Outline And Evaluate The Behaviourist Approach To The Study
Describe and evaluate social influences on gender roles (25 marks)
Bandura and Walters (1963) proposed the social learning theory initially to explain aggression in children, yet they argued it can be readily applied to any behaviour. SLT suggests we acquire new behaviours via observing others, then modelling the observed behaviour. We are more likely to model behaviours if the behaviour is rewarded, via indirect, vicarious reinforcement. We can also learn new behaviours via being reinforced or punished directly. Therefore, learning is a combination of indirect and direct reinforcement, both key aspects of the behaviourist approach.
Bandura then modified his original theory, to add in the importance of cognitive factors, and used this to explain gender development. He argued that gender …show more content…
development is subject to 3 main influences: modelling, enactive representation and direct tuition. Modelling involves cognitive representation of the model’s activities as well as modelling their behaviour. Children classify males and females into discrete groups, then recognise similarities in their behaviour, store the behaviours as abstract concepts in their memories, which then guide their own behaviour. However, children are selective in what they perform. Boys observe mothers carrying out housework tasks, yet they rarely adopt such behaviours (Bussey and Bandura 1999). Research by Perry and Bussey (1979) found that children only imitate a model’s behaviour ONLY if the behaviour was not contrasting with the child’s pre-existing gender stereotypes, therefore the effects of modelling are limited by existing stereotypes.
As children become mobile, they act on their environment enabling them to have enactive experiences; this in turn increases the number and variety of the social reactions they experience from those around them, and these are important sources of information for the development of gender roles. Direct tuition begins once children develop language skills and serves as a convenient way of informing children about different styles of conduct and appropriate behaviour. Yet, parents and teachers do not always practice what they preach, giving contrasting messages to the child, and the impact of such tuition is weakened when the information being taught is contradicted by the behaviour elicited by the models (Hildebrandt et al 1973). However, Martin et al (1995) found that preschool boys played with ‘boys’ toys even after seeing girls playing with them, and did not want to play with ‘girls’ toys even when they observed other boys playing with them, suggesting direct instructions are more important than modelling, especially in preschool children.
The role of parents, peers, school and media appear vital in a child’s understanding of gender roles, and this varies between cultures and societies.
Parents tend to treat their own offspring differently, according to their gender, boys are reinforced in different ways to girls, and fathers usually react more negatively than mothers to their son’s feminine top play (Idle et al 1993). Evidence comes from studies such as Smith and Lloyd (1978) who found that first time mothers responded differently to a newly-introduced child depending on whether they believed the child was either male or female, selecting gender appropriate toys and using more/less vocal interaction. However, the study was lab-based, and the validity can be questioned, as it does not tell us how the parents would respond to their own child in a natural setting. Further support comes from Fagot et al (1992) whose natural experiment found that parents who show the clearest patterns of differential reinforcement have children who are quicker at developing strong gender preferences. This study was higher in ecological validity due to the setting, however, it cannot discount the role of culture or
biology.
Once a child goes to school the influence of peers becomes a crucial factor in developing an understanding of gender roles. Peers provide a model of gender appropriate behaviour, and provide feedback when someone ‘steps out of line’, exhibiting inappropriate gender behaviours. Support for this comes from Lamb and Roopnarine (1979) who observed preschool children playing and found, when male type behaviour was reinforced in girls, the behaviour continued for a shorter time than when male type behaviour was reinforced in boys, suggesting that peer reinforcement mainly reinforces existing gender stereotypes rather than creating them.
Probably the most influential influence on gender roles (particularly in Western, individualistic cultures) is the media. It portrays males as independent, directive ad pursuing engaging occupations, whereas women are usually shown as acting in dependent, needy, emotional and un-ambitious ways (Bussey and Bandura 1999). The media does more than simply model gender type behaviour; it also gives information about the likely outcomes of acting in certain ways for males and females. Observing the success of people similar to ourselves raises our belief in our own capabilities (self efficacy) whereas the failure of people similar to us results in self doubt about our own ability to master similar activities. Support comes from Tannis Williams (1985) who found that television shaped gender roles in Canada, when he carried out a natural experiment in 3 villages, Notel (with no television prior to the experiment), Unitel, with one TV channel, and Multitel (with several US channels). Children in Notel and Unitel had weaker sex typed views than those from Multitel, especially the girls. Children were re-assessed 2 years after TV had been introduced into Notel, and children’s views had become significantly more sex typed. Therefore, the impact of the media had a profound impact on children’s gender roles. However, Signorelli and Bacue (1999) examined over 30 years of TV programmes resulted in very little change in gender stereotypes; suggesting that media does not create gender roles, it merely reinforces existing roles.
Initially, the research provided her all suggest rather a deterministic view towards gender roles, in as far as parents, peers, school and media determine a child’s gender role, yet individual differences and free will also have a role to play in shaping someone’s gender role. Overall, it can be concluded that social influences are vital components in the development of gender roles. However, by taking such a reductionist view, we would be ignoring the equally central role of biology – genes and hormonal influences as well as culture. Many of the studies have been carried out in Western cultures, where children have more autonomy to decide their own gender roles, so may not be relevant in non Westernised, collectivist cultures. Therefore, a more holistic, interactionist approach to understanding gender roles would be most appropriate and beneficial in aiding our understanding of such a complex phenomenon.
Word count 1066
Bandura and Walters (1963) proposed the social learning theory initially to explain aggression in children, yet they argued it can be readily applied to any behaviour. SLT suggests we acquire new behaviours via observing others, then modelling the observed behaviour. We are more likely to model behaviours if the behaviour is rewarded, via indirect, vicarious reinforcement. We can also learn new behaviours via being reinforced or punished directly. Therefore, learning is a combination of indirect and direct reinforcement, both key aspects of the behaviourist approach.
Bandura then modified his original theory, to add in the importance of cognitive factors, and used this to explain gender development. He argued that gender …show more content…
development is subject to 3 main influences: modelling, enactive representation and direct tuition. Modelling involves cognitive representation of the model’s activities as well as modelling their behaviour. Children classify males and females into discrete groups, then recognise similarities in their behaviour, store the behaviours as abstract concepts in their memories, which then guide their own behaviour. However, children are selective in what they perform. Boys observe mothers carrying out housework tasks, yet they rarely adopt such behaviours (Bussey and Bandura 1999). Research by Perry and Bussey (1979) found that children only imitate a model’s behaviour ONLY if the behaviour was not contrasting with the child’s pre-existing gender stereotypes, therefore the effects of modelling are limited by existing stereotypes.
As children become mobile, they act on their environment enabling them to have enactive experiences; this in turn increases the number and variety of the social reactions they experience from those around them, and these are important sources of information for the development of gender roles. Direct tuition begins once children develop language skills and serves as a convenient way of informing children about different styles of conduct and appropriate behaviour. Yet, parents and teachers do not always practice what they preach, giving contrasting messages to the child, and the impact of such tuition is weakened when the information being taught is contradicted by the behaviour elicited by the models (Hildebrandt et al 1973). However, Martin et al (1995) found that preschool boys played with ‘boys’ toys even after seeing girls playing with them, and did not want to play with ‘girls’ toys even when they observed other boys playing with them, suggesting direct instructions are more important than modelling, especially in preschool children.
The role of parents, peers, school and media appear vital in a child’s understanding of gender roles, and this varies between cultures and societies.
Parents tend to treat their own offspring differently, according to their gender, boys are reinforced in different ways to girls, and fathers usually react more negatively than mothers to their son’s feminine top play (Idle et al 1993). Evidence comes from studies such as Smith and Lloyd (1978) who found that first time mothers responded differently to a newly-introduced child depending on whether they believed the child was either male or female, selecting gender appropriate toys and using more/less vocal interaction. However, the study was lab-based, and the validity can be questioned, as it does not tell us how the parents would respond to their own child in a natural setting. Further support comes from Fagot et al (1992) whose natural experiment found that parents who show the clearest patterns of differential reinforcement have children who are quicker at developing strong gender preferences. This study was higher in ecological validity due to the setting, however, it cannot discount the role of culture or
biology.
Once a child goes to school the influence of peers becomes a crucial factor in developing an understanding of gender roles. Peers provide a model of gender appropriate behaviour, and provide feedback when someone ‘steps out of line’, exhibiting inappropriate gender behaviours. Support for this comes from Lamb and Roopnarine (1979) who observed preschool children playing and found, when male type behaviour was reinforced in girls, the behaviour continued for a shorter time than when male type behaviour was reinforced in boys, suggesting that peer reinforcement mainly reinforces existing gender stereotypes rather than creating them.
Probably the most influential influence on gender roles (particularly in Western, individualistic cultures) is the media. It portrays males as independent, directive ad pursuing engaging occupations, whereas women are usually shown as acting in dependent, needy, emotional and un-ambitious ways (Bussey and Bandura 1999). The media does more than simply model gender type behaviour; it also gives information about the likely outcomes of acting in certain ways for males and females. Observing the success of people similar to ourselves raises our belief in our own capabilities (self efficacy) whereas the failure of people similar to us results in self doubt about our own ability to master similar activities. Support comes from Tannis Williams (1985) who found that television shaped gender roles in Canada, when he carried out a natural experiment in 3 villages, Notel (with no television prior to the experiment), Unitel, with one TV channel, and Multitel (with several US channels). Children in Notel and Unitel had weaker sex typed views than those from Multitel, especially the girls. Children were re-assessed 2 years after TV had been introduced into Notel, and children’s views had become significantly more sex typed. Therefore, the impact of the media had a profound impact on children’s gender roles. However, Signorelli and Bacue (1999) examined over 30 years of TV programmes resulted in very little change in gender stereotypes; suggesting that media does not create gender roles, it merely reinforces existing roles.
Initially, the research provided her all suggest rather a deterministic view towards gender roles, in as far as parents, peers, school and media determine a child’s gender role, yet individual differences and free will also have a role to play in shaping someone’s gender role. Overall, it can be concluded that social influences are vital components in the development of gender roles. However, by taking such a reductionist view, we would be ignoring the equally central role of biology – genes and hormonal influences as well as culture. Many of the studies have been carried out in Western cultures, where children have more autonomy to decide their own gender roles, so may not be relevant in non Westernised, collectivist cultures. Therefore, a more holistic, interactionist approach to understanding gender roles would be most appropriate and beneficial in aiding our understanding of such a complex phenomenon.
Word count 1066