Poem
When I was born a girl, my mother said, "one day, she will grow up to be a doctor!"
Father said, "one day she will grow up to be someone great."
Today, father has long left for the mysterious afterlife, merging into the moist Earth.
Mother cries that I had never become her doctor.
During the period from 1839-1860, Ch’ing China faced the downfall of a dynastic cycle plagued by a dual threat, externally from the West and internally from the rebellions within the country. Thus in discussing the challenge from the West, we should be aware that at the same time rebellions seriously damaged the foundation of Ch’ing rule. The Taiping Rebellion nearly overthrew the imperial sovereignty by raging over sixteen provinces (out of eighteen in total) and more than 600 cities from 1850 to 1864; the Nien Rebellion devastated eight provinces from 1851 to 1868; the Moslem Rebellion spread in the Yunnan province from 1855-1873; the Tungan Rebellion in the northwest spread over Kansu, Shensi, Ningsia and Sinkiang provinces from 1862-1873;1 and another Moslem insurgence occurred in Sinkiang between 1864-1877. All these brought major disasters and not a little humiliation to China, including its ruler and people.
The response to the West
However, the Opium War from 1839 to 1842 occurred earlier than these domestic rebellions, which happened after 1850. Thus first we should review how Ch’ing China responded to the threat from the West. Basically we can perhaps divide this into two stages to consider, the first being the Opium War (the First Anglo-Chinese War of 1839-1842)2 and the second the Arrow War (the Second Opium War or the War of Anglo-French Allies against China in 1856-1860). It was clear that China chose the policy of 'combat'3 to resist Western expansion in the formative phase.
The Ch’ing court, political leaders in the government, and also scholars, could not imagine that China had any ability to confront the West. Some things were obvious to China, as
Father said, "one day she will grow up to be someone great."
Today, father has long left for the mysterious afterlife, merging into the moist Earth.
Mother cries that I had never become her doctor.
During the period from 1839-1860, Ch’ing China faced the downfall of a dynastic cycle plagued by a dual threat, externally from the West and internally from the rebellions within the country. Thus in discussing the challenge from the West, we should be aware that at the same time rebellions seriously damaged the foundation of Ch’ing rule. The Taiping Rebellion nearly overthrew the imperial sovereignty by raging over sixteen provinces (out of eighteen in total) and more than 600 cities from 1850 to 1864; the Nien Rebellion devastated eight provinces from 1851 to 1868; the Moslem Rebellion spread in the Yunnan province from 1855-1873; the Tungan Rebellion in the northwest spread over Kansu, Shensi, Ningsia and Sinkiang provinces from 1862-1873;1 and another Moslem insurgence occurred in Sinkiang between 1864-1877. All these brought major disasters and not a little humiliation to China, including its ruler and people.
The response to the West
However, the Opium War from 1839 to 1842 occurred earlier than these domestic rebellions, which happened after 1850. Thus first we should review how Ch’ing China responded to the threat from the West. Basically we can perhaps divide this into two stages to consider, the first being the Opium War (the First Anglo-Chinese War of 1839-1842)2 and the second the Arrow War (the Second Opium War or the War of Anglo-French Allies against China in 1856-1860). It was clear that China chose the policy of 'combat'3 to resist Western expansion in the formative phase.
The Ch’ing court, political leaders in the government, and also scholars, could not imagine that China had any ability to confront the West. Some things were obvious to China, as