaning it involves collecting data and extracting general principles or ideas from it.
Data can be both qualitative or quantitative and can be analysed depending on the perspective taken. Bandura et al cited in Oaes(2012), conducted research into the extent in which children imitate aggressive behaviour. The idea was to examine what factors affect imitation and in order to do this they devised the famous 'Bobo doll experiment'. In the experiment children were shown a film of a model using aggressive behaviour directed towards a 'Bobo doll'. After watching this film, children had their play behaviour both recorded on film and observed through a one-way mirror for analysis. The dependent variable which was aggressive behaviour shown by the children after watching the film was then rated using an agreed coded scale. By observing the children in this covert way, researchers could analyse as inconspicuously as possible the children's behaviour allowing play to be as natural as possible. Though this study was observational it was unusual to the degree that it was set in a laboratory. However, it is a classic demonstration of how observational research should be conducted; systematic and without influencing or interfering with the behaviour they wished to
observe.

Brownlow (2012), supplies another example of where observational methods to research are used to good effect. Psychologists attempting to understand the importance of relationships, especially the importance of friendships for children will use the observational method. This allows the child to express its own individual account of what friendship means to them, such as in the research carried out by Bigelow and La Gaipa cited in Brownlow (2012).
Here research was conducted by having children write about their best friend, expressing what they expected from this friendship and how it differed from other friendships.
Then Bigelow and La Gaipa (1975), used content analysis to identify features relevant to their research question from the children's writing. This allowed written text to be quantified, allowing generalisations to be made relating to children's friendships. Due to the flexibility of allowing the children 'free reign' to explain in their own terms what friendship was to them, that data which was obtained was naturalistic and devoid of restrictions which may have influenced the research findings. A second research study into friendship cited by Brownlow (2012), which used the observational method to study communicative processes which make up the world of young children was that of Corsano (1985). This research did not wish to use children's words to examine patterns but wished to explore what friendship meant during particular times and places within childhood. An ethnographic approach was undertaken similar to the research conducted by Festinger (1956), allowing the researcher to actively participating in the research with the group. Brownlow (2012), states that by becoming a member of the group Corsano (1985), could become familiar first hand with cultural influences and values shared by the target group. In doing so a picture of the complex behaviours which cannot be studied outside of their natural
setting could be undertaken.

One of the distinct advantages of observation has over other methods is that through its use we gain a detailed contextual understanding of what we wish to study. However, there are two issues which must be considered when using the observational method. The first is that research can never be entirely 'neutral', as descriptions of behaviour are always open to different interpretation. Secondly, it is impossible to take notes on every piece of observation and we are limited in our focus only on that which is the 'aim' of the observation.

Observational methods have advantages but also disadvantages. Firstly, a researcher has limited control over the situation observed. In natural settings, many unaccounted for variables may influence the behaviour investigated. These extraneous variables can cause problems when appraising causes behind the behaviour. Secondly, experimenter effects require consideration when conducting observational methods. Research conducted by Corsano cited in Brownlow (2012), involved gaining the trust of children in order to invite the researcher into their social world. According to Brownlow (2012), adults are normally seen by children as being 'in charge' so the researcher has to overcome this issue. The personal attitudes, interests, beliefs and demeanour of a researcher may taint observational research causing it to not reflect the true nature of events. Of all the criticisms of the observational method, the most fundamental are the difficulty establishing cause and effect relationships. Natural behaviours are complex and intertwined, they overlap making it challenging to establish the behaviour studied or manipulation of a variable, was the only reason for the result. Finally, analysis of observations cannot give a researcher direct access to an experience but only allow for interpretations based upon observation.

In summary, the observational method is a broad technique used in psychological research and is one of a number of methods available. It allows for the collection of data both quantitatively and qualitatively, therefore giving flexibility depending on the perspective taken. It allows for richly detailed empathetic understanding to be gained of behaviours and feelings which could never be studied away from the context in which the subject under investigation exists.