Richard Milhous Nixon Summary
A. TIMELINE OF KEY EVENTS PRIOR TO THE SECOND TERM OF NIXON
1968
November 5 – The Presidential Nominee of the Republican Party Richard Milhous Nixon is elected president over Vice-President Hubert Humphrey.
1969
January 1 – Richard Milhous Nixon is sworn into office as the 37th President of The United States at the U.S. Capitol Hill in Washington D.C. In his inaugural address, he stated that “The greatest honor history can bestow is the title of peacemaker. This honor now beckons America.”
January 25 – Paris Peace Negotiations began with the attendance of U.S., South Vietnam, North Vietnam and the National Front for the Liberation of Vietnam (commonly referred as Viet Cong)
February – Nixon begins his first foreign trip, visiting several countries including the Great Britain, Germany, France, The Vatican and also NATO in Brussels. Mr. President addresses to the European Parliamentarians, before addressing the Congress for the first time. During the 8-day tour, Nixon takes up the issues of Vietnam War and the Eastern Block, in addition to enhancing transatlantic relations.
March 14 - Nixon calls …show more content…
Congress’ support to authorize funds for a modified antiballistic missile (ABM) system.
March 17 - Nixon’s Vietnamization strategy commenced with the Operation Menu in 1969. In the early morning, secret bombings were carried out in Cambodia. The aim of the attack was the destruction of North Vietnamese supply routes and base camps; bombing lasted until August 1973. The exact number of casualties remains unknown.
April 18 – After a shoot down incident which occurred on April 15, President orders that survey flights off of North Korea be resumed. April 30 - Nixon asks authorization of Congress in order to reinforce federal aids to states.
May 14 - Nixon proposes a plan whereby the United States and North Vietnam would agree to withdraw forces from South Vietnam.
June 8 - Nixon meets with Republic of Vietnam President Nguyen Van Thieu on Midway Island and subsequently announces his plan to reduce the number of American soldiers in South Vietnam by twenty-five thousand by August 31. The phased withdrawal was planned to occur in 14 stages. The first evacuation was realized when 800 men from the 9th Division were sent home.
June 28 - The Stonewall Riots in
New York City marked the start of the modern gay rights movement in the United States.
(Image 1: Stonewall Uprising in New York)
July 20 – Apollo 11 landed on the moon. As the mankind’s first steps on the moon were taken by the American Astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin, President Nixon made the longest long distance phone call of the history.
June 25 – Mr. President stressed out the “Guam Doctrine” signaling the era where American troops in Vietnam are decreasing and the Southeast Asian states would be responsible for their security.
August 8 – In his first address to the nation on domestic policy, President announces his program for welfare reform and Family Assistance Plan which promises direct payments for the poor. Although it was remarked as one the most progressive social programs, Family Assistance Plan, which later failed due to conservative objections in the Senate Finance Committee.
August 15 - White Lake, New York hosted The Woodstock Music and Art Fair for the first time. With its more than five hundred thousand attendees, Woodstock was a significant event for the history and become a tradition later on.
October 29 – Students were affected by the struggle of community and racial imbalances between school districts. To force hold out schools to end the practice of segregation, The Supreme Court ordered school integration “at once” in case of Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education
November 3 – North Vietnam rejected the peace offers. Outlining his Vietnamization policy, President Nixon proposed a plan to withdraw gradually all troops. According to this plan, U.S would withdraw its forces but keep providing financial assistance and appliance to South Vietnam leaving the burden of fighting to the locals. In his remarkable speech, President asked the public for the support of the “silent majority” to honorably end the war.
November 24 - Nixon signed the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons Treaty.
1970
January 1- Several environmental initiatives such as the Clean Air and Clean Water Acts, the Mammal Marine Protection Act were transferred into practice and the Environmental Protection Agency was created when the President signed the National Environmental Policy Act.
March 24 - The administration declared their will to end de jure segregation in elementary and secondary schools.
April 1 - Nixon signed the Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act, which banned cigarette advertisements on television in the United States from January 1, 1971 on.
April 30 – President declared the invasion of Cambodia on national television. The announcement which indicated American involvement in Vietnam would expand, set off a massive wave of antiwar protests.
May 4 – National Guards fired on demonstrators and four students protesting the Invasion of Cambodia were killed in Kent, Ohio.
May 9 – One hundred thousand people march in Washington, D.C., against the Vietnam War.
July 20 - Nixon stated that the United States would accept a fairly elected coalition government in Vietnam if it was chosen in an open election.
July 23- Nixon authorized the plan for an Interagency Committee on Intelligence to conduct operations aiming domestic targets.
August 12 - Postal Reorganization Act which organized an independent United States Postal Service was signed and approved.
September 18 – President Nixon and Israeli Prime Minister Golda Meir were convened to talk about the situation in the Middle East.
October 7 – President Nixon announced a five-point peace initiative for Indochina including a “cease-fire” and withdrawal of U.S. troops, in a televised address.
December 29 - The Occupational Health and Safety Act of 1970 was put into force which gave the secretary of labor the responsibility of setting workplace safety standards for jobs in the United States.
1971
January 4 - On an interview, Nixon stated that he is a “Keynesian.”
February 16 – The Oval Office and the Cabinet Room were outfitted with taping systems. April 24 – Antiwar protests took place in both
Washington D.C., and San Francisco against Vietnam War.
(Image 2, 3: Posters of the Demonstrations of April 24)
May 18 - Wage-Price Controls Bill which extended the authority of the President to impose limitations on wages, prices, salaries, and rents was signed by President.
June 10 – President quietly terminated the trade embargo with People’s Republic of China in order to normalize relations after more than decades.
July 9 - National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger visited Beijing, People’s Republic of China, and met with Prime Minister Zhou Enlai in order talk the terms on an agreement for a future visit of the President.
July 12 – President announced the entry into force of the Emergency Employment Act, which has the capacity of $2.25 billion of public service jobs at state and local levels.
July 15 – President declared that he has been invited to People’s Republic of China. After two decades of isolation and hostility, President Nixon was planning to visit China; this situation made a strong impact on public.
August 15 – President declared the first phase of his economic program as a 90-day freeze on wage and prices under the roof of the Economic Stabilization Act which ended the gold standard and the Bretton-Woods system of fixed exchange rates.
September 3 – U.S., the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and France signed The Quadripartite Agreement in Berlin. With this agreement trade and travel relations between West Berlin and West Germany and communications between East Berlin and West Berlin were established for the first time, East-West tensions were decreased and further cooperation was allowed.
October 12 – Moscow and Washington jointly announced Nixon’s visit to Soviet Union, three months after his return from People’s Republic of China.
November 22- December 16 – Following the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, power balances were once again controversial. Soviet Union was supporting India in the conflict, and the United States and the People’s Republic of China were both supporting the Pakistan.
December 22 - Nixon extended the Economic Stabilization Act, allowing himself another year in which to right the economy.
1972
January 7 - Nixon announced his candidacy for renomination and reelection.
February 21-27 – Mr. and Mrs. Nixon and Henry Kissinger arrived in People’s Republic of China. Nixon became the first American President visited the China and he remarked his visit by saying “This was the week that changed the world”. U.S. and the People’s Republic of China issued a joint communiqué in which the U.S withdrawal from Taiwan and improvements of relations between countries were agreed upon.
April 3 - Nixon signed the Par Value Modification Act, devaluing the dollar.
May 8 – President stated on national television, that he has ordered the bombing and mining in the North Vietnam.
May 21-27 – In his historic visit to the Soviet Union, Nixon signed the agreement on the limitation of strategic arms (SALT) with Leonid Brezhnev as one of the key achievements of his presidency.
June 17 – Four men broke into the Democratic Headquarters in Washington, D.C.’s Watergate Hotel. Police seized them with wiretapping materials and 2.300 US Dollar in cash.
August 23 - Richard Nixon accepted the nomination of the Republican National Convention for President.
August 29 – Nixon declared that no one, in the administration, or anyone “presently employed” was involved in the Watergate burglary.
October 30 - Nixon signed sixty bills, one of them subsidizing a budget of more than $5 billion for the benefit of the aged, blind, and disabled individuals while another bill increased the Social Security taxes.
November 7 – Richard Nixon won 49 out 50 states and more than sixty percent of the popular vote in the Presidential elections which was an unprecedented election result in American history. Meanwhile, Congress remained with Democratic Majority.
B. THE SITUATION IN THE MIDDLE EAST
1. THE SIX DAY WAR (June 5-10 1967)
a) Background
Arab States refusing the right of Jewish people to establish their own nation-state in the Middle East, and Israeli efforts to secure the community against external threats caused by this refusal have never defused the tension in the region. Multiple clashes took place between the parties. Arabs targeting Israelis, followed by Israeli Powers’ retaliation and vice versa, made it difficult to spot the event which actually sparked the war.
Egypt obtained erroneous information from the Soviet Union in May, 1967 which revealed Israel was massing troops along the Syrian border. So in May 16, President of Egypt, Gamal Abdel Nasser located his troops on Israeli border in the Sinai Peninsula and Sharm-el Sheikh. Furthermore, Gaza and Sinai was evicted from The United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) whose deployment in the Sinai was accepted by Egypt after signing the 1949 Armistice Agreements. Egyptian Media campaigned for a holy war to wipe out Israel and liberate Palestine.
Syria’s answer to the false report was similar, Hafez Assad Administration responded on May 17, with the mobilization of Syrian troops. Next day, Jordan declared its outright readiness for the combat.
On May 23, Egypt blockaded Israel’s Eilat Port to the Red Sea by closing the Straits of Tiran. Israeli Prime Minister Levy Eshkol called upon The United Nations and the international community for lifting the blockade describing it as “an aggressive event against Israel”.
In the following days, numerous Arab countries such as Kuwait, Sudan, Algeria, Morocco and Saudi Arabia declared that they support the war against Israel. Jordanian Armed Forces were placed under Egyptian command by an agreement both parties have reached.
As the tension increased, Nasser rejected peace offers coming from the Western world, stating that it would “transgress Egyptian sovereignty”.
b) The War
On the 5th of June, both Israel and Egypt declared that they are under attack of the other country. Sirens sounded all over the Israel, in spite of the absence of any attack.
Israeli Air Forces launched a series of attacks early in the morning of June 5th, destroyed the entire air force of the Egypt, Syria and Jordan. Two days later, Egypt was defeated, Israeli forces have reached to the Suez Canal and Jordanian lost the West Bank. Israel seized the Golan Heights, and marched 30 miles into Syria.
During the clashes between Syria and Israel, Syrians made a false announcement through Radio Damascus that Quneitra has been captured by Israel, hoping to trigger a Soviet Intervention. By misinterpreting this situation Syrian soldiers retreated, thinking that Israel intended to shut down the escape routes.
(Image – 4: Map Showing Israeli Gains From the Six Day War)
c) Aftermath
Israel effectuated its purposes, at the end of the war, Gulf and Straits of Tiran were open to navigation once again and beyond securing its territory against external threats, Israel annexed 26,000 square miles of Arab territory, gained in three different fronts. Israeli leaders stated “everything is negotiable” and they’re expecting peace talks from Arabic Parties.
In the meantime, Egypt and Syria resupplied their arms and received new fighter jets from Soviet Union that planned to support them. Soviet suggestion was to “liquidate the consequences” without abandoning anything.
Suez Canal’s closure and lack of revenues provided from Sinai oil resources gravely affected Egypt’s foreign currency and increased its dependency to the other Arabic oil exporting countries.
Some of the inhabitants of West Bank became refugees in search of settling in “East Bank”. While some of the Arabs stayed in Israeli controlled area and increased their living standards, many Palestinians, supporting Palestine Liberation Operation (PLO) rejected Israel’s domination. Sequentially, violent events took place in the region; civilians were often targeted by both parties.
(1) President Johnson’s Five Principles
Nine days after The Six Day War, President Lyndon Johnson addressed the issue of Middle East and set out five fundamental principles for maintaining the peace in the region.
The five principles can be summarized as;
i. “All nations in the region have a right to live in peace; ii. Justice for the refugees; iii. Protection of maritime rights; iv. Termination of the Middle East arms race;
v. The need for recognizable borders.”
(Image – 5: Johnson Delivering His Speech)
(2) The Khartoum Declaration
At the end of the August, Arab States assembled in Khartoum, Sudan and issued The Khartoum Declaration. They reaffirmed faith in their struggle and under the influence of Nasser, they agreed upon “three no’s of Khartoum”. The principle can be stated as “no peace with Israel, no negotiations with Israel, no recognition of Israel, and 'maintenance of the rights of the Palestinian people in their nation.’”
Following this declaration, Arab parties rejected peace negotiations initiated by U.N. Secretary General’s Special Envoy, Gunnar Jaring numerous times and expressed their loyalty to the joint decision.
(3) UN Resolution 242
Five months after the war, United Nations Security Council drafted a carefully-worded resolution to the parties and it was adopted unanimously. President Johnson’s five principles are included in this centerpiece and it has been a “Road Map” peace plan since then.
Jordan and Israel approved the resolution while some parties i.e. Egypt interpreted it as it was instructing Israel to go back to the pre-1967 territories of armistice, as it should have return the lands gained in the Six Day War, accepted it after a while.
Syria refused to accept the resolution and Hafez Assad stated that any other proposal for the settlement initiated by United Nations or other powers, were only “another form of occupation”
American National Security Advisor (defense demek mi caiz olur hocam? Veya kabinede olduğu için burada sıfatını söylemeden direkt ..Kissinger.. mı desek?) Henry Kissinger’s evaluation on the Resolution 242 reads as follows: “Resolution 242…merely papered over differences…with the approval of two sides…But it soon became apparent that these ambiguous phrases were acceptable to each party, only because it could interpret them in its own favor .”
2. TWO POWER TALKS (US-USSR) (March-September 1969)
(Image – 6: Nixon, Kissinger and Soviet Ambassador Dobrynin in White House, 1969)
When Nixon was elected as President, Arabic countries anticipated a favorable policy while the Israeli side was concerned reasonably hence Nixon was not viewed as having pro-Israeli position unlike his predecessors and his advisor Henry Kissinger. Despite Egypt’s and other Arabic States’ expectations, President’s policies towards Israel turned out to be the most favorable. Logistic and financial support was provided to the Israel along with the military aid on different and yet high levels while Arab parties were supported by U.S.S.R. Nixon seized that further enhancements in the Arab-Soviet relations, could harm the American interests in the Middle East rigorously.
Although the Vietnam War took its place as the first priority of Nixon Administration, relations with U.S.S.R. had a vital status in order to avoid a nuclear conflict. But since the Middle Eastern conflicts closely linked with U.S.S.R-American relations, seeking dialogue could reduce the tension. Likewise, in the U.S.S.R, analysts thought only U.S could convince Israel to withdraw its forces.
Under these circumstances, Nixon decided that “Two Power Talks” should take place in Washington by forming dialogue through Soviet Ambassador Anatoly Dobrynin and Joseph Sisco.
During the negotiations, Dobrynin stressed out one condition which is the requirement of fully withdrawal of Israeli forces for any possible political settlement. Americans replied that without receiving official recognition of Israel by Arabs and guarantee for security, U.S. could not compel Israel to enter into any process. In the meantime situation in the Middle East eroded.
After the first round of talks, a joint memorandum between Soviets and United States set a number of principles which could be handed over to UN Envoy. Main principles that were supposed to settle the relations between Israel and Egypt read as follows:
1. “The superpowers would not impose a settlement on the parties.
2. Peace between Israel and Egypt would be achieved as part of a package settlement - there would be no Israeli withdrawal from Egyptian territory before all the components of the peace were implemented.
3. The final borders between Egypt and Israel would be determined by the consent of both sides.
4. Final treaty between the parties would not only bring an end to the conflict, but also would have ‘certain elements of peace’.
5. Demilitarization of entire Sinai Peninsula, following Israel’s withdrawal.
6. Israeli ships would be allowed to navigate through the Suez Canal and the Straits of Tiran.”
Responding to this outline, Dobrynin declared that USSR were not willing to pressure Egypt for making peace with Israel at any stage and United States’ policy was biased. Parties hesitated over deadlock diplomacy in Middle East, Talks were on hold.
Second round of the talks were conducted by The State Department and Rogers, this time the U.S proposal had a slightly different content. Israel did not have any knowledge of the new proposal until Soviets made Egypt and Israel aware of the situation.
Israeli Prime Minister Golda Meir send a direct letter to President Nixon protesting the second round of the talks saying it jeopardized vital interests of Israel and she also made it clear the negotiations should take place between Egypt and Israel directly.
On the other side of the table, Egypt and U.S.S.R had similar circumstances. President Nasser declared that Soviets should consult him before making any negotiation with Americans and vetoed some of the arrangements made by them.
(Image – 7: Israeli Prime Minister Golda Meir’s visit to Washington)
In Golda Meir’s visit to Washington D.C, one of the agenda items was the issue of nuclear weapons. Meir strongly objected the matter but eventually agreed with Nixon that no kind of nuclear activity would be performed in Israel before the year of 1972.
3. ROGERS INITIATIVES
In December 1969, Secretary of State, William Rogers presented the Rogers Plan - a ten point peace plan regarding the situation; conditions were similar to the proposals made during the Two Power Talks, only fewer and enhanced points was the matter of discussion. All of the parties rejected this plan, stating it was ‘one-sided’.
In June 1970, Rogers initiated a new plan, proposing the mediation of Jarring to the parties, only this initiative suggested that the upcoming negotiations should be “about bringing about a just and solid peace, based on mutual recognition of the sovereignty, independence, and territory of each country” in compliance with the UN Security Council Resolution 242. On 21st June, Israel rejected Jarring’s ceasefire offer and the initiative as a whole.
In the next series of negotiations, both parties agreed on ceasefire. Israeli Government’s basic consent to the ceasefire has cost a coalition partner to the Prime Minister Meir, on 31st July, Herut-Liberal Bloc resigned. New ceasefire was carried into practice on August 7th, but shortly after anti-aircraft supplies were detected near the Suez Canal. Given the Egypt’s violation of ceasefire, Israel tabled the Jarring Talks.
Rogers’ third and last proposal included an interim agreement; on October 1971, Israel rejected it on the ground of its insufficiency for a possible peace process.
4. JORDAN CRISIS OF 1970
King Hussein declared a series of restrictions upon the Palestinian organizations in his country, consequent to a range of diplomatic contact with Nasser and President Nixon in February 1970.
Clashes between armed Palestinians and security forces caused the death of more than 300 people. This state of conflict and polarization continued until the second initiative of Rogers that Jordan approved the ceasefire. Accordingly, Jordan would control the West Bank. Palestine Liberation Organization strongly opposed to this plan and by the support of other radical groups, PLO counteracted with Hussein’s regime which led to the events of Black September.
In September 1970, there were several failed assassination attempts to Hussein; Pro-Palestinian groups hijacked three passenger planes and after freeing the hostages, burst of the planes were televised. During the retaliatory violence thousands of people lost their lives.
On 18th September, Hafez Assad sought an intervention to Jordan on behalf of the Palestinians; armed supplies were provided to the Syrian branch of PLO and Jordanian Armed Forces fought in both fronts.
Meanwhile 6th Fleet of the U.S Navy was positioned near Jordan and President located additional forces and aircrafts in the region. Against this strong presence of U.S and according to its mutual agreements with Syria, U.S.S.R also deployed its troops and ships of the Navy.
When the tension increased, Syrian invasion made King Hussein to seek the support of U.S. and Great Britain; in the telegrams directed to the superpowers, Hussein asked for an intervention while the United States’ correspondences with the embassy in Jordan expressed the need for ceasefire and a possible Security Council resolution would contain the same formula.
After Syrian Forces’ withdrawal on 22nd September, PLO agreed a ceasefire and by the pressure of Arabic countries Hussein signed a concessive agreement regarding the PLO.
Following the settlement of the unrest, King Hussein strengthened his position; Assad faced opposition and threats against his power and a terrorist organization named Black September was formed after the events of Black September in Jordan.
C. RELATIONS WITH LATIN AMERICA
The main objective of US Foreign Policy was to ensure dominance over Latin America, decades before the Presidency of Nixon. The strategic and economic importance of Latin America, emerged as problems were faced with unstable Middle Eastern countries, regarding the markets and resources along with the ideological reasons.
Establishment of the United States’ Army School of the Americas manifests the vitality of Latin America for U.S. interests. Main objective of the institution was to preserve the strength of U.S. Army in relations with Latin American countries. Anti-communist counter insurgency techniques and methods to control civilian population were included to the intended curriculum hence the socialism happened to be prevalent in Latin America, after the mid-way of the 20th century.
D. Guatemala (1950-1954):
Guatemalan Elections of 1951 resulted in favor of the socialist candidate, Jacobo Arbenz.
Under the leadership of Arbenz, Guatemalan Congress carried out important legislations, in particular the Agrarian Reform Law which enabled Guatemalan citizens to act autonomously and regulated the redistribution of lands. Redistribution of lands displeased landowners who lost their lands in vast measures. Policies as such conflicted with the economic interests of United Fruit Company (a major landowner) and the company initiated the lobbying against Guatemalan Government, in Washington D.C. Consequently in the year 1952, with the support of media and government of Nicaragua, CIA conducted the Operation PBFORTUNE under the authorization of President Truman. U.S. Secretary of State Dean Acheson exerted his influence to terminate the operation, and soon after it was
aborted.
Later on, a potential convergence policy between Soviet Union and Guatemala has motivated a CIA-backed coup which was realized with the operation PBSUCCESS, authorized by the President Eisenhower as promised during his presidential campaign. Thus, Guatemalan Revolution has come to an end, President Arbenz was ousted and the country was left with its new leader supported by United States until the Guatemalan Civil War broke out.
E. Cuba (1950-1959):
In the early 50’s U.S.-Cuban relations were relatively well-founded thereafter United States of America attempted to swing the balance in Cuba with its embargos and/or coups. As a result of the guerilla war that was waged in 1956 under the leadership of Fidel Castro and Ernesto “Che” Guevara, the Cuban leader Sergeant Fulgencio Batista lost the military aid provided by United States and Castro became prime minister. It was stated by then the Vice President Nixon that “US had no choice but to try to ‘orient’ the leftist leader in the ‘right direction’.”
Presidency of Eisenhower imposed trade sanctions against Cuba and planned an invasion in the ‘right direction’. The Bay of Pigs Invasion that carried out by President Kennedy in 1961 is regarded as a huge disaster for U.S. in its history. United States was defeated in only three days. U.S. Presidency had been very careful to ensure that they had plausible deniability of the operation.
The sensitivity of the relations between two countries did not decrease in following years. Consequent to the increasing military ties between Soviet Russia and Cuba as it was very obvious that high ranking officials within the U.S. Administration wanted to overthrow Castro; Cuban Missile Crisis broke out. Intermediate-range missiles pointed at the United States were detected by spy planes and the tension was increased once again. United States imposed a commercial embargo that prohibits all Americans from conducting financial relations with Cuba. Diplomatic relations between two countries no longer exist, however in case of a legitimate meeting; a mediator country would be preferred.
F. Chile (1970- ):
In 1970, Salvador Allende became the first socialist leader in Latin America elected in an open and fair manner by receiving 36.6% of the votes against his running mates. Lack of absolute majority among the rates has led to an environment where the National Congress would enact the next President among candidates.
CIA intended to influence the Congress for supporting the National Party’s candidate Alessandri Rodriguez who later declared he would resign in case of a possible appointment. Eventually, Allende was the candidate that Congress decided to support.
Acknowledging the ongoing struggle against communism, Allende’s rise to power was regarded as adverse to the stability of the country; and the possibility of a socialist leader seizing power with fair elections in Latin America, created solicitude.
Fidel Castro’s visit to Chile at the end of the 1971 reflected the improvements of relations between Cuba and Chile and implicitly signaled another possible Soviet-aligned order in Latin America. In the fear of an irreversible Marxist regime in Chile, Nixon’s ?National Defense Council concluded that, if the U.S. could not control Latin America, it could not expect “to achieve a successful order elsewhere in the world.”
United States foreign policy theoricians considered that Allende "threatened American global interests by challenging the whole ideological basis of American Cold War policy. It was the threat of a successful socialist state in Chile that could provide a model for other nat
1968
November 5 – The Presidential Nominee of the Republican Party Richard Milhous Nixon is elected president over Vice-President Hubert Humphrey.
1969
January 1 – Richard Milhous Nixon is sworn into office as the 37th President of The United States at the U.S. Capitol Hill in Washington D.C. In his inaugural address, he stated that “The greatest honor history can bestow is the title of peacemaker. This honor now beckons America.”
January 25 – Paris Peace Negotiations began with the attendance of U.S., South Vietnam, North Vietnam and the National Front for the Liberation of Vietnam (commonly referred as Viet Cong)
February – Nixon begins his first foreign trip, visiting several countries including the Great Britain, Germany, France, The Vatican and also NATO in Brussels. Mr. President addresses to the European Parliamentarians, before addressing the Congress for the first time. During the 8-day tour, Nixon takes up the issues of Vietnam War and the Eastern Block, in addition to enhancing transatlantic relations.
March 14 - Nixon calls …show more content…
Congress’ support to authorize funds for a modified antiballistic missile (ABM) system.
March 17 - Nixon’s Vietnamization strategy commenced with the Operation Menu in 1969. In the early morning, secret bombings were carried out in Cambodia. The aim of the attack was the destruction of North Vietnamese supply routes and base camps; bombing lasted until August 1973. The exact number of casualties remains unknown.
April 18 – After a shoot down incident which occurred on April 15, President orders that survey flights off of North Korea be resumed. April 30 - Nixon asks authorization of Congress in order to reinforce federal aids to states.
May 14 - Nixon proposes a plan whereby the United States and North Vietnam would agree to withdraw forces from South Vietnam.
June 8 - Nixon meets with Republic of Vietnam President Nguyen Van Thieu on Midway Island and subsequently announces his plan to reduce the number of American soldiers in South Vietnam by twenty-five thousand by August 31. The phased withdrawal was planned to occur in 14 stages. The first evacuation was realized when 800 men from the 9th Division were sent home.
June 28 - The Stonewall Riots in
New York City marked the start of the modern gay rights movement in the United States.
(Image 1: Stonewall Uprising in New York)
July 20 – Apollo 11 landed on the moon. As the mankind’s first steps on the moon were taken by the American Astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin, President Nixon made the longest long distance phone call of the history.
June 25 – Mr. President stressed out the “Guam Doctrine” signaling the era where American troops in Vietnam are decreasing and the Southeast Asian states would be responsible for their security.
August 8 – In his first address to the nation on domestic policy, President announces his program for welfare reform and Family Assistance Plan which promises direct payments for the poor. Although it was remarked as one the most progressive social programs, Family Assistance Plan, which later failed due to conservative objections in the Senate Finance Committee.
August 15 - White Lake, New York hosted The Woodstock Music and Art Fair for the first time. With its more than five hundred thousand attendees, Woodstock was a significant event for the history and become a tradition later on.
October 29 – Students were affected by the struggle of community and racial imbalances between school districts. To force hold out schools to end the practice of segregation, The Supreme Court ordered school integration “at once” in case of Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education
November 3 – North Vietnam rejected the peace offers. Outlining his Vietnamization policy, President Nixon proposed a plan to withdraw gradually all troops. According to this plan, U.S would withdraw its forces but keep providing financial assistance and appliance to South Vietnam leaving the burden of fighting to the locals. In his remarkable speech, President asked the public for the support of the “silent majority” to honorably end the war.
November 24 - Nixon signed the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons Treaty.
1970
January 1- Several environmental initiatives such as the Clean Air and Clean Water Acts, the Mammal Marine Protection Act were transferred into practice and the Environmental Protection Agency was created when the President signed the National Environmental Policy Act.
March 24 - The administration declared their will to end de jure segregation in elementary and secondary schools.
April 1 - Nixon signed the Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act, which banned cigarette advertisements on television in the United States from January 1, 1971 on.
April 30 – President declared the invasion of Cambodia on national television. The announcement which indicated American involvement in Vietnam would expand, set off a massive wave of antiwar protests.
May 4 – National Guards fired on demonstrators and four students protesting the Invasion of Cambodia were killed in Kent, Ohio.
May 9 – One hundred thousand people march in Washington, D.C., against the Vietnam War.
July 20 - Nixon stated that the United States would accept a fairly elected coalition government in Vietnam if it was chosen in an open election.
July 23- Nixon authorized the plan for an Interagency Committee on Intelligence to conduct operations aiming domestic targets.
August 12 - Postal Reorganization Act which organized an independent United States Postal Service was signed and approved.
September 18 – President Nixon and Israeli Prime Minister Golda Meir were convened to talk about the situation in the Middle East.
October 7 – President Nixon announced a five-point peace initiative for Indochina including a “cease-fire” and withdrawal of U.S. troops, in a televised address.
December 29 - The Occupational Health and Safety Act of 1970 was put into force which gave the secretary of labor the responsibility of setting workplace safety standards for jobs in the United States.
1971
January 4 - On an interview, Nixon stated that he is a “Keynesian.”
February 16 – The Oval Office and the Cabinet Room were outfitted with taping systems. April 24 – Antiwar protests took place in both
Washington D.C., and San Francisco against Vietnam War.
(Image 2, 3: Posters of the Demonstrations of April 24)
May 18 - Wage-Price Controls Bill which extended the authority of the President to impose limitations on wages, prices, salaries, and rents was signed by President.
June 10 – President quietly terminated the trade embargo with People’s Republic of China in order to normalize relations after more than decades.
July 9 - National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger visited Beijing, People’s Republic of China, and met with Prime Minister Zhou Enlai in order talk the terms on an agreement for a future visit of the President.
July 12 – President announced the entry into force of the Emergency Employment Act, which has the capacity of $2.25 billion of public service jobs at state and local levels.
July 15 – President declared that he has been invited to People’s Republic of China. After two decades of isolation and hostility, President Nixon was planning to visit China; this situation made a strong impact on public.
August 15 – President declared the first phase of his economic program as a 90-day freeze on wage and prices under the roof of the Economic Stabilization Act which ended the gold standard and the Bretton-Woods system of fixed exchange rates.
September 3 – U.S., the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and France signed The Quadripartite Agreement in Berlin. With this agreement trade and travel relations between West Berlin and West Germany and communications between East Berlin and West Berlin were established for the first time, East-West tensions were decreased and further cooperation was allowed.
October 12 – Moscow and Washington jointly announced Nixon’s visit to Soviet Union, three months after his return from People’s Republic of China.
November 22- December 16 – Following the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, power balances were once again controversial. Soviet Union was supporting India in the conflict, and the United States and the People’s Republic of China were both supporting the Pakistan.
December 22 - Nixon extended the Economic Stabilization Act, allowing himself another year in which to right the economy.
1972
January 7 - Nixon announced his candidacy for renomination and reelection.
February 21-27 – Mr. and Mrs. Nixon and Henry Kissinger arrived in People’s Republic of China. Nixon became the first American President visited the China and he remarked his visit by saying “This was the week that changed the world”. U.S. and the People’s Republic of China issued a joint communiqué in which the U.S withdrawal from Taiwan and improvements of relations between countries were agreed upon.
April 3 - Nixon signed the Par Value Modification Act, devaluing the dollar.
May 8 – President stated on national television, that he has ordered the bombing and mining in the North Vietnam.
May 21-27 – In his historic visit to the Soviet Union, Nixon signed the agreement on the limitation of strategic arms (SALT) with Leonid Brezhnev as one of the key achievements of his presidency.
June 17 – Four men broke into the Democratic Headquarters in Washington, D.C.’s Watergate Hotel. Police seized them with wiretapping materials and 2.300 US Dollar in cash.
August 23 - Richard Nixon accepted the nomination of the Republican National Convention for President.
August 29 – Nixon declared that no one, in the administration, or anyone “presently employed” was involved in the Watergate burglary.
October 30 - Nixon signed sixty bills, one of them subsidizing a budget of more than $5 billion for the benefit of the aged, blind, and disabled individuals while another bill increased the Social Security taxes.
November 7 – Richard Nixon won 49 out 50 states and more than sixty percent of the popular vote in the Presidential elections which was an unprecedented election result in American history. Meanwhile, Congress remained with Democratic Majority.
B. THE SITUATION IN THE MIDDLE EAST
1. THE SIX DAY WAR (June 5-10 1967)
a) Background
Arab States refusing the right of Jewish people to establish their own nation-state in the Middle East, and Israeli efforts to secure the community against external threats caused by this refusal have never defused the tension in the region. Multiple clashes took place between the parties. Arabs targeting Israelis, followed by Israeli Powers’ retaliation and vice versa, made it difficult to spot the event which actually sparked the war.
Egypt obtained erroneous information from the Soviet Union in May, 1967 which revealed Israel was massing troops along the Syrian border. So in May 16, President of Egypt, Gamal Abdel Nasser located his troops on Israeli border in the Sinai Peninsula and Sharm-el Sheikh. Furthermore, Gaza and Sinai was evicted from The United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) whose deployment in the Sinai was accepted by Egypt after signing the 1949 Armistice Agreements. Egyptian Media campaigned for a holy war to wipe out Israel and liberate Palestine.
Syria’s answer to the false report was similar, Hafez Assad Administration responded on May 17, with the mobilization of Syrian troops. Next day, Jordan declared its outright readiness for the combat.
On May 23, Egypt blockaded Israel’s Eilat Port to the Red Sea by closing the Straits of Tiran. Israeli Prime Minister Levy Eshkol called upon The United Nations and the international community for lifting the blockade describing it as “an aggressive event against Israel”.
In the following days, numerous Arab countries such as Kuwait, Sudan, Algeria, Morocco and Saudi Arabia declared that they support the war against Israel. Jordanian Armed Forces were placed under Egyptian command by an agreement both parties have reached.
As the tension increased, Nasser rejected peace offers coming from the Western world, stating that it would “transgress Egyptian sovereignty”.
b) The War
On the 5th of June, both Israel and Egypt declared that they are under attack of the other country. Sirens sounded all over the Israel, in spite of the absence of any attack.
Israeli Air Forces launched a series of attacks early in the morning of June 5th, destroyed the entire air force of the Egypt, Syria and Jordan. Two days later, Egypt was defeated, Israeli forces have reached to the Suez Canal and Jordanian lost the West Bank. Israel seized the Golan Heights, and marched 30 miles into Syria.
During the clashes between Syria and Israel, Syrians made a false announcement through Radio Damascus that Quneitra has been captured by Israel, hoping to trigger a Soviet Intervention. By misinterpreting this situation Syrian soldiers retreated, thinking that Israel intended to shut down the escape routes.
(Image – 4: Map Showing Israeli Gains From the Six Day War)
c) Aftermath
Israel effectuated its purposes, at the end of the war, Gulf and Straits of Tiran were open to navigation once again and beyond securing its territory against external threats, Israel annexed 26,000 square miles of Arab territory, gained in three different fronts. Israeli leaders stated “everything is negotiable” and they’re expecting peace talks from Arabic Parties.
In the meantime, Egypt and Syria resupplied their arms and received new fighter jets from Soviet Union that planned to support them. Soviet suggestion was to “liquidate the consequences” without abandoning anything.
Suez Canal’s closure and lack of revenues provided from Sinai oil resources gravely affected Egypt’s foreign currency and increased its dependency to the other Arabic oil exporting countries.
Some of the inhabitants of West Bank became refugees in search of settling in “East Bank”. While some of the Arabs stayed in Israeli controlled area and increased their living standards, many Palestinians, supporting Palestine Liberation Operation (PLO) rejected Israel’s domination. Sequentially, violent events took place in the region; civilians were often targeted by both parties.
(1) President Johnson’s Five Principles
Nine days after The Six Day War, President Lyndon Johnson addressed the issue of Middle East and set out five fundamental principles for maintaining the peace in the region.
The five principles can be summarized as;
i. “All nations in the region have a right to live in peace; ii. Justice for the refugees; iii. Protection of maritime rights; iv. Termination of the Middle East arms race;
v. The need for recognizable borders.”
(Image – 5: Johnson Delivering His Speech)
(2) The Khartoum Declaration
At the end of the August, Arab States assembled in Khartoum, Sudan and issued The Khartoum Declaration. They reaffirmed faith in their struggle and under the influence of Nasser, they agreed upon “three no’s of Khartoum”. The principle can be stated as “no peace with Israel, no negotiations with Israel, no recognition of Israel, and 'maintenance of the rights of the Palestinian people in their nation.’”
Following this declaration, Arab parties rejected peace negotiations initiated by U.N. Secretary General’s Special Envoy, Gunnar Jaring numerous times and expressed their loyalty to the joint decision.
(3) UN Resolution 242
Five months after the war, United Nations Security Council drafted a carefully-worded resolution to the parties and it was adopted unanimously. President Johnson’s five principles are included in this centerpiece and it has been a “Road Map” peace plan since then.
Jordan and Israel approved the resolution while some parties i.e. Egypt interpreted it as it was instructing Israel to go back to the pre-1967 territories of armistice, as it should have return the lands gained in the Six Day War, accepted it after a while.
Syria refused to accept the resolution and Hafez Assad stated that any other proposal for the settlement initiated by United Nations or other powers, were only “another form of occupation”
American National Security Advisor (defense demek mi caiz olur hocam? Veya kabinede olduğu için burada sıfatını söylemeden direkt ..Kissinger.. mı desek?) Henry Kissinger’s evaluation on the Resolution 242 reads as follows: “Resolution 242…merely papered over differences…with the approval of two sides…But it soon became apparent that these ambiguous phrases were acceptable to each party, only because it could interpret them in its own favor .”
2. TWO POWER TALKS (US-USSR) (March-September 1969)
(Image – 6: Nixon, Kissinger and Soviet Ambassador Dobrynin in White House, 1969)
When Nixon was elected as President, Arabic countries anticipated a favorable policy while the Israeli side was concerned reasonably hence Nixon was not viewed as having pro-Israeli position unlike his predecessors and his advisor Henry Kissinger. Despite Egypt’s and other Arabic States’ expectations, President’s policies towards Israel turned out to be the most favorable. Logistic and financial support was provided to the Israel along with the military aid on different and yet high levels while Arab parties were supported by U.S.S.R. Nixon seized that further enhancements in the Arab-Soviet relations, could harm the American interests in the Middle East rigorously.
Although the Vietnam War took its place as the first priority of Nixon Administration, relations with U.S.S.R. had a vital status in order to avoid a nuclear conflict. But since the Middle Eastern conflicts closely linked with U.S.S.R-American relations, seeking dialogue could reduce the tension. Likewise, in the U.S.S.R, analysts thought only U.S could convince Israel to withdraw its forces.
Under these circumstances, Nixon decided that “Two Power Talks” should take place in Washington by forming dialogue through Soviet Ambassador Anatoly Dobrynin and Joseph Sisco.
During the negotiations, Dobrynin stressed out one condition which is the requirement of fully withdrawal of Israeli forces for any possible political settlement. Americans replied that without receiving official recognition of Israel by Arabs and guarantee for security, U.S. could not compel Israel to enter into any process. In the meantime situation in the Middle East eroded.
After the first round of talks, a joint memorandum between Soviets and United States set a number of principles which could be handed over to UN Envoy. Main principles that were supposed to settle the relations between Israel and Egypt read as follows:
1. “The superpowers would not impose a settlement on the parties.
2. Peace between Israel and Egypt would be achieved as part of a package settlement - there would be no Israeli withdrawal from Egyptian territory before all the components of the peace were implemented.
3. The final borders between Egypt and Israel would be determined by the consent of both sides.
4. Final treaty between the parties would not only bring an end to the conflict, but also would have ‘certain elements of peace’.
5. Demilitarization of entire Sinai Peninsula, following Israel’s withdrawal.
6. Israeli ships would be allowed to navigate through the Suez Canal and the Straits of Tiran.”
Responding to this outline, Dobrynin declared that USSR were not willing to pressure Egypt for making peace with Israel at any stage and United States’ policy was biased. Parties hesitated over deadlock diplomacy in Middle East, Talks were on hold.
Second round of the talks were conducted by The State Department and Rogers, this time the U.S proposal had a slightly different content. Israel did not have any knowledge of the new proposal until Soviets made Egypt and Israel aware of the situation.
Israeli Prime Minister Golda Meir send a direct letter to President Nixon protesting the second round of the talks saying it jeopardized vital interests of Israel and she also made it clear the negotiations should take place between Egypt and Israel directly.
On the other side of the table, Egypt and U.S.S.R had similar circumstances. President Nasser declared that Soviets should consult him before making any negotiation with Americans and vetoed some of the arrangements made by them.
(Image – 7: Israeli Prime Minister Golda Meir’s visit to Washington)
In Golda Meir’s visit to Washington D.C, one of the agenda items was the issue of nuclear weapons. Meir strongly objected the matter but eventually agreed with Nixon that no kind of nuclear activity would be performed in Israel before the year of 1972.
3. ROGERS INITIATIVES
In December 1969, Secretary of State, William Rogers presented the Rogers Plan - a ten point peace plan regarding the situation; conditions were similar to the proposals made during the Two Power Talks, only fewer and enhanced points was the matter of discussion. All of the parties rejected this plan, stating it was ‘one-sided’.
In June 1970, Rogers initiated a new plan, proposing the mediation of Jarring to the parties, only this initiative suggested that the upcoming negotiations should be “about bringing about a just and solid peace, based on mutual recognition of the sovereignty, independence, and territory of each country” in compliance with the UN Security Council Resolution 242. On 21st June, Israel rejected Jarring’s ceasefire offer and the initiative as a whole.
In the next series of negotiations, both parties agreed on ceasefire. Israeli Government’s basic consent to the ceasefire has cost a coalition partner to the Prime Minister Meir, on 31st July, Herut-Liberal Bloc resigned. New ceasefire was carried into practice on August 7th, but shortly after anti-aircraft supplies were detected near the Suez Canal. Given the Egypt’s violation of ceasefire, Israel tabled the Jarring Talks.
Rogers’ third and last proposal included an interim agreement; on October 1971, Israel rejected it on the ground of its insufficiency for a possible peace process.
4. JORDAN CRISIS OF 1970
King Hussein declared a series of restrictions upon the Palestinian organizations in his country, consequent to a range of diplomatic contact with Nasser and President Nixon in February 1970.
Clashes between armed Palestinians and security forces caused the death of more than 300 people. This state of conflict and polarization continued until the second initiative of Rogers that Jordan approved the ceasefire. Accordingly, Jordan would control the West Bank. Palestine Liberation Organization strongly opposed to this plan and by the support of other radical groups, PLO counteracted with Hussein’s regime which led to the events of Black September.
In September 1970, there were several failed assassination attempts to Hussein; Pro-Palestinian groups hijacked three passenger planes and after freeing the hostages, burst of the planes were televised. During the retaliatory violence thousands of people lost their lives.
On 18th September, Hafez Assad sought an intervention to Jordan on behalf of the Palestinians; armed supplies were provided to the Syrian branch of PLO and Jordanian Armed Forces fought in both fronts.
Meanwhile 6th Fleet of the U.S Navy was positioned near Jordan and President located additional forces and aircrafts in the region. Against this strong presence of U.S and according to its mutual agreements with Syria, U.S.S.R also deployed its troops and ships of the Navy.
When the tension increased, Syrian invasion made King Hussein to seek the support of U.S. and Great Britain; in the telegrams directed to the superpowers, Hussein asked for an intervention while the United States’ correspondences with the embassy in Jordan expressed the need for ceasefire and a possible Security Council resolution would contain the same formula.
After Syrian Forces’ withdrawal on 22nd September, PLO agreed a ceasefire and by the pressure of Arabic countries Hussein signed a concessive agreement regarding the PLO.
Following the settlement of the unrest, King Hussein strengthened his position; Assad faced opposition and threats against his power and a terrorist organization named Black September was formed after the events of Black September in Jordan.
C. RELATIONS WITH LATIN AMERICA
The main objective of US Foreign Policy was to ensure dominance over Latin America, decades before the Presidency of Nixon. The strategic and economic importance of Latin America, emerged as problems were faced with unstable Middle Eastern countries, regarding the markets and resources along with the ideological reasons.
Establishment of the United States’ Army School of the Americas manifests the vitality of Latin America for U.S. interests. Main objective of the institution was to preserve the strength of U.S. Army in relations with Latin American countries. Anti-communist counter insurgency techniques and methods to control civilian population were included to the intended curriculum hence the socialism happened to be prevalent in Latin America, after the mid-way of the 20th century.
D. Guatemala (1950-1954):
Guatemalan Elections of 1951 resulted in favor of the socialist candidate, Jacobo Arbenz.
Under the leadership of Arbenz, Guatemalan Congress carried out important legislations, in particular the Agrarian Reform Law which enabled Guatemalan citizens to act autonomously and regulated the redistribution of lands. Redistribution of lands displeased landowners who lost their lands in vast measures. Policies as such conflicted with the economic interests of United Fruit Company (a major landowner) and the company initiated the lobbying against Guatemalan Government, in Washington D.C. Consequently in the year 1952, with the support of media and government of Nicaragua, CIA conducted the Operation PBFORTUNE under the authorization of President Truman. U.S. Secretary of State Dean Acheson exerted his influence to terminate the operation, and soon after it was
aborted.
Later on, a potential convergence policy between Soviet Union and Guatemala has motivated a CIA-backed coup which was realized with the operation PBSUCCESS, authorized by the President Eisenhower as promised during his presidential campaign. Thus, Guatemalan Revolution has come to an end, President Arbenz was ousted and the country was left with its new leader supported by United States until the Guatemalan Civil War broke out.
E. Cuba (1950-1959):
In the early 50’s U.S.-Cuban relations were relatively well-founded thereafter United States of America attempted to swing the balance in Cuba with its embargos and/or coups. As a result of the guerilla war that was waged in 1956 under the leadership of Fidel Castro and Ernesto “Che” Guevara, the Cuban leader Sergeant Fulgencio Batista lost the military aid provided by United States and Castro became prime minister. It was stated by then the Vice President Nixon that “US had no choice but to try to ‘orient’ the leftist leader in the ‘right direction’.”
Presidency of Eisenhower imposed trade sanctions against Cuba and planned an invasion in the ‘right direction’. The Bay of Pigs Invasion that carried out by President Kennedy in 1961 is regarded as a huge disaster for U.S. in its history. United States was defeated in only three days. U.S. Presidency had been very careful to ensure that they had plausible deniability of the operation.
The sensitivity of the relations between two countries did not decrease in following years. Consequent to the increasing military ties between Soviet Russia and Cuba as it was very obvious that high ranking officials within the U.S. Administration wanted to overthrow Castro; Cuban Missile Crisis broke out. Intermediate-range missiles pointed at the United States were detected by spy planes and the tension was increased once again. United States imposed a commercial embargo that prohibits all Americans from conducting financial relations with Cuba. Diplomatic relations between two countries no longer exist, however in case of a legitimate meeting; a mediator country would be preferred.
F. Chile (1970- ):
In 1970, Salvador Allende became the first socialist leader in Latin America elected in an open and fair manner by receiving 36.6% of the votes against his running mates. Lack of absolute majority among the rates has led to an environment where the National Congress would enact the next President among candidates.
CIA intended to influence the Congress for supporting the National Party’s candidate Alessandri Rodriguez who later declared he would resign in case of a possible appointment. Eventually, Allende was the candidate that Congress decided to support.
Acknowledging the ongoing struggle against communism, Allende’s rise to power was regarded as adverse to the stability of the country; and the possibility of a socialist leader seizing power with fair elections in Latin America, created solicitude.
Fidel Castro’s visit to Chile at the end of the 1971 reflected the improvements of relations between Cuba and Chile and implicitly signaled another possible Soviet-aligned order in Latin America. In the fear of an irreversible Marxist regime in Chile, Nixon’s ?National Defense Council concluded that, if the U.S. could not control Latin America, it could not expect “to achieve a successful order elsewhere in the world.”
United States foreign policy theoricians considered that Allende "threatened American global interests by challenging the whole ideological basis of American Cold War policy. It was the threat of a successful socialist state in Chile that could provide a model for other nat