Political

NAME: ULEBOR ESTHER ISIOMA.
PROGRAM: POLITICAL SCIENCE.
MATRIC. NO.: 11AI011605.
LEVEL: 300.
COURSE TITLE: REVOLUTION AND SOCIETY.
COURSE CODE: POS324.
LECTURER: MR GODWYN AGBUDE.
QUESTION: DISCUSS ANY OF THIS REVOLUTION.
1. RUSSIA REVOLUTION.
2. CUBA REVOLUTION.
3. ENGLISH REVOLUTION.

INTRODUCTION
One of the most significant single events in modern world history is undoubtedly the Russian Revolution of 1917. It cannot be compared to any revolution (preceding or following it) in its scope.
BACKGROUND
One of the most startling and far-reaching results of the First World War was the Russian Revolution. Not only did it affect the largest nation on earth, it also had a huge impact on the rest of the world, helping lead to both World War II and the Cold War following it. While World War I may have triggered this Revolution, its roots go much further back into its history and geography in two ways.
First of all, Russia's flat and open terrain made it vulnerable to invasions that forced the Russian Czars to develop a strong absolutist state in self-defense. Second, Russia's huge size, northerly location, and isolation from Europe kept Russia cut off from the mainstream of political, economic and technological developments taking place in Western Europe. Therefore, Russia's geography and history made it a slow moving, autocratic, and backward giant that was constantly falling behind the more advanced societies in the West.
This triggered a vicious cycle of reforms to catch up with the West, a conservative backlash against the reforms, Russia falling further behind the West, more reforms, and so on. Unfortunately, not all Russians felt the West was worth copying. This led to a conservative backlash that would wreck the reforms, causing Russia to fall further behind, and so on. Peter the Great in the early 1700's, Catherine the Great in the later 1700's, Alexander I in the early 1800's, and Alexander II in the mid 1800's' all tried, or at least espoused, the cause of reform which led to conservative backlashes and the cycle repeating. That struggle is still going on in Russia today.
By the 1890s Russians could no longer ignore the forces of industrialization transforming the rest of Europe and leaving it further and further behind. Therefore, reformers targeted Russia's repressive government that used secret police to track down socialist dissidents, its backward social structure that kept the peasants in virtual, if not legal, serfdom, and its equally backward economy just starting to industrialize. Two other factors also pushed Russia toward change. One was the rising popularity of socialism. A more immediate catalyst for change was Russia's humiliating defeat in a war with Japan (1903-5) that dramatized Russia's backwardness.
All this set off the Revolution of 1905, which took Czar Nicholas II by surprise and forced him to agree to both political and economic reforms. The main political reform was the establishment of a Duma (parliament), which attempted to turn the Czar's absolute government into a constitutional monarchy. However, once the revolution settled down, the czar did all he could to crush and eliminate the Duma. Nevertheless, the Duma, however limited in power, persisted in being a voice for reform even as political repression reasserted itself.
At the same time, substantial economic reforms were taking place. The Czar's chief minister, Peter Stolypin, pushed through reforms that distributed land to some two million peasants. This gave peasants an incentive to produce more, and, by World War I, 75% of Russia's crops were going to market, with 40% of those crops going abroad. This, combined with Russia's political repression, created a gap between its economic progress and political backwardness. All that was needed was a catalyst to trigger a full-scale revolution. That catalyst was World War I.
Many Russians, like other Europeans, greeted war jubilantly in 1914, sure that they would win a quick and glorious victory. In fact, Russia was poorly prepared for war. Its troops, although brave, were barely trained, poorly equipped (many not even having rifles), and incompetently led. Their war minister boasted of not having read a new book on military tactics in twenty-five years. As a result, Russian armies met with one disaster after another. Aggravating the situation was the Czar, Nicholas II, a weak willed man who was controlled by his wife, the Tsarina. She herself was German born and of suspect loyalty as far as many Russians were concerned. She was also under the spell of Rasputin, a drunken, semi-literate Siberian peasant posing as a monk. He did have the apparent ability to control the bleeding of the crown prince, who was a hemophiliac, along with an apparent hypnotic power over women. While scandal reigned at court (at least until Rasputin was murdered), Nicholas took personal command of the war effort, with catastrophic results.
CAUSES OF THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION
Various factors and forces led to the Russian Revolution of 1917.The economic factors were the main factors contributing to the Revolution, as they resulted in poverty, misery and exploitation of the masses by the nobility.
1. ECONOMIC FACTOR.
Russia was mainly a highly backward agricultural country before the revolution. The royal family, the nobility and the clergy owned most of the agricultural land. Only between three and ten acres of land was owned by 70% of the peasants. Many of them had to earn their livelihood only 2½ acres land or even less. In addition they had to use primitive tools, implements and methods of cultivation, which were not very productive.
Further, the poor peasants became poorer as they had to pay huge sums of rent and tributes to their landlords every year. This created great discontent among the farmers who were ready to revolt against the Czarist government, in order to end this economic and social system.

2. INDUSTRIAL FACTOR.
In the industrial sphere too, Russia was backward and depended only on foreign capital. The workers and laborers had to endure miserable working conditions. They received extremely low wages and worked for 12 to 14 hours a day. They had to go without any medical relief in case of an accident while on duty. They did not even have a weekly holiday. It was considered a crime to form trade unions. Moreover, the government did not attempt to improve these conditions. Instead, the Russian villages and cities suffered from poverty, dirt and disease caused by the exorbitant land revenue and the unbearably high taxes and levies.
3. SOCIAL FACTOR.
There was an imbalance in the social structure, owing to the above economic factors. As a result 70% of the Russian population was illiterate. The social structure of Russia was completely devoid of education, medical relief and public health. The masses being poor, hungry, diseased and ignorant were highly addicted to vodka, a very powerful intoxicant. Above all the system of flogging that prevailed in the whole of Russia made Russian social life, highly miserable, inhuman and wretched.
4. POLITICAL FACTOR.
Political factors also formed an important cause of the Russian Revolution of 1917. The masses had no legal means of improving the social structure. A strike was considered to be a mutiny. The people had no press to ventilate their grievances.The Czarist government was ruthless, absolute and repressive. On January 15, 1905, a peaceful demonstration led by Father Gapon at St. Petersburg was fired upon by the Czarist troops. The Duma (parliament) had limited powers. Franchise was not given to women, laborers and the common people. The growing discontent among the masses manifested itself in all aspects of national life. The working class became highly receptive to Marxist ideas infiltrating into Russia. In 1893, the Social Democratic Party was founded and in 1903, this party was split into two; the Bolsheviks led by Nikolai Lenin and the Mensheviks led by Martov. While the former was revolutionary and supported by Stalin, the latter was evolutionary and was supported by Trotsky.
5. RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR.
In the Russo-Japanese War of 1905, Russia, a giant state, received a crushing defeat at the hands of Japan, a very small Asian power. The people realized that the Russian defeat was due to the lack of a well-trained and a well-equipped army. Thus it became essential to end the Czarist regime. The Revolution of 1905 gave the people a good experience in popular uprisings, strikes, lockouts and violent demonstrations against the Czarist government. Thus this Revolution could be regarded as the dress rehearsal for the major upheaval that was to follow in the future. This upheaval would eventually revolutionize the nation in the social, economic and political spheres. Czar Nicholas II of Russia was under the influence of his Czarina Alexandra Fyodorovna. She in turn was under the sway of the wicked and notorious monk Rasputin, who claimed to have spiritual powers that could heal the young prince. The latter was suffering from an incurable disease. In order to please Rasputin, Czarina Alexandra used to interfere in the day-to-day administration of the state. Thus the ministers and high officials were appointed and dismissed on the careless advice of Rasputin, causing great discontent among the people. Though Rasputin was killed by the nobles in December 1916, the Czarinnobles in December 1916, the Czarina continued to influence the affairs of the state till the Revolution of 1917.
The social, economic, political and psychological conditions in Russia had become so vulnerable that it only required a spark to cause the revolution. World War I was responsible in setting the ball of revolution rolling in Russia. Acute shortage of ammunition, poor generalship, lack of factories, demoralized soldiers, a corrupt government and high treason at all ranks, created a crisis in the state. The entire national life of the state was paralyzed. The peasants and workers denounced the war and the Czarist government. They held demonstrations and went on an indefinite strike. The peasants attacked and killed the Kulaks (rich peasants) and seized their lands. The heavy losses in battles, undermined the morale of the soldiers, who deserted the front and joined the peasants, factory workers and sailors in the revolution that began on March 12, 1917.
THE COURSE OF THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION
During the year 1917, two revolutions took place in Russia. The February revolution of 1917 led to the defeat of Czarism, and a republic was established in its place. However the October Revolution of 1917 established the dictatorship of the proletariat (i.e. the laboring class).
The February revolution of 1917 began with the bread riots on February 23. This was followed by a general industrial strike on February 25, in Petrograd. The entire Petrograd garrison and the police, joined the revolution by February 27, and by the following day, Petrograd fell into the hands of the revolutionaries.
The February revolution was the spontaneous outbreak of a large number of workers and peasants. By February 27, two organizations came into existence namely the Provisional Committee of the Duma and the Provisional Executive Committee of the Petrograd Soviet of Workers’ Deputies. The latter that represented factory workers, social revolutionaries, Mensheviks and Bolsheviks was to guide the revolution.
The Czarist ministers were arrested on February 28, 1917 and Commissars were appointed in their place by the Provisional Committee of the Duma. The mutiny of the troops occurred on March 1, 1917. Though the Czar Nicholas II was forced to abdicate on March 2, 1917, all the members of the royal family remained under house arrest, until they were shot dead on July 16, 1918. This brought the Czarism in Russia to an end.
A provisional coalition government came into existence by March 3, 1917, under the premiership of Prince George Lvov. The Allied powers soon recognized the provisional government; it was considered the ’legal successor’ to the Czarist government.
However, an ever-increasing number of workers and soldiers came to recognize the Soviets of Workers’ and Soldiers. Thus a Dual Power was established by the revolution, namely the Provisional Government and the government of the Soviets of Workers’ and Soldiers’ Deputies. The latter was soon established in all cities, towns and districts. The first All -Russian Congress was announced by the end of March, 1917.
The brilliant leadership and the moving spirit of Lenin was responsible for the October Revolution in Russia. Under his leadership, the Bolsheviks criticized and exposed the shortcomings of the Provisional Government. A huge armed demonstration was held against the Provisional Government in Petrograd, on July 17, 1917. Prime Minister George Lvov was forced to resign. He was succeeded by Alexander Kerensky as the new Prime Minister.
However Kerensky’s new coalition Government soon grew unpopular. At the same time, the masses became attracted towards the Bolsheviks, whom they regarded as the true champions of the revolution. The Bolsheviks became the majority party in most of the Soviets by October 2. They formed the Military Revolutionary Committee under Leon Trotsky. Under this committee, the Red Guards were organized and commissars were procured to take charge of the Petrograd army units. Thus the complete allegiance of the Petrograd troops was secured.
On October 25, the Winter Palace, where the Provisional Government was in session under armed protection, was attacked by the Red Guards. All the ministers were arrested and killed. Since the October revolution was a deliberately planned coup d’état by Lenin and the Bolshevik controlled Petrograd Soviet, Lenin is rightly considered to be the Father of the Bolshevik Revolution.
According to the Constitution published and adopted on July 10, 1918, Russia was named as the Russian Socialist Federated Soviet Republic. While the Constitution of 1918 guaranteed certain basic rights to the exploited people, it also imposed some basic obligations on them. In 1922, the All-Russian Congress of Soviets created the Union of Soviet Socialist Republic.
In 1921, Lenin introduced the New Economic Policy (N.E.P) which was a blend of state socialism and state capitalism.
After Lenin’s death in 1924, there was a keen struggle between his lieutenants Leon Trotsky and Joseph Stalin, for taking his place. Stalin was successful in establishing his dictatorship in the party, as well as in the country.
Joseph Stalin then inaugurated an era of Five-Year plans in order to convert the weak, agrarian Russian economy into a powerful and stable industrial economy. He also attempted to get rid of the Kulaks, by mechanization and the collectivization of all the farms. Thus the First Five-Year Plan in 1928, the Second Five-Year Plan in 1933, and the Third Five-Year Plan in 1938, helped Stalin to realize his objectives completely. Owing to these Five-Year plans, the Soviet Union became the second most highly industrialized country by 1940. The Revolution also enabled the Soviet Union to emerge from World War II as the second super power; the first being the U.S.A. In 1936, Stalin gave a new constitution to the U.S.S.R, which provided for such features as a secret ballot and universal adult franchise.
CONSEQUENCES AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION
The Russian Revolution is regarded as one of the most remarkable events in human history since it set up a new way of living and thinking.
Dr. J.E. Swain has rightly commented, "Nothing has so completely challenged orthodox theories, since the French revolutionists overthrew the Bourbons. The Russians, in a few years, have set up standards for a new way of living and thinking."
The Russian Revolution brought to an end the Czarist regime. In its place a Republic was established.
The Revolution threw a challenge to the values of western culture, the fundamental principles of trade and industry, the well-established systems of government, the social, economic and political institutions and the methods of diplomacy. Thus the world was forced to re-evaluate the western values of democracy.
The Russian Revolution of 1917 was an event of international significance. It struck terror in the minds of the capitalists all over the world as the Revolution made an irresistible appeal to the proletarians. Therefore it was claimed that "The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a world to win. Working men of all countries, unite!" The Russian Revolution thus invited the laboring people all over the world to unite against the capitalist class. Thus a war was declared between totalitarian dictatorship and democratic socialism, between Marxism and capitalism.
The colonial people were awoken form their long slumber of ignorance. A new consciousness of their political rights against their imperialist masters had been injected into them. The revolution deeply affected the minds of millions in Asia and Africa; they were provided with a fresh weapon in the form of the principle of self-determination of all peoples.
The success of the Russian Revolution changed the character of the nationalist revolutions in the colonial world. They were given a new social and economic content.
In the political field, the cult of the ’common man’ was a major result of Soviet democracy. The proletariat regarded socialism as absolutely necessary to complete democracy and make it realistic. Countries like Albania, Bulgaria, Poland, Peking, China and Mongolia established proletarian dictatorship.
In the economic field, the conception of economic planning (Five-Year Plans) and the idea of central direction of the national economy with definite goals emerged from the Soviet Union. E.H. Carr declared, “If we are all planners now, this is largely the result, conscious or unconscious, of the impact of Soviet practice and Soviet achievement."
The Soviet economic planning was directed towards the realization of three well-defined social goals. Firstly, the promotion of the material and moral conditions of the proletariat; the realization of the social or the common good of society by and through society and finally the securing of equal social obligations and rights.
The Bolshevik Revolution divided the world into two diametrically opposed power blocs; one being the communist bloc led by the Soviet Union and the other being the anti-Communist bloc, under the leadership of the U.S. The Revolution of 1917 transformed a poverty-stricken Czarist Russia into a super power, under the guiding spirits of Lenin, Stalin and other leaders.
The Bolshevik Revolution is still going on. It continually demonstrates the values that transformed a backward and decadent state into a super power of the world, within the short span of sixty years. It attracts many more millions of Southeast Asia and the Middle East.
REFERENCE:
1. Tim McNeese (2005) Political Revolutions of the 18th, 19th, and 20th Centuries. USA: Chelsea House Publishers. Pp 233-285.
2. LinkedIn Corporation (2014), “Causes of Russia Revolution”. Retrieved on the 24th of March, 2014. From the website (http://www.slideshare.net).