Psychology

ARELLANO UNIVERSITY
Pasig City

College of Arts and Science
Psychology Department

LECTURE NOTES ON GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY (No. 1)
AY

I. Nature of Psychology A. Psychology - the term psychology derives from the Greek roots psyche, meaning “soul” or “mind,” and logos, meaning “word.” Psychology is literally the study of the mind or soul and people defined it that way until the early 1900s. Around 1920, psychologists became disenchanted with the idea of studying the mind. First, research deals with what we observe, and the mind is unobservable. Second, talking about “the mind” implies it is a thing or object. Mental activity is a process. It is not like the river but like the flow of the river, not like the automobile but like the movement of the automobile. Beginning in the early 1900s, psychologists defined their field as the study of behaviour. Psychology is the systematic study of behaviour and experience.

Science – is a branch of knowledge or study dealing with a body of facts or truths systematically arranged and showing the operation of general laws.

Behavior – as defined psychologically, refers to actions or activities of the individual as matters of psychological study. While behaviour most often refers to what is outwardly or overtly manifested, it may also mean those activities that are hidden or covert, those not visible to the naked eye.

B. Objectives or Goals of Psychology 1. To describe behaviour 2. To identify factors that help predict behaviour 3. To understand or explain behaviour by identifying causes that bring about certain effects 4. To control or change behaviour

C. Scope of Psychology

a. Greek Influence – Democritus believed that atoms from our environment enter through our sense organs enabling us to perceive the world around us. Plato said the mind or soul is distinct in its own right and is God given. The soul is composed of three parts – head exerts reasons, heart exerts noble impulses and the diaphragm (seat of our passions. According to Aristotle, our perceptions is the result of two processes (1) the use of medium (the air which fills space) and which affects our sense organs (2) ability of the form of the object to leave its substance and to pass directly to the perceiver. Galen contributed that differences in behaviour is attributable to the “humors” or vital juices of the body: blood, phlegm, black bile and yellow bile. Hence, he correspondingly named temperaments sanguine (cheerful), phlegmatic (sluggish), melancholic (sad) and choleric (irascible). b. Medieval period – St. Augustine introduced the use of introspection (the description of one’s own conscious processes) distinguished some faculties such as will, memory, imagination etc. c. Pre-Modern period – philosopher Rene Descartes formulated a theory of mind-body interaction. George Berkeley in his theory of knowledge said that ideas become the only reality. d. Scientific - it was in 1879 when Wilhelm Wundt, a German psychologist, founded his Psychological Laboratory at Leipzig, Germany which earned for Wundt the title of Father of Scientific Psychology. He first undertook the experimental approach. Cattell founded the psychological laboratory at the University of Pennsylvania, USA. In France, Philippe Pinel enlightened psychological interpretation of insanity. Alfred Binet started the first intelligence tests. In England, Charles Darwin published Origin of the Species and natural selection. In Germany, Max Wertheimer worked on the organization of mental processes.

D. Schools or Systems in Psychology

1. Structuralism – (Introspective or Elementarism) – headed by Edward Titchener, maintained that the task of psychology according to this group (a) analyze consciousness into its component elements (sensations, perception, thought processes) (b) to have the subject report it through his own sensory experiences through the method of introspection or mental self analysis. 2. Functionalism – William James, James Angell and Harvey Carr were the exponents of this school of thought. They held the view that it is not the “Structure” that should be of prime importance to the psychologist by the “function” of matter – the whole system of events between the S (stimuli) and the R (response). This group also believed in the objective method of observing behaviour rather than the introspective method of observing awareness. 3. Behaviorism – John Watson held the concept that the subject matter of psychology is behaviour and it aim is prediction and control of actual behaviour and not the “why but the how.” 4. Gestalt – translated as configuration, or form, pattern or organization. It thrived under the leadership of Max Wertheimer, Kurt Kofka, and Wolfgang Kohler stating that many aspects of perception cannot be interpreted singly as unitary aspects isolated from the component whole. They advocated phenomenology (a method of free introspection where we interpret stimuli in what is seen in relation to other aspects of the whole). 5. Psychoanalysis – Sigmund Freud believed that many desires are directed and complicated by unconscious motives which we are not directly aware of because they lie in the substrata of our consciousness but which are nevertheless powerful drives that dominate our lives. These desires are unacceptable wishes of childhood (sexual) repressed in our subconscious because they are socially unacceptable. 6. Purposivism – believed that man is dynamic, striving, purposeful and creative creature.... man’s behaviour cannot be adequately understood without considering his goals.

E. Specializations or Professions in Psychology a. Biopsychologist – relationship between brain and behaviour b. Clinical psychologist – emotional difficulties c. Cognitive psychologist – memory, thinking d. Community psychologist – organization and social structures e. Counseling psychologist – helping people make important decisions f. Developmental psychologist – changes in behaviour over age g. Educational psychologist – improvement of learning in school h. Environmental psychologist – how noise, crowding etc affect behaviour i. Industrial/organizational psychologist – people at work j. Personality psychologist – personality differences k. Psychometrician – measuring intelligence, personality, interests etc l. School psychologist – problems that affect schoolchildren m. Social psychologist – group behaviour, social influences II. Biological and Physiological Basis of Psychology
The study of man’s heredity and development is premised on the assumption that the “child is father of the man.” An assessment of behaviour most often has to date back to the early developmental years of the individual. Behavioral potentialities determine in part, the degree and kind of maturational sequences which are influenced by a multiplicity of factors in the environment. A. Heredity – is the transmission of genetic characters from parents to offspring. One’s genetic make-up for any characteristic comprises one’s genotype. How each genes will be manifested will depend upon the trait more dominant than the other. Dominant traits therefore, are those traits phenotype typically manifested. Gregor Mendel formulated the Three Mendellian Las of Heredity. (1) Law of Unit characters- that various characters are transmitted as distinct, individual entities (2) Law of Dominance - that if two contrasting traits in two purebred organisms are crossed, only one character will appear in the hybrid (either dominant, recessive or invisible trait) (3) Law of Segregation – that the characters segregate and recombine independently in each generation, in the crossing of hybrids, the dominant and the recessive traits being inherited in ratios worked out by Mendel in different instances which sometimes result in incomplete dominance. B. Maturation Process – Development – is a sequence of continuous change in a system, extending over a considerable time, specifically, such change or related and enduring particular changes as follows one another in an organism from its origin to maturity and death. Maturation – refers to the process of change (usually growth) of an individual which occurs primarily as a function of aging or time. I. Human Nervous System – is the complex arrangement throughout the body of highly specialized cells, the nerve cells or neurons, which act as a communication system, enabling the organism to respond to external and internal stimuli.
Three Mechanism of Behavior: a. Receiving mechanism – sense organs are sensitive nerve endings located in certain body parts: They are receptors of stimulus. Its attributes are: 2.1 sensitivity and irritability: the power to react to stimulus 2.2 conductivity: the power to conduct nerve impulses 2.3 specificity: the attribute of reacting to particular stimulus 2.4 adaptability: the power to become used to particular stimulus b. Reacting Mechanism
(a) the muscles and glands comprise this reacting mechanism. Functions of muscles are:
1.1 to lend shape to the body as the skeletal or voluntary muscles of the arms and legs do 1.2 to propel food and waste products along the intestinal pathway as smooth muscles in the digestive tract do 1.3 to control the flow of blood, automatically opening and closing the blood vessels in response to body needs 1.4 to generate heat (b) glands – are special secreting organs which pour their secretions either directly or indirectly into the bloodstream. Kinds of glands: 1.1 duct glands have ducts or canals thru which they pour out their secretions. These include lachrymal (tear) glands, sebaceous (sweat), salivary, gastric, sex, mammary glands 1.2 ductless or endocrine glands pour their secretions called hormones Directly into the bloodstream. c. Connecting Mechanism – the Nervous System A. Neuron – is the basic conducting unit of the nervous system. It has three parts: (a) dendrites – are specialized signal-receiving structure where the impulse (input) enters (b) cell body – which integrates input and output and the axon where the output is discharged (c) synapse – the functional conjuction between two neurons making conduction of nerve impulses continuous from one to the other. B. Level of Synaptic Connection – (a) simple reflexes are automatic responses to stimuli. (b) an instinct is a complex unlearned behaviour of a species set off by relatively simple stimuli. (c) the cortex level involves more neurons and many take more time before reaction or response takes place C. Stimulation and Homeostasis – the normal life of an organism is one of action, not of quiescence. There are internal sources of stimulation (digestion, respiration, etc) that go on and any new stimulus is received into a stream of activity which is integrated as a unit by the nervous system. Reflex activities take place in context form – varying between underactivity and over stimulation. Homeostasis is the tendency of the body to maintain its natural equilibrium. It is the body’s automatic protective device against overstimulation and stresses like in infection, nervous strain, physical injuries, excessive heat or cold or muscular fatigue. D. Nerve impulses – are the potential changes moving along a nerve fiber. A receptor is an energy converter such as it converts energy from the environment into chemical processes that in turn produce electrochemical nervous impulses. E. Division of the Human Nervous System: 1. Autonomic or Sympathetic NS: This system is so-called because many of its activities are “autonomous” or self regulating such as digestion and circulation, which go on even when a person is asleep or unconscious. It consists of tow antagonistic but integrated system – the a. Sympathetic system consists of nerves and ganglia in the cervical, thoracic and lumbar segments of gray matter. It is active in emotion – activating the organism in response to pain, anger, fear thru the controlled secretion of epinephrine(adrenalin). b. Parasympathetic system is composed of fibers from the crania region, some below the sympathetic system. This division acts or affects one organ at a time. If the sympathetic system is dominant in excited activity, the parasympathetic system tends to act in quiescent activity. 2. Cerebro-Spinal System – because the normal color of the neuron is gray and the myelin sheath in nervous fibers is white, we often refer to pathway as white matter and to centers as gray matter. The greater part of the cerebral mass is white matter. The brain and the spinal cord is protected by three meninges or membranes; the dura mater is the outer membrane lining the inner surface of the skull forming a protective covering for the brain. The arachnoid is the thin membrane beneath the dura matter which secretes a serious fluid keeping the inner surface moist, the pia matter is the membrane dipping to the convolutions, fissures and the interior and is rich in substances. a. The Central Nervous System – the brain

Cerebrum: for sense perception, voluntary movements, learning, remembering, thinking, emotion, consciousness, personality integration

Hypothalamus: control of visceral and somatic functions as temperature and metabolism

Thalamus: the way-station for impulses coming up the spinal cord to the cerebrum

Midbrain: a conduction and switching center, pupillary light reflex

Cerebellum: for muscle tone, body balance, coordination of voluntary movement

Medulla: has control over breathing, swallowing, digestion, heartbeat

Reticular Formation: for the arousal and alertness of the organism, the change from sleep to wakefulness, attention

Corpus Callosum: contains fibers connecting the two grain hemisphere

Brain Areas 1. Motor area: (in front of the fissure of Rolando). The body is represented in approximately upside-down form. Movements on the right side of the body originate thru stimulation of the left hemisphere 2. Body-sense area: (in the parietal lobe). The lower extremities are represented high on the area of the opposite hemisphere 3. Visual area: (in the occipital lobe) damage in the left hemisphere will result in blind areas in the left side of both eyes 4. Auditory area: both ears are totally represented on both sides so that loss of one temporal lobe has very little effect on hearing 5. Speech area: the motor-speech area (Broca’s speech area) controls the tongue and jaws. It is located in the right hemisphere of the left handed persons and vice versa- according to conventional interpretation. 6. Association area: (areas of the brain not accounted for) bring together phenomena involving more than one sense 7. Smell area: just below the frontal – near the temporal lobe 8. Taste area: located behind the central fissure at the lower part of the side of the brain b. Peripheral Nervous System – the peripheral NS is composed of the cranial nerves, the spinal nerves and the nerves of the autonomic NS.

III. Sensation and Perception
Sensation – is the simple experience that arises from the stimulation of the sense organ Sensory Processes 1. Vision – stimulus: light waves. The sun emits radiant energy or electromagnetic waves. If this enters the eyes, it becomes a visual stimulus. When light waves strike the retina nerve impulses are initiated and these impulses go to the occipital lobe of the brain via the optic nerves. Thus stimuli from the light portion of the retina go to the occipital cortex of the right cerebral hemisphere and vice versa. 2. Audition – stimulus: sound waves. Sounds are forms of energy activated when objects vibrate. The sound waves thus set up by these vibrating bodies are transmitted through the air and into the eardrum. 3. Chemical senses – a. Olfaction: stimulus: odors. The stimuli for olfaction are odors or gaseous particles which must stimulate the olfactory epithelium in order to be perceived. Henning’s Six Basic Odors: fragrant, fruity, spicy, putrid, resinous, burned. The stimuli for taste are soluble substances in the saliva. Taste receptors – the tongue. b. Gustation: stimulus: taste qualities. There are four known taste qualities: sweet, salty, sour and bitter. Often two or more primary tastes combine to make an entirely different taste. Each of the 10,000 taste buds has around 15-20 taste cells. These taste cells are continuously reproducing themselves at the rate of a complete turnover every seven days – so that even if you scaled your tongue while drinking hot broth, you soon regain your sense of taste again. c. Somesthesia or Skin Senses: pressure, touch, warmth, pain. There is not one skin sense but four different ones: pressure, touch, temperature (cold or warmth), pain. The specialized nerve endings in the skin serve the sensation of touch, pain, heat cold and deep pressure. Hence, the skin surface is not uniformly sensitive to stimulation- some areas being more sensitive than others. 4. Proprioceptive Senses – Kinesthesis and Vestibular Sense. Kinesthetis Sense – is the sensory system that tells us of position and movement of the parts of the body. This sense is found in three distinct places: muscles, tendons and joint linings. Vestibular sense – the equilibratory senses deal with total body position in relation to gravity and with motion of the body as whole. While kinesthesis deals with the relation of teh body parts to each other and to external objects, the equilibratory sense deals with the orientation of the body in space. The sense organs for equilibrium are located in the body labyrinth of the inner ear and in parts other than the cochlea. Perception – refers to the interpretation of a stimulus – as differentiated from the simple experience of a stimulation. Perception Process
Perception vs. Sensation - Integrated behaviour is dependent on the information received from the environment both external and internal. The reaction of a receptor to stimulation is termed sensation. Sensation does not result from the stimulation of a receptor alone but is a function of the brain (cerebral cortex) activated which receives the information. The interpretation of a stimulus is called
Perception. Humans vary in their ability to discriminate among the qualities of a given kind of sensation. The relation between the stimulation and the perception depends on many factors.

Characteristics of Perception 1. Limited to sensory discrimination 2. Perception is selective and subjective 3. Perception is constant 4. Perception has organizing tendencies which take several forms: grouping, figure-ground perception, contour, closure and apparent movement

Extra-Sensory Perception – it is perception without the stimulation, mediation of the senses. It includes clairvoyance, psychokinesis, precognition and telepathy.

Telepathy – is thought transmission from one mind to another, transfer of thoughts

Clairvoyance – is extrasensory awareness of objects, perception of objects or events that are not available to the senses such as ‘seeing’ the message inside a sealed envelope

Precognition – is foreknowledge of specific events without any rational means. This includes utterances accepted by many as coming from the deceased.

Psychokinesis – (PK) (mind over matter) includes mental operations that influence a material body or an energy system as for example, influencing the roll of dice, ability to influence movement of material bodies IV. Consciousness
Conscious – when we can perceive our environment, our own thoughts and feelings and those of others and when we can describe these perceptions to them. William James describes the function of consciousness as a selecting agency. He says that it enables us to cope with conditions that require us to choose among a wide variety of stimuli. One of the tools for monitoring brain activity is the electroencephalograph. It is an electronic device for detecting he spontaneous electrical activity of the brain.

Consciousness – as a state or quality of being aware of internal though processes or of external objects, states or facts.

Two basic modes of consciousness: passive or receptive states and active, productive states.

Sleeping – falling near one end of the range of consciousness is a state called -hour sleep. It is essentially important to us because our mental and physical functioning can deteriorate if we go without it for extended periods. Our periods of sleep and wakefulness are regulated in accordance with external events such as changes in light and darkness and cover a basic 24-hour activity cycle. This is called the “circadian rhythm” circa meaning around and dia meaning day. It involves daily cyclical changes in body temperature, blood pressure, hormonal secretions etc.

Stages of Sleep 1. Stage 1 – as an individual who is awake relaxes by closing his eyes, characteristically brain waves known as alpha waves show a regular pattern 2. Stage 2 – as he drifts into the first stage of sleep, the brain waves become less regular and manifest reduced amplitude with little or no alpha waves 3. Stages 3 and 4 – are characterized by slow waves called delta waves. At these stages, we may find it difficult to awaken the sleeper though he may be aroused by something personal 4. Stage 5 – rapid eye movement (REM) sleep where dreams are common

Altered States of Consciousness could be produced with effort through drugs, meditation, hypnosis

Meditation – people commonly report feeling deeply relaxed, free from stresses, and refreshed through meditation. All types of mutation involve concentrating on something. Active techniques such as yoga, transcendental meditation and relaxation response

Hypnosis – the hypnotic state is induced by asking the subject to concentrate on something – an object, a thought or someone else’s words and then to relax. As he continues to relax, he yields control of himself. Eventually, he seems to be in a trance-like state where he acts or feels in the manner prescribed by the hypnotist.

Drugs – as any substance, other than food, whose chemical action alters the structure or functioning of the body

Classification of Drugs 1. Stimulants – drugs that pop people up and give a pleasant high ex like caffeine, amphetamine (shabu) 2. Narcotics – they kill pain, anxiety and give a pleasant high ex cocaine, heroin 3. Hypnotics and sedatives – these drugs depress the activity of the brain and cause drowsiness and sleep ex barbiturates, alcohol, Sleeping pills 4. Tranquilizers – are prescribed for nervous tension or anxiety 5. Hallucinogenic – they produce distortions of perceptions accompanied by altered feelings and moods ex LSD, marijuana V. Learning

Learning – as a more or less permanent modification of behaviour which results from activity, special training an observation. Hilgard says that learning is a relatively permanent change of behaviour. Steps in the Learning Process 1. Motivation – a response to any particular stimulus will be directly proportional to the relative strength of his motive to reduce his tension associated with the unsatisfied need 2. Goal – behaviour being purposive, is oriented towards a goal. What will determine whether or not a person will strive towards a goal is the perceived probability of success. 3. Readiness – depends on training and experience as well as heredity 4. Obstacle – its presence is occasion for learning new modes of adjustment. It maybe social, personal or internal 5. Responses – are varied according to one’s interpretation of the situation 6. Reinforcement – responses are reinforced if they satisfy one’s needs. These responses are liable to be repeated. 7. Generalization – the application of what one has learned into an integrated response in consonance with what one has previously learned is part of the generalization

Viewpoints of the Learning Process 1. Associative learning (habit formation) a. Classical conditioning – (stimulus substitution) is the method of substituting another stimulus for an original one to elicit a response. b. Operant conditioning – is learning where the organism must “operate on” or do something to the environment in order to produce a result. Unlike classical conditioning where the animal passively waits and still be reinforced in this type of learning, the animal must be active in order to be reinforced. c. Escape and Avoidance learning – are forms of operant conditioning that uses negative rather than positive types of reinforcement. Escape learning is to get away or to eliminate an unpleasant situation. d. Multiple-response learning is the acquiring of patterns or sequences of responses in mastering a task ex in learning a skill or memorizing a poem involving sensorimotor tasks and rote memorization. It is a kind of learning involving more than one identifiable act, with the order of events usually fixed by the demands of the situation. 2. Cognitive learning – is learning which involves perception and knowledge – cognitive processes necessary in order to learn with understanding. a. Perceptual learning – (insight learning) is learning involving change in perception in which the learner comes to know something about the stimulus situation that he did not know before. Ex. When you piece together a toy. b. Sign learning – involves the perception of a stimulus that gives rise to the expectation that if a particular kind of behaviour follows the perceived stimulus, another stimulus would appear. It is learning of “what leads to what.” (if i see this and i do that, then such and such will happen). Ex. Store of food we haven’t been before c. Programmed learning – is a method of self-instruction consisting of frames (a series of short steps) and responses. It uses instructional materials in which you work at your own rate, make active responses to a step-by-step program and get immediate knowledge of results.

Theories of Learning 1. Connectionism or the SR Bond Theory (Thorndike) – it assumes that thru conditioning, specific responses come to be linked with specific stimuli. These links, bonds or connections are products of a biological change in a new system. Thorndike believes that the chief way in which SR connections are formed are thru random trial and error.
Stimulus – any change in physical energy that activates a receptor
Response – any muscular or glandular process or reaction which is elicited by a stimulus 2. Behaviorism (Watson) according to this theory learning is a process of building conditioned reflexes thru the substitution of one stimulus for another. It blatantly denies the existence of instinct or of inborn tendencies. 3. Functionalism – this theory states that behaviour and mental processes are adaptive (functional) ex they enable an individual to adjust to a changing environment. 4. Gestalt – explains learning in terms of modifications that take in response to meaningful patterns or configurations. Learning takes place thru the reorganization of old terms permitting one to grasp significant relationships in the new problem. When these relationships are perceived, the learner is said to have achieved insight into the problem.

Improvement of Learning 1. Drive and motivation 2. Positive transfer of learning 3. Immediate feedback 4. Meaningfulness of material 5. Duration of practice 6. Part vs. whole method 7. The use of mnemonic devices or memory aids 8. The number of senses involved 9. Active participation in the learning task 10. Some degree of over learning

VI. Memory and Forgetting

Memory – is the function involved in reliving past experience, the totality of past experiences which can be remembered and a specific past experience.

The learning process implies a certain degree of retention or remembering. The Kinds of Remembering are: 1. Redintegration – it is to re-establish an earlier experience on the basis of partial cues ex song of first dance 2. Recall – is simple revival of pat experience. 3. Recognition – involves more recognizing someone or something as familiar. 4. Relearning – involves more rapid learning than before on the basis of some retention from earlier learning.

Forgetting – is the loss of ability to recall, recollect or reproduce what has been previously learned.

Causes of Forgetting 1. Passive decay through disuse. This theory assumes that forgetting takes place through the passage of time. It assumes that learning leaves a trace in the brain or nervous system – the memory trace which involves some sort of physical change. 2. Systematic distortion of memory traces. This theory also assumes changes in memory traces. Te orderly changes in reproducing things from memory can be attributed to spontaneous changes in the memory traces. 3. Interference effects (retroactive or proactive inhibition) retroactive inhibition refers to a loss in retention as the result of new learning which acts as back up and inhibits the traces of older learning while proactive inhibition refers to similar inhibitory effects which occur when the interpolated material is placed ahead of the materials to be learned. 4. Motivated Forgetting – the psychoanalytic school attribute forgetting to motivational factors, including amnesia which is the complete forgetting of one’s personal past and to repression, which is the forgetting of material that is psychologically painful or inconsistent with the individual’s evaluation of the self. VII. Motivation and Emotions

Motivation – stands for the underlying force impelling behaviour and giving it direction. It implies active, integrated and directed behaviour. When we speak of motivation therefore, we may refer both to the energy expended in goal seeking or to the internal or external factors which help initiate and maintain organized effort.

Functions of Motives 1. Activates the individual 2. Leads, Guides, and regulates behaviour 3. Determines which responses will satisfy the needs and lead to the incentive

Kinds of Motives 1. Physiological – need for food, water, sleep and rest, activity, shelter and proper temperature, sex, pain drives, maternal drives 2. Psychological – need for affection, need to belong, achievement, self esteem, social recognition, independence 3. Conscious vs unconscious – conscious refer to those feelings and thought within the awareness of the individual and unconscious motives are those which the individual is unable to symbolize into thought s and feelings. A large part of an individual’s unconscious is made up of thoughts repressed from consciousness. Freud believed that unconscious motives play powerful roles in human behaviour. These repressed wishes in our unconscious are manifested however in behaviour like dreams, slips of speech, psychosomatic illnesses

Theories of Motivation and Learning 1. Humanistic psychology and motivation – theory of Abraham Maslow. His theory is helpful in understanding the variety of pupil motives, their emergence and their interrelationships. There are five basic types of needs in Maslow’s theory: physiological, safety, love and belonging, esteem and self actualization. 2. Cognitive psychology and motivation – it is presented by Jerome Bruner’s theory called Discovery Learning. Bruner stated that any attempt to improve education inevitably begins with motives for learning. It involves the rearrangement and transformation of material in a way that leads to insight. 3. Need Achievement Theory and Motivation – as defined by Murray is the need to organize objectives, people, events or ideas in such a way as to control and master them. It is important that the way of doing this be carried out smoothly, independently and with excellence. Self regard is enhanced by successfully using his abilities especially in difficult tasks. 4. Attribution theory and motivation – the motivational theory that assumes people want to know the causes of their behavior is called the attribution theory. Weiner’s theory rests on Three basic assumptions a. People want to know the causes of their own and other’s behaviour, particularly those that are important to them b. They do not randomly assign causes to their behaviour c. The causes that individuals assign to behaviour influence their subsequent behavior 5. Behavioral psychology and motivation – according to Skinner, behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences. He believed that motivated behaviour results from the consequences of similar previous behaviour. If students obtain reinforcement for certain behaviour, they tend to repeat it with vigor, if they don’t, students tend to lose interest and their performance suffers. 6. Social Cognitive Learning and Motivation – Albert Bandura in his Social Learning theory, combined both cognitive and behavioristic elements in his explanation of motivation. The social approach to the study of motivation emphasizes the extent to which people affect other people. Observations of models can produce some significant changes in student’s behaviour. Observing models helps in the acquisition of new responses, strengthens or weakens.

Emotion – is derived from the Latin verb “emoverse” meaning “to stir-up or to move.” Emotions are affective states involving a high level of activation, visceral changes and strong feelings. Most definitions involve the following concepts: 1. An experience characterized by a strong degree of feeling and characterized by marked motor expression 2. A peculiar conscious state during which pleasantness or unpleasantness is predominant 3. The sum total of experiences during a period in which marked bodily feelings take place 4. A dynamic expression of an instinct which may emanate from conscious or unconscious sources Feeling – are affective states which are very subjective, these are physiological changes which can be observed scientifically Moods – are mild emotions which last longer and are more temporary in nature Temperament – is an emotional level characteristic of a person like cheerful or grouchy Preferences – are the mildest form of affective states and concern dislikes or likes

Functions of Emotions 1. Motivates one in the learning process 2. Enriches the actions of individuals 3. Releases tension and energy 4. Achieves importance. Emotions reveal expressions that may not otherwise be expressed through words 5. Inspires individuals to heights of glory, creativity and ambition 6. Accentuates the character traits of people so that conjunctive emotions like sympathy and joy join us with people 7. Determines the direction that behaviour will take 8. Affects many bodily processes either quickening or disrupting certain behaviour patterns.

Theories of Emotion 1. JB Watson found three primary emotions present in a newborn infant, fear, rage and love. Watson believed that these primary emotions become modified as they are conditioned to other stimuli. 2. James-Lange theory stated that the impulse to act is the cause and not the result of the emotion. Upon seeing a snake, we do not run because we are afraid, but are afraid because we can run. This theory is just like putting the cart before the horse 3. Cannon’s Thalamic Theory viewed emotions as emergency reactions mobilizing the organism for crucial situations. He identified the hypothalamus as the center for emotions. It states that the incoming impulses from the situation activates the emotion through the thalamus, this impulse goes to the cortex where the intellectual aspects are integrated and to the viscera and to the muscles. 4. Central theory or somatic theory attributes to the cerebral cortex the phenomena of emotion. It says that emotions come after thinking. 5. Dana-Canon theory states that emotion and thinking come at the same time. This means that nerve impulses activate the neural mechanisms and the diencephalon at the same time in their paths to the brain cortex. 6. Hedonistic theory states that the pleasantness and unpleasantness of various emotional states are the essence of the emotion and these feelings distinguish one emotion from other kinds of states. 7. Activation theory states that behaviour can be aroused to different degrees, varying on a continuum from deep sleep to excited, emotional states. Its primary interest s the relative energy as opposed to the direction that emotional states give to behaviour 8. M. Arnold theory states his belief that too much attention has been focused on the expression of emotion rather than on the perceptual analysis of the situation. Thus, if you cry upon reading bad news from a letter, the tears you shed must be based on the judgment of the contents of the letter.

Effects of Emotions 1. Galvanic skin responses 2. Blood changes in pressure, volume and composition 3. Respiration or breathing cycle changes 4. Pupillary responses 5. Salivary gland secretion is impeded 6. Muscle tension and tremor 7. Pilomotor responses or goose pimples 8. Gastrointestinal motility 9. Metabolic rate increase 10. Glandular activity increases (urinalysis or blood analysis)

VIII. Intelligence

Intelligence – is a general capacity of an individual to adjust his thinking to new requirements, it is a general mental adaptation to new problems. It is the ability to learn in terms of abstract ideas.

Intelligence is an aggregate of relatively independent attitudes as a a. Verbal comprehension b. Word fluency c. Skills in numerical computation d. Perceptual speed and accuracy e. Associative memory f. Spatial visualization g. Mechanical reasoning

Theories of Intelligence 1. Binet and Simon – were commissioned to construct a test that would assess the intellectual level of French school children. They developed a scale around a theoretical framework involving three conceptions of the nature of intelligence a. The goal direction of the mental processes involved b. The ability to show adaptable solutions c. The capacity to show selectivity of judgment and self criticism of choices
Binet and Simon assume that intelligence grows or develops in parallel with the child’s chronological age. This means that the child is able to do test items that 50 to 75% of seven year old children can pass 2. Spearman’s Two-Factor Theory - Spearman assumes that there are two kinds of ability: a general ability which he defines as the ability to deduce abstract relationships (G) and a specific ability (s). G is common to all intellectual tasks while s is specific to a given task and therefore of less value than the former. Thus, there is only one G but there are many s’s. 3. Spearman’s Theory of Intelligence - he is able to explain the fact that people who show ability in one intellectual undertaking also exhibit abilities along other lines. This theory supports the general intellectual ability concept of Binet and Simon. In his latter studies, Spearman proposed the existence of additional general factors such as p, o and w which stand for preservation, oscillation and will, respectively. He says that preservation represents the inertia of the individual’s supply of mental energy and oscillation the extent to which it fluctuates from time to time. W on the other hand, represents will, a motivational personality factor that enters into the taking of intelligence tests. 4. Thurstone’s Weighted Group Factor Theory - L.L. Thurstone, believes in the organization of mental abilities in terms of group factors. He conceives these factors as correlation clusters. These are seven primary mental abilities: Verbal, Number, Spatial, Perceptual Speed, Memory, Reasoning, Word Fluency 5. Raymund B. Cattell’s Theory - is also a product of factor analytic techniques. It is an extension of the Spearman and the Thurstone analyses. Cattell says that Spearman and The Thurstone’s techniques provide evidence of two fundamental types of intelligence, crystallized intelligence and fluid intelligence. Fluid is a capacity for insight into complex relationship. Crystallized is a combination of acquired knowledge and developed intellectual skills. 6. Guilford’s Theory – Guilford who analyzed and separated the facets of intelligence into subcategories namely: content (type of material), operations (basic intellectual processes of thinking used by individuals) and products (results of performing operations on content). There ae four basic varieties of content which are figural (concrete material as perceived through the senses) symbolic (letters, digits and other conventional signs), semantic (verbal meanings of ideas) and behavioural ( knowledge regarding other persons).

The next broad dimension of intelligence is operations. This consists of Five Areas: a. Cognition (discovery rediscovery, and recognition of information or understanding) b. memory (retention, or the ability to bring forth information learned previously) c. convergent production. (searching for a “correct” solution to a problem) d. divergent production ( searching for multiple, creative, or novel solution to a problem) e. evaluation. (placing a value judgment upon knowledge and thought)

The last broad dimension of intelligence as expounded by Guilford is a products consisting of a. units ( production or a single word definition or isolated bit of information b. classes (production of a concept or noting of similarities) c. relations (production an analogy, an opposite, or other form of relationship) d. systems (production of an internally consistent set of classifications of various forms of content) e. transformations (production of a change of meaning, arrangement or organization) f. implications. (productions of information beyond the data given) 7. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence – Robert Sternberg’s triarchic theory is a three part theory that includes componential, experiential and contextual intelligence. a. Componential – reflects the persons verbal reasoning ability. It is the type of ability that is the focus of the traditional theories which are measured by standard intelligence tests and are necessary for acquiring new information and thinking critically about them b. Experiential – is the type that enables people to adjust creatively and effectively to new tasks and situations. c. Contextual – enables people to select environments in which they can function, to adjust to those environments and to modify them if necessary. 8. Theory of Multiple Intelligences – according to Gardner, there are 8 types of intelligences: a. Linguistic - it includes syntax, semantics and pragmatics, as well as more school-oriented skills such as written or oral expression and understanding b. Logical-mathematical – includes deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning, computation and the like c. Spatial – entails the capacity to represent and manipulate spatial, configurations. d. Bodily-kinesthetic – refers to the ability to use all or part of one’s body to perform a task or fashion a product. e. Musical – includes pitch discrimination the ability to hear themes in music... f. Intrapersonal – refers to a person’s understanding of self. g. Interpersonal – entails the ability to understand other individuals –their actions and their motivations. h. Naturalistic – refers to the ability to appreciate nature and to interconnect oneself with God’s creation.

Measurement of Intelligence

Terman adopted the concept of intelligence quotient or IQ. The test items are scaled for age. This means that during the construction of the test, the questions were given to a large sample of children at various ages and it was observed at what age children tended to be able to answer an item correctly. The questions were then ordered according to age, and each is worth so many months of mental age. The test and the scoring system are so designed such that the average six year old child would correctly answer enough problems to yield a mental age of 72 months. In this case, since the mental age is 72 we divide it by the chronological age (72) and finally multiply it by 100, obtaining an IQ of 100 thus,

IQ = MA (100) = 72 (100) = 100 ___ ___ CA 72

Classification or Distribution of Intelligence IQ Verbal Description Percent Adults | Above 130 Very Superior 2.2 120-129 Superior 6.7 110-119 Bright Normal/Above Average 16.1 90-109 Average 50 80-89 Dull Normal/Low Average 16.1 70-79 Borderline/Below Average .67 Below 70 Defective/Extremely Low 2.2 | IX. Personality

Personality – is taken from the Latin term Persona meaning “masks” which were first used in Greek drama, and later adopted by Roman players. It is the totality of one’s physical or inherited attributes as well as those psychological factors that determine one’s characteristic behaviour. Hence personality involves characteristics like physical, mental, emotional, social, moral and spiritual.

Factors in Personality Development 1. Inherited predisposition 2. Abilities 3. Family and home environment 4. Culture

Theories of Personality 1. Type theories or constitutional type a. William Sheldon – based his theory on the three layers of tissue in the human embryo: endomorphy – tends to towards a roundness, heaviness and a preponderance of visceral development, mesomorphy – tends towards stockiness and good muscular development, ectomorphy – tends towards a long, stringy, skinny body b. Sheldon – believes that he has found evidence that the three basic bodily builds are related to three primary temperaments like: visceratonia – love of physical comfort, enjoys companionship, eating, deep sleep, somatotonia – assertiveness, love of adventure, need and enjoyment of exercise, love or risk, physical courage, indifference to pain, cerebrotonia – restraint in posture, overly fast reactions, hypersensitivity to pain, avoidance of social contacts 2. Behavior a. Carl Jung – classified personality types according to the following: extrovert – tendency to direct the personality outward rather than inward toward the self, introvert – orientation inward toward the self. 3. Physiology or body chemistry a. Hippocrates and Galen – laid the foundation for the doctrine of temperaments based on the humors of the body. Yellow bile - choleric (quick strong, easily angered), blood – sanguine (quick weak, warm hearted, pleasant, black bile – melancholic (suffers from depression, sadness), phlegm – phlegmatic ( listless and slow)
4. Trait – consistency of behaviour can be described in terms of a number of traits
a. Gordon Allport – distinguished two kinds of traits: common traits – traits comparable by comparing one with another according to preferred values, personal dispositions – traits unique for the person. b. Raymund Cattell – he defines personality in terms of “what a person will do in a given situation” and believes that prediction can be achieved by the identification and measurement, through objective tests and rating scales, of those traits which lie at the source of the behaviour patterns which up personality.
5. Developmental
a. Sigmund Freud – three basic aspects of personality: id - repository of unconscious wishes, ego – mediator between the demands of the id and the outer forces of reality, superego – corresponds to one’s conscience.
b. Erick Erickson – says that the child faces a wider range of human relations grows up and has specific problems to be faced with each stage. How well the child resolves these will determine how adequately he will become and how able he will be coping with the new problem.
6 Learning a. Karen Horney – social influences like criticism, coldness, indifference, which the child deals with in certain ways forming a pattern of “neurotic needs.” The neurotic need for affection panxiety by running to mother for affection and approval b. Alfred Adler – said that because we strive for superiority, we are always seeing ways in which we fall short of our aspirations and hence, ways in which we are influenced we then compensate by striving hard to overcome this inferiority

Ways of Improving Personality 1. Self appraisal 2. Effective regulation of emotional life 3. Social relations 4. Love and sex 5. Self 6. Philosophy of life

X. Stress and Coping

Some stress is necessary for normal functioning. When life is peaceful and quiet for too long, people become bored and they seek excitement. But stress that is too intense or prolonged can have destructive physiological and psychological effects. According to Hans Selye, stress results when the body’s normal homeostatic mechanisms fail to provide the body with sufficient means to adapt to the demands made on it. When stress occurs, there is a widespread bodily reaction called the general adaptation syndrome, the general mobilization of the body’s resources. The three stages of the GAS are as follows: 1. The alarm reaction state 2. Stage of resistance 3. Stage of exhaustion

Sources of Stress 1. Biological deprivation 2. Danger 3. Threats to self esteem 4. Overload 5. Crises and stresses that accompany normal social and personal development

Coping – is an active effort to eliminate or to get rid of stress. The behaviour that you use to deal directly with stressful situations is called a coping strategy. Coping may take any of the following forms: 1. Direct action 2. Avoidance 3. Prediction 4. Use of defense mechanism

Ways of Coping/Behavior Modificantion in a Stress-filled World 1. Accomplish something 2. Watch your health 3. Go out and socialize 4. Always think positive 5. Learn to prioritize 6. Discuss, communicate 7. Seek help 8. Pray