Rousseau's Relation With The French Revolution

B. A. – 2nd Semester – Summer Drive 2012
B.A. (English)
Subject Name: Political Thinkers.
Subject code: BAE 202
4 credits (60 marks)
(BKID: B1443)
Set 2

1. Explain Rousseau’s relation with the French Revolution.

According to this testimony, it would seem that Rousseau's influence extended through much of the popular and intellectual sphere. However, it also reached as high as the royal court. In a discourse before the Assemblée Nationale, Louis XVI goes as far as to attribute much of his difficulty in maintaining control of his empire to the wandering philosophe from Geneva:

Finally, it becomes clear that the use of Rousseau's thought in political pamphleteering may be at least partially the result of his own works. His powerful polemical style in the Discourse on the Origin of Inequality is coupled with his recognition of the power of critical writing in The Social Contract. Speaking of the four forces that regulate any state, Rousseau writes:

Along
with these three kinds of law goes a fourth, most important of all, which is graven not on tablets of marble or brass, but on the hearts of the citizens. This forms the real constitution of the State, takes on every day new powers, when other laws decay or die out, restores them or takes their place, keeps a people in the ways in which it was meant to go, and insensibly replaces authority by the force of habit. I am speaking of morality, of custom, above all of public opinion; a power unknown to political thinkers, on which none the less success in everything else depends.(78)

How is it that this power, unknown to political thinkers, suddenly became standard fare for pamphleteers? By their very nature, their pamphlets served as appeals to public opinion. We must consider that it may have been the revolutionary study of Rousseau that brought the force of public opinion to their attention. While this is speculation, it could be said that their presentation, both of Rousseau's thought and adaptations of his thought, in political pamphlets, is a very deliberate and well-considered appeal to public opinion. The authors, then, must have been aware that some of the views they published on Rousseau's authority were not actually his views, but glossed, spin-doctored interpretations of his work. To understand why the pamphleteers felt they could adopt, adapt and re-publish in this fashion, and to analyze the impact of the pamphlets themselves in revolutionary France, we must look at the press culture of the era.

In her essay "Economic Upheavals in Publishing," Carla Hesse traces the economic impact of the freedom of the press in France, declared by the National Assembly in 1789. Hesse is a history professor at the University of California at Berkeley, and was curator of The New York Public Library's 1989 exhibition "Revolution in Print: France 1789." The declaration of press freedom, she says, sent a well-established, closely censored culture of book publishing into sudden and utter chaos for at least four years, as the market shifted drastically with the tides of revolution. Established book publishers and censors were unclear as to what the declaration meant for their rights and duties. They struggled to uphold the status quo until new laws were clarified, while new publishers with little expertise set up presses across France to challenge the old regime, taking the National Assembly at its word that all citizens can speak, write and print freely.Therefore, The freeing of the press was to entail the demise of the entire legal and institutional infrastructure of publishing under the Old Regime: the royal patronage of letters; the royal administration of the book trade and its army of censors and inspectors; the system of literary privileges that gave publishers and authors exclusive publication rights to texts; and, finally, the monopoly of the Book Guild over printing, importing, and selling printed matter in France. This ideological revolt was soon translated into legislative action. Hesse explains that printing privileges were abolished entirely -- no sooner than a work appeared in print, pirate copies became available. The notion that the public interest was more important than the economic interests of a handful of printers was prevalent, as was the attitude that works in the public domain quite literally belonged to the public. Of course, reinterpreting a work seen to belong to the public is much easier than engaging an author, who still holds legal rights to his published thoughts, in discussion. Thus, the view that Rousseau's works were fair game for republication contributed to the tendency of other writers to adapt his ideas to their own purposes. Indeed, Hesse addresses this issue, writing, By legally consecrating and protecting the public domain, rather than the private authorial lineage, the French revolutionary laws on authorship shifted the legal basis of exclusive commercial claims on the majority of books from the manuscript to the edition, from the text to the paratext. As a result, the problem of determining the fate and meaning of a text shifted away from its source, the author, and toward its destination, its representation and reception by the editor and reader. [...] Not until the end of the nineteenth century would the legal recognition of the "moral rights" of authors put limits on how an author's works, once devolved into the public domain, could be edited or represented. To what use did the French put their press freedom? The abolishment of exclusive rights and the wave of new, unregulated printers made the market very competitive. Also, high illiteracy rates meant long texts limited readership within the book market. These two key factors led to the demise of book publishing (which years later required government intervention to revive), as a new market for short pamphlets and journals developed in tandem with the political events of the revolution. Hesse writes of Paris book publishers, "As incomplete and statistically small as these figures are, they nonetheless suggest that publishers declared nearly as many bankruptcies between 1789 and 1793 as there had been for the nineteen-year period from 1770 to 1789." In sharp contrast, Hesse reports that while there were 47 printers and 179 booksellers/publishers active in Paris shortly before the revolution, by 1810, there were 157 printing shops and nearly 600 booksellers/publishers operating in Paris alone. An 1811 survey identifies 64 of the 80 richest printers by their specialization: 19 published journals and periodicals, 12 published administrative documents, 11 published literature and the remaining 22 were split between classics, theatre, religion, language, sciences, arts, almanacs, ephemera and law. Clearly, despite the bankruptcies of book publishers, the printing industry boomed as a result of the revolution, particularly its journals and pamphlets. Its long-term success was a result of an initial explosion of reading material. According to Hesse, four journals were in print in Paris in 1788. In 1790, 335 Parisian journals were in regular circulation.

This leads to the question of who was reading these publications. Jeremy D. Popkin is professor of history at the University of Kentucky and the author of several books about press culture in French history. In his essay, "Journals: The New Face of News," he explains,

The diverse and colorful array of newspapers created by revolutionary journalists and publishers never became a genuine mass medium. Social constraints like the literacy level and technological constraints like the continuing dependence on wooden handpresses made that impossible. Newspapers nevertheless became the main printed form in which the revolutionary struggle over political legitimacy was articulated.(83)

Other venues for discussion included the legislative assemblies and the political clubs. These clubs, which were driving forces behind revolutionary action, subscribed to many of the publications coming out of Paris on a daily and weekly basis, where they were often read aloud and discussed. Despite pockets of illiteracy throughout France, reading aloud also brought the revolutionary word to many average citizens. The format of many of the pamphlets, journals and newspapers contributed to this, especially in the first years of the revolution, when most of these publications used the same format, with a title and summary of contents of the first page, which could be cried aloud by street vendors. Meanwhile, "In the Feuille villageoise, a highly successful weekly aimed at a rural audience, the emphasis was on explaining the significance of the issues raised in the debates, rather than on transcribing them."(84) The Feuille villageoise had a circulation of approximately 15,000 in 1791.

Based on the obvious currency of Rousseau's thought in revolutionary France and on the press culture of the time, it is quite clear that Rousseau -- or rather representations of Rousseau -- held considerable ideological sway. Nevertheless, as we saw earlier, the ideological backbone he provides is but a popular propaganda tool to promote the drastic solutions of the revolutionaries for basic economic and administrative social problems.

Yet Rousseau was glorified nonetheless as a prophet, as the ideal man and as a grand ideological leader. Indeed, this is the image of him officially supported by the government. Joseph Lakanal was president of the Committee for Public Instruction in 1794, and presented a report to the National Convention recommending Rousseau's admission to the French Pantheon. The following is an excerpt from that report -- bear in mind that the National Convention endorsed the Committee's stance on Rousseau when it adopted the recommendations in the report. Quoting Rousseau, Lakanal writes,

Nous approchons de l'état de crise et du siécle des révolutions. Tout ce qu'ont fait les hommes, les hommes peuvent le détruire: il n'y a de caractères ineffaçables que ceux qu'imprime la nature; et la nature ne fait ni princes, ni riches, ni grands seigneurs.
Je tiens pour impossible, ajoutoit-il, (et déjà les triomphes de nos principes et de nos armes garantissent la vérité de cet oracle) je tiens pour impossible que les grandes monarchies de l'Europe aient encore long-temps à durer.(85)

Note that Lakanal editorialises in brackets, labelling Rousseau an oracle, and therefore implying that the Revolution is the product of destiny. Indeed, some passages from Rousseau, like when he describes his French contemporaries as "discontented with your present state, for reasons which threaten your unfortunate descendants with still greater discontent,"(86) allow us to speculate from the privileged position of hindsight upon his seemingly prophetic words. However, he is certainly selectively acclaimed, as the revolutionaries chose not to expound on more critical passages, such as:

We should see the magistrates fomenting everything that might weaken men united in society, by promoting dissension among them; everything that might sow in it the seeds of actual division, while it gave society the air of harmony; everything that might inspire the different ranks of people with mutual hatred and distrust, by setting the rights and interests of one against those of another, and so strengthen the power which comprehended them all.(87)

Certainly, they might prefer not to draw attention to passages like this, which might be used to describe their own role as instigators of a violent civil conflict. However, their praise for Rousseau as a prophet is mild by comparison with the impassioned acclamation that follows:

Hâtez-vous donc, citoyens, d'arracher ce grand homme à sa tombe solitaire, pour lui décerner les honneurs du Panthéon, et le couronner de l'immortalité. Honorez en lui le génie bienfaiteur de l'humanité; honorez l'ami, le défenseur, l'apôtre de la liberté et des moeurs: le promoteur des droits de l'homme, l'éloquent précurseur de cette révolution que vous êtes appelés à terminer pour le bonheur des peuples; honorez en lui les travaux et les arts utiles pour lesquels il brava le rire insultant de la frivolité; honorez l'homme solitaire et champêtre qui vécut loin de la corruption des villes, et loin du faux éclat du monde, pour mieux connoître, mieux sentir la nature, et y ramener plus puissamment ses semblables; honorez en lui le malheur....; car il est douloureux et peut-être inévitable que le génie et la vertu soient en batte à la calomnie, à la persécution des hommes, lors même qu'ils s'occupent des moyens de les rendre heureux; et Rousseau paya plus qu'un autre cette dette du génie et de la vertu..... Honorez-vous enfin vous-mêmes en honorant l'homme de génie qui fait le plus éloquent de vos instituteurs dans l'art sublime de policer les peuples, et justifiez cette autre prédiction de ce grand homme non moins infaillible que la première.(88)

Not only is Rousseau an infallible oracle, and an ideal man, but he is very nearly a god -- an immortal, who is identified as an apostle, and as one who is likely to suffer persecution -- in other words, he is portrayed as the Christ-figure of revolutionary France's newly declared Cult of the Supreme Being. Finally, Lakanal sets up the pretence that there may be some aspect of Rousseau's thought left open to criticism. He draws his concerned readers in, then proceeds to enthusiastically defend the genius of the philosopher, and attacks all those who might disagree:

Nous n'avons pas oublié, citoyens, que c'est un examen et non un panégyrique que vous nous avez chargés de de [sic] vous présenter; nous n'avons pas oublié que Rousseau a accusé les sciences d'une partie des maux qui ont affligé l'espèce humaine. Un écrivain, dira-t-on, qui appuie de semblables paradoxes a-t-il donc tant de droits à la reconnoissance des peuples libres? Ingrats! vous n'ignorez pas quelle en fut la cause! L'abus que vous en avez trop souvent fait, a été si funeste aux hommes, que, dans l'aliénation de sa douleur, il auroit voulu les replonger dans l'ignorance et dans l'état de sauvage; respectez cet heureux décline; il n'appartient qu'à l'ami de l'humanité d'en éprouver de semblable.(89)

Thankfully, 'criticism' of Rousseau hasn't remained quite so biased in the present day. Modern critics would agree with his revolutionary supporters that: "Il est vrai que dans ces immortels ouvrages, et sur-tout dans le premier, il développa les véritables principes de la théorie sociale."(90) His impact on modern notions of the government's duty to the people in democratic nations is also undeniable. However, Rousseau is now more aptly viewed as an important philosopher, whose thoughts, once released into the public domain, were appropriated by others and reconstituted to create a spectacular propaganda campaign, serving as ideological fuel in the fire of the French Revolution.

Rousseau is variously considered the father of revolution and of anarchy, as an innovator and charlatan, and not as a liberating force but a destroyer of individual freedom. He has been considered from various aspects, the most obvious being political and educational (for Emile). However, he is also considered an early psychologist concerned with the human drive toward society. William H. Blanchard, who has written several books on the nature of revolution, argues that Rousseau himself was:

Driven by impulses he did not recognize. In his favorite image of himself he was a rebel who despised all authoritarian personalities. He detested those who would force him to conform to social convention or place him under an obligation. He resisted all efforts on the part of his friends to influence his opinion or his actions, and he strongly believed in the right of the individual to this for himself. Yet there was another side to this independent personality, a side that loved not only to dominate others, but to submit to the commands of a great lady, to crawl before her power.(91)

Blanchard goes on to investigate Rousseau's own psychology as the source for his ideas. He determines that, "The myth of primitive innocence was based on a false image of primitive man, and the myth of the general will was based on a distorted memory of his [Rousseau's] own childhood. It was based on a morphological similarity rather than a direct structural analogy with the psychological facts of life."(92)

Approaching Rousseau's work from this perspective, viewing him through his own psychology and as a psychologist, Blanchard ultimately reached the same conclusions about Rousseau's impact on French Revolutionary thought as I have through my investigation of his relationship with the pamphleteers. Blanchard writes, "While the myth persists in many circles that Rousseau's ideas brought about the French Revolution, recent research has tended to discount this notion. His actual political proposals were quite conservative. Yet there is no question regarding his popularity among those who believed in violence, and in many respects his name is associated with the inspiration of revolutionary enthusiasm."(93) He explains that "Rousseau's capacity to reify such abstractions as the general will and clothe them in the form of myth accounts for the hold his doctrines have had on many generations of followers."(94) This ability for myth-making, according to Blanchard, is what allows Rousseau to become separate from his ideas, lending malleability to both. Blanchard turns to another scholar, Joan McDonald, to support his argument. McDonald concludes her book, Rousseau and the French Revolution 1762-1791, noting that "the actual contents of the Social Contract were for a very large number of people immaterial; the Social Contract itself was part of the myth, and it was the myth of Rousseau rather than his political theory which was important in the mind of the revolutionary generation."(95)

However, I believe I have illustrated that Rousseau's function as a myth-maker, and as a creature of myth, must be considered only part of the reason the revolutionaries were so quick to adopt, and more importantly, adapt, his ideas to provide an ideological foundation for a course of action that suited their own objectives. There is an undeniable link between Rousseau's ideals, as presented in The Discourse on the Origin of Inequality and The Social Contract, and revolutionary representations of them in the pamphlets. While the revolutionaries were aware that Rousseau might have encouraged the French Revolution in principle, as the Sovereign power removing a poor government, they also certainly recognized that in practice, the bloody course of the Revolution would have been unacceptable to his mind and senses. They appeal to him nonetheless as an authority on matters of principle. As I noted, their actual concerns were with practical issues like effective administration, providing food for the population and improving the economy. It is clear that not only is Rousseau's image as a man of myth responsible for the tendency to appropriate his texts and reinterpret them, but also that the print culture in revolutionary France and the practices of publishing themselves encouraged this practice.

The evidence permeates Rousseau's world. Whether we analyze his influence on revolutionary thought through political pamphlets, or we consider his psychological profile and his efforts as a psychologist, we come to the same conclusions. Rousseau wrote in the right place at the right time for the revolutionaries. His thought fell in line with their cause, and had all the characteristics that would make it a readily available tool in their propaganda campaign. Perhaps ironically, as a tool to power, Rousseau's political thought fell prey to the political corruption he argued against.

2. Explain Bentham’s views on jurisprudence and punishment.

Bentham’s first publication, A Fragment on Government, was recognized as a piercing attack on the praise heaped on the English Constitution by Sir William Blackstone, an Oxford lecturer who considered the law of nature or the law of God to be a basis for English law. Bentham disputed this and, in passing, accused Blackstone of being against every reform and supporting every form of legal chicanery. Of his own observations of legal proceedings, Bentham said the following:

I saw crimes of the most pernicious nature passing unheeded by the law; acts of no importance put in point of punishment upon a level with the most baneful crimes; punishments inflicted without measure and without choice; satisfaction denied for the most crying injuries; the doors of justice barred against a great majority of the people by the pressure of wanton impositions and unnecessary expense; false conclusions ensured in questions of fact by hasty and inconsistent rules of evidence; the business of hours spun out into years; impunity extended to acknowledged guilt and compensation snatched out of the hands of injured innocence; the measure of decision in many cases unformed, in others locked up and made the object of a monopoly; the various rights and duties of the various classes of mankind jumbled together into one immense and unsorted heap; men ruined for not knowing what they are neither enabled nor permitted ever to learn; and the whole fabric of jurisprudence a labyrinth without a clue.

Bentham expounded his theory of law in the Principles of Morals and Legislation, published in 1789. He called his philosophical basis for legislative reform "utilitarianism", which he founded on the requirement that legislation and legal decisions should be based on a scrutiny of their effects on the happiness of the greatest number of people involved. In large part, Bentham was attacking the belief in intuitive knowledge of absolute principles, which he called the principle of sympathy and antipathy. In his acquaintance with the courts he recognized that this principle encouraged judgments based on feelings arising from ignorance and prejudice.

Bentham undertook a dispassionate survey of English legal institutions, rejecting admitted evils previously said to be unavoidable, and sought to achieve a view of the legal system as a whole in which the parts should not contradict each other. He argued that all legal institutions should be made to justify their utility, and he suggested alternative institutions where the existing ones were clearly defective. The legal revolution and the Reform Act of 1832, which attempted to make English law more equitable and to purge it of medieval litter, can be traced to the ideas of Bentham.

Bentham became the acknowledged leader of a group of philosophical radicals, including J. Mills and J. S. Mills, who sought social reform based on utilitarianism. In addition to writing about morals and law, Bentham negotiated for many years with the government to construct a model prison that would make it unnecessary to transport convicts overseas. He also promoted plans for canals though the isthmuses of Suez and Panama, and founded University College, London, and the Westminster Review. In the course of this, he formed an extensive circle of friends and pupils, including the Mills and the Austins, who helped him get his publications into print. He is said to have disliked general society as waste of time and poetry as misrepresentation. He enjoyed dinners with friends and visitors, his garden, and music (he had a piano in each main room).The following extracts are taken from Principles of Morals and Legislation. The section an extract is from is indicated in parenthesis. There is, or rather there ought to be, a logic of the will, as well as of the understanding: the operations of the will are neither less susceptible to being defined by rules nor less worthy than the operations of the understanding. Of these two branches of the recondite art of logic, Aristotle saw only the latter. Succeeding logicians, treading in the steps of their great founder, have concurred in seeing with no other eyes. Yet so far as a difference can be assigned between operations so intimately connected, a logic of the will is more important, since it is only by its direction of the operations of the faculty of will that the operations of the understanding are of any consequence.

Of this logic of the will, the most important application is to the science of law. This is to the art of legislation what the science of anatomy is to the art of medicine. But there is this difference: that the subject of it is what the artist has to work with, instead of being what he has to operate upon. Nor is the body politic less in danger from a want of acquaintance with the one science, than the body natural from ignorance in the other.

The general object that all laws have, or ought to have, in common is to augment the total happiness of the community and therefore to exclude, in the first place, as far as possible every thing tending to subtract from that happiness. In other words, to exclude mischief.

But all punishment is mischief; all punishment in itself is evil. Upon the principle of utility, if punishment ought to be admitted at all, it ought to be admitted only in as far as it promises to exclude some greater evil. It is plain, therefore, that in the following cases punishment ought not to be inflicted—

1) where it is groundless: where there is no mischief for it to prevent, the act not being mischievous upon the whole community;

2) where punishment must be ineffective: where it cannot function so as to prevent the mischief;

3) where it is unprofitable or too expensive: where the mischief it would produce would be greater than that prevented;

4) where it is needless: where the mischief may be prevented, or cease by itself, without punishment— that is, at a cheaper rate. (XIII: 3)

When punishment is worth while, there are four subordinate goals that a legislator whose views are governed by the principle of utility will naturally to propose to himself:

1) to prevent, in so far as possible and worth while, all sorts of offenses whatsoever: in other words, so to ensure that no offense whatsoever may be committed;

2) to induce a criminal to commit an offense less mischievous rather than one more mischievous: in other words, to choose always the least mischievous of two offenses when either of them will suit his purpose;

3) to dispose a criminal resolved upon a particular offense to do no more mischief than is necessary for his purpose (in other words, to do as little mischief as is consistent with the benefit he has in view);

4) to prevent whatever mischief is proposed as cheaply as possible. (XIV: 2-6)

Subservient to these goals must be rules governing the matching of degree of punishment to an offense. . .

Rule 1. The value of the punishment in any case must not less than sufficient to outweigh the profit of the offense.

Rule 2. The greater the mischief of the offence, the greater is the expense that it may be worthwhile to incur in the punishment.

Rule 3. Where two offences are in competition, the punishment for the greater offense must be sufficient to induce a criminal to prefer the less.

Rule 4. The punishment should be adjusted in such a manner to each particular offence so that for every part of the mischief there may be a motive to restrain the offender from indulging in it.

Rule 5. The punishment ought in no case to be more than necessary to bring it into conformity with these rules.

Rule 6. To ensure that the quantity of punishment actually inflicted on each individual offender corresponds to the quantity intended for similar offenders in general, the several circumstances influencing sensitiveness ought always to be taken into account. (XIV: 7-14) [further rules are also given]

It may be of use in this place to recapitulate the several circumstances to be considered in establishing the proportion between punishments and offenses. These seem to be as follows:

I. Regarding the offence:

1. The profit of the offense;

2. The mischief of the offense;

3. The profit and mischief of other greater or lesser offences, of different sorts that the offender may choose from;

4. The profit and mischief of other offenses, of the same sort, which the same offender may probably have been guilty of already.

II. Regarding the punishment:

5. The magnitude of the punishment: composed of its intensity and duration;

6. The deficiency of the punishment in point of certainty;

7. The deficiency of the punishment in point of proximity;

8. The quality of the punishment;

9. The accidental advantage in point of quality of a punishment, not strictly needed in point of quantity;

10. The use of a punishment of a particular quality, in the character of a moral lesson.

III. Regarding the offender:

11. The responsibility of the class of persons in a way to offend;

12. The sensibility of each particular offender;

13. The particular merits or useful qualities of any particular offender, where a punishment might deprive the community of their benefit;

14. The multitude of offenders on any particular occasion;

IV. Regarding the public, at any particular time:

15. The inclination of the people for or against any quantity or mode of punishment;

16. The inclinations of foreign powers;

V. Regarding the law (that is, the public) for it to endure:

17. The necessity of making small sacrifices in point of proportionality for the sake of simplicity. (XIV: 27)

3. Why does Mill consider the representative form of government as the best form of government?

Mill poses the question, if a good despotic could be assured, would despotic monarchy be the best form of government? Mill’s answer is No. Even if a good despot could be secured, which is an unlikely supposition, the result would be a passive population, whose collective affairs are managed for them, without their intelligent participation in the management. Such a despotism would massively fail test (1) of good government.

This argument moves too swiftly. Even if the despotic monarch holds all power, she might require intelligent participation in public affairs by all members of the public, as input into a decisionmaking process the monarch controls. So it is not necessarily so that a despotism must fail to improve the virtue and public spiritedness and political capacity of the people who are ruled. Otherwise how would an educational dictatorship be possible at all? Moreover, even if despotism in practice did not develop the political virtue and intelligence of the people ruled, the effective and efficient operation of government might leave the bulk of the moral and material resources of the nation for individual self-development in the private sphere. This development of private virtue and intelligence might quantitatively overshadow any hindrance to public and political virtue and intelligence, so on balance good despotism might satisfy test (1) for a good form of government.

Mill is arguing that representative government is ideally best. The alternative is that some nonrepresentative, nondemocratic political institutions would be best. Call such institutions authoritarian. Mill assumes that authoritarian government must be despotic, must manage all public and private activities in the society. But authoritarianism could be nondespotic, or nontotalitarian in 20th century language. Authoritarianism could be liberal. Notice that in given circumstances, a democratic government might massively violate Mill’s Liberty Principle and also might pass oppressive laws that amount to tyranny of the majority. In given circumstances, authoritarian government might do better to protect a wide sphere of individual liberty, respect and enforce people’s moral rights (other than the putative right to a democratic say), and adhere to Mill’s Liberty Principle than would any feasible democratic political arrangements. Mill’s arguments against authoritarianism presuppose that the authoritarian regime pursues certain despotic policies and do not hold in the general case. Mill’s conclusion might still be right, but the argument looks to be flawed. A perhaps better argument is that any autocratic government that succeeds in educating and improving the people who are ruled will eventually produce people who demand representative institutions. Either the rulers acquiesce in this demand or society moves in a retrograde direction. Good despotism might exist for a time but eventually undermines itself in this way. Mill: “Evil for evil, a good despotism, in a country at all advanced in civilization, is more noxious than a bad one; for it is far more relaxing and enervating to the thoughts, feelings, and energies of the people.” Despotism weakens a people, much as hot baths are supposed to weaken the individual who indulges in them. But even when the people being governed are civilized, educated, they might be disposed to perpetrate great evil on each other if left free to do so, and any form of representative institutions would unleash the disposition. Hot bath style weakening of the mental faculties might be superior to a bloodbath. In chapter XVI, Mill notices this. He holds that a people fit for representative institutions should be united in culture and interests as nationalsolidarity unites people. On this basis Mill opposes including more than one national community within a single state: One people, one state.

Mill: “The ideally best form of government is that in which the sovereignty, or supreme controlling power in the last resort, is vested in the entire aggregate of the community; each citizen not only having a voice in the exercise of that ultimate sovereignty, but being, at least occasionally, called on to take an actual part in the government, by the personal discharge of some public function, local or general.”

According to Mill, in a country with a large population, direct democracy is unfeasible, so a democratic government should be a representative democracy. To clarify Mill’s ideal of government, let us say a form of government is democratic to the degree that under it political institutions bring it about that the present will of the majority of the people determines the content of public policy and the laws and also determines who serve as major public officials, with at most a short time lag. On this view, a form of government is more democratic, the higher its scores along two separate dimensions of assessment. One is the degree to which the present will of the majority of citizens effectively shapes public policy and the occupants of office in the near term. Call this immediacy. A second dimension is the scope of the jurisdiction of majority will. To the degree that no policy issues are insulated from majority control, to that degree, the form of government is more democratic. Call this wide scope. We may add a third dimension of assessment: a form of government is more democratic to the degree that under it any individuals with the same political talent and the same level of political ambition have the same chances of influencing the outcomes of the political process toward the outcomes the individuals seek. A society overall is then democratic to the degree that it scores high along the three dimensions just characterized. Call the third one equal opportunity for political influence. (This last is at issue in present-day concerns that lead to calls for campaign finance reform.) When equal opportunity for political influence obtains, if George Bush, Bill Clinton, and you have equal political talent and political ambition, they and you would have the same chances of being politically influential. The fact that you are poor rather than rich, that your parents have insignificant rather than significant social networks, that you are of one race or religion rather than another, that you are a man or a woman, of one sexual orientation or another, would play absolutely no role in determining the extent to which they and you are politically influential. This is a very strong equality of opportunity norm. On this conception, being democratic varies by degree. Mill is only very modestly in favor of majoritarianism (dimensions 1 and 2), as we shall see. He does not directly address the issue of equal opportunity for political influence.Back to Mill’s arguments to the conclusion that the ideally best form of government is representative democracy (according to his statement quoted three paragraphs back). According to Mill democracy may be expected to be more conducive than any other form of government to organizing such good qualities of the people as currently exist to promote the common good. Why think this? Mill opines “that the rights and interests of every or any person are only secure from being disregarded when the person interested is himself able, and habitually disposed to stand up for them” and that “the general prosperity attains a greater height, and is more widely diffused, in proportion to the amount and variety of the personal energies enlisted in promoting it”. In short, according to Mill, the general interest is better promoted when people are selfprotecting and self-dependent. Mill then argues that democratic government best promotes these desirable tendencies while despotism inevitably tends to subvert and hinder them. According to Mill, democracy also does better than alternative forms of government at satisfying the second criterion of a good form of government proposed in chapter 2. This test states that the best form of government is the one that best improves the virtue and intelligence of the people under its jurisdiction. He observes, “This question really turns upon a still more fundamental one, viz., which of two common types of character, for the general good of humanity, it is most desirable should predominate—the active or the passive type; that which struggles evils, or that which endures them”. Mill asserts despotism produces the passive type and democracy the active type of people. Earlier in these notes I have already voiced skepticism about these speculative arguments. Mill’s conclusion, that democracy will produce best results, might yet be correct, but his arguments to this conclusion look to be inconclusive. Mill argues that democracy will do better than despotism, but nothing he says tends to show that authoritarian, nondemocratic forms of government must be despotic with the vices Mill associates with despotism.

4. What was the significant aspect of Montesquieu’s handling of the roles of government? The manner Montesquieu has defined the functions of government is identical with a review of the history of the uses of these ideas. Chapter 6 of Book XI begins: ‘In every government there are three sorts of power, the legislative; the executive in respect to things dependent on the law of nations and the executive in regard to matters that depend on the civil law.’ This is evidently a rewarding of Locke’s division of government roles, except that Montesquieu does not make use of the term ‘federative power’ for the executive power with regards to the external affairs. He still makes use of the term ‘executive’ to include all domestic affairs, both legislative and judicial; in other words, he adopts, though only for a moment, the two-fold division of roles into legislative and executive so common to the seventeenth century and previous period. Montesquieu then right away redefines his terms. He confirms that he means to use the term ‘executive power’ entirely to include the function of the judges to make peace or war, send or accept embassies, set up the public security and safeguard against invasions. Now, he seems to desire to confine the term ‘executive power’ to foreign affairs, for he never makes it clear that the power to ‘establish the public security’ has any internal implication. In addition, Montesquieu declares that he will name the third power, a power by which the magistrate reprimands criminals or settles disputes between people, the ‘power of judging.’ This seems to symbolize an attempt to merge the authority of Locke with the keen appreciation of the detached existence of the judicial power as different from the royal authority, which had manifested in the early eighteenth century. But this setting does not include any ‘executive’ acts except foreign affairs, for the judicial authority is confined to disagreements between the prince and the individual, and between individuals.Thus, Montesquieu has not managed to reconcile the seventeenth-century termswith the details of eighteenth-century government; the very important distinction between the domestic acts of the executive and the acts of the judiciary. Though, when he goes on to employ these terms, he gives up both definitions and makes use of them in a very much more contemporary way. The three powers now resemble ‘that of enacting laws, that of executing the public resolutions and of trying the causes of individuals,’ obviously including domestic and international affairs in the executive power. It is in this concluding sense that Montesquieu explains the ties between the powers of government, and it is, certainly, essentially the contemporary use of these terms. The significance of this transition in his use of terms cannot be exaggerated. He bridges the gap between the early contemporary and later modern vocabulary and obscures one of the essential problems of a three-fold definition of government roles. The fact that the ‘ruler’ had two characteristics to his function has bothered Locke and others. He had to establish the law where it was clearly stated, chiefly in domestic affairs and he had to act in areas where the law could not be described in detail and where his privilege must remain nearly wholly untrammelled, i.e., principally in international affairs. Therefore, between them, Locke and Montesquieu state no less than four functions of government, and not three: the legislative, the executive, the ‘prerogative’ and the judicial. To combine the two middle ones as ‘executive’ obscures the fact that in bigger areas of government function those accountable for day-to-day government decisions will not be ‘executing the law,’ but exercising a extremely wide discretion. Though, the concept that there are three, and only three, roles of government was now set up, except possibly in the minds of those English public prosecutors who had to dynamically describe the Crown’s prerogative powers. The most significant aspect of Montesquieu’s handling of the roles of government is that he completes the evolution from the old handling of ‘executive’ to a new ‘power of judging.’ It is different from implementing the law, which comes out to be the new executive role. However, it is in his usage of the ‘power of judging’ that Montesquieu’s supreme innovative importance lies. He equals the puissance de juger as on a par, critically, with the other two roles of government, and so fixes quite definitely the trinity of legislative, executive and judicial, which exemplifies modern thought. Critically important also is the fact that he separates this power from the aristocratic part of the legislature and vests it unambiguously in the commonplace courts of the land, though the noble house of the legislature requires playing the role of a court of appeal. Though, he still does not hand over the courts, the status they were soon to attain in American thought; he does not consider the judicial branch exactly equal in position as that of the legislative and executive branches, although he clearly means the judiciary to be independent of the other two. He envisions these two agencies as permanent bodies of magistrates, which symbolize real social forces, the monarch, the nobility and the people. The judiciary, however, ‘so terrible to mankind,’ should not be annexed to any specific class (état) or profession, and so turns out to be, in some sense, no social force by any means—‘en quelque façon nulle’—symbolizing everyone and no one. Thus, the judiciary is to be completely independent of the clash of interests in the State, and this stress upon judicial independence is very significant for the improvement of the principle.

5. Explain the roles and duties of Sovereign as suggested by Kautilya.

Roles and Duties of Sovereign

Kautilya’s Arthashastra gives the opinions of many earlier authors on the concept of polity. According to him, permanent peace is not possible. He says that whoever is superior in power will wage war. Whoever rises in power might break the agreement of peace. The king who is situated anywhere on the edge of the winner’s territory is called enemy. Whenever a king of equal power does not want peace then an equal amount of vexation as his opponent has received at his hand should be given to him in return. It is power that brings about peace between any two kings as no piece of iron that is not made red-hot will combine with another piece of iron. According to Kautilya, skill in intrigue was a better qualification for kingship than power or enthusiasm. At the time of Kautilya, no one could be trusted and spies were employed in almost every department of the Government and in every class of the population. They were of various types and they used cipher writing and carrier pigeons for carrying secret information. The intelligence department was controlled by the Institutes of Espionage. It was the department in which the reports were checked and verified. Kautilya mentions that the calamity of a king is more serious than that of a minister (Amatya). The king himself appoints ministers, domestic priest and servants. He even employs superintendents to provide remedies against troubles. The conduct of the people will reflect the conduct of the king, the head of the state. He is a government in himself (Raja Rajyamiti). Kautilya suggests various measures that a king should use for winning over the friendly as well as hostile elements within his kingdom. According to him, a particular class, of spies known as Samins should divide themselves into contending parties and carry on disputations in places of pilgrimage, in assemblies, in residences, in corporate bodies and in congregations of people. While one spy should praise the king the other should condemn him. According to Kautilya, people overcome by anarchy (Matsya Nyaya Abhibhutah) selected Manu, the son of the Sun, as their king. They fixed 1/6th of the grain and 1/I0th of the merchandise as well as gold to be the share of the king (Bhaga). The king alone could promote the security and prosperity of his subjects. Even the hermits who were living in the forests had to offer the king l/ 6th of the grain gleaned by them. The king occupied the position equal to gods. Kautilya made it clear that the king received the revenue from people as his fee for the service of protection. According to him, the king was spiritually responsible for the faithful discharge of his functions. He got the taxes on this definite condition. The king should not harm women or take the property of others, and he should shun falsehood, haughtiness and other evil tendencies. He should enjoy pleasure without any disregard for virtue and wealth. He should be highly educated as the education of the king and his self-control is the basic requisite for a successful government. Kautilya stressed that the king should rule with the assistance of state officials (Amatyas) and consult ministers (Mantrins). According to him, four tests should be done to find out how qualified the Amatyas are. Those tests were as follows:

• Fear

• Virtue

• Wealth

• Law

Kautilya emphasized on the necessity of civil service. He said ‘Sovereignty can be carried on only with assistance. A single wheel does not move; hence the king should employ the ministers and hear their advice.’ As regards composition of the Mantri Parishad or the council of ministers, Kautilya says that the size of the council of ministers should depend upon the circumstances of the case and the needs of the country. Kautilya counsels the king to avoid eight kinds of providential visitations, which are as follows:

• Fire

• Flood

• Pestilences

• Famine

• Rats

• Snakes

• Tigers

• Demons

This list hints that Kautilya shared the popular superstitions of those times. According to Kautilya, the king should assist the afflicted as the father does towards his son. He describes different methods through which the people of criminal tendencies could be entrapped with the help of spies. Kautilya is known as India’s Machiavelli on account of his attitude towards religion and morality. He advocated rules of grossly unscrupulous nature on the plea of public interest and without any pretence of moral disapproval. Kautilya had his own views on punishment. According to him, he who inflicted severe punishment becomes oppressive to all creatures. He who inflicted mild punishment is overpowered but he who inflicted just punishment is respected. Punishment when directed with consideration unites the people with virtue, wealth and desire. When it is misapplied by greed and anger through ignorance, it irritates even the hermits and the ascetics, not just the householders. When punishment is not applied at all, it produces the state of anarchy termed as Matsyanyaya. In the absence of one who wields the sceptre, the strong man devours the weak, but the weak man being protected by the king prevails upon the strong. According to Kautilya, the king ‘shall, therefore, attend personally to the business of gods or heretics or Brahmans learned in the Vedas of sacred places of minors, the aged, the afflicted and the helpless and of women; all this in order of enumeration or according to the urgency or pressure of those works. All urgent calls he shall hear at once, but never put off; for when postponed, they will prove too hard or impossible to accomplish.’

6. Explain Gandhian philosophy of decentralization and democracy.

Let us now discuss Gandhi’s thoughts on decentralization

Gandhi’s greatest contribution to the social thought of this century is perhaps his insistence on decentralization of the means of production (i.e. say economic power). There are many who are ready to give thoughtful consideration to his theory because it is the only way out of the problem of unemployment in this country. They argue that it is desirable to go in for decentralization because huge capital accumulation is needed to industrialize the country through largescale industries. They also contend that because large-scale industrialization presupposes the existence of foreign markets which this country cannot have, decentralization is the only cherishable goal. In other words, large-scale industrialization will be preferable in case the problem of capital formation and foreign market are solved. Now this line of reasoning constitutes a danger to the whole theory of decentralization as put forward by Gandhi. It would be wrong to presume that Gandhi propounded his theory only to suit Indian conditions. On the other hand,Gandhiji’s theory of decentralization was the result of his keen and almost prophetic insight into the numerous political, social and cultural ills which the age of large-scale industrialization has brought in its wake. This is what Bertrand Russell has to say as regards Gandhi’s concept of decentralization: ‘In those parts of the world in which industrialism is still young, the possibility of avoiding the horrors we have experienced still exists. India, for example is traditionally a land of village communities. It would be a tragedy if this traditional way of life with all its evils were to be suddenly and violently exchanged for the greater evils of industrialism and they would apply to people whose standard of living is already pitifully low.....’ Therefore, one has only to understand the magnitude of those ‘horrors’ of which Russell speaks, before one can truly appreciate Gandhi’s idea of decentralization. Large-scale industrialism is at the base of the centralization of political power in few hands. It is in the very nature of large-scale industries to centralize economic power in the hands of a few individuals. Under capitalism, this power comes to be concentrated in the hands of individual capitalists and under socialism it is arrogated by managers, technocrats and bureaucrats. Thus the centralization of power in the State negates the very conception of democracy. This is why Gandhi did not favour the so-called democracy in the West. In his view, Western democracy was only formal. In reality, it was totalitarian insofar as only a few could enjoy the political power in this system. Apart from the political consequences, there are the evil effects of industrialization on the personality of man. Industrialism starts by snapping the naval chord of man which binds him with soil and corrosive and all-enveloping shadow of giant machineries. As a result, he is reduced to a mere cog in the wheel. Since industrialization is based on the division of labour, it limits man’s self-expression. The famous illustration of Adam Smith that a pin has to pass through ninety hands before it is completely manufactured only reaffirms the above charge. Hence, the work loses its variety, initiative and colour. No doubt such a division increases the productivity. But it obstructs the full foliation of man’s natural skill.Not only this, industrialization does not cater to the biological needs of man. Man as a biological being requires ‘a specific temperature, a specific quality of climate, air, light, humidity and food.’ It is by working in such conditions that man maintains his bodily equilibrium. Industrialization usurps these organic needs of man. Moreover, industrialization tends to gather man in the collective. This inevitably fosters the growth of totalitarian impulse in man. Man becomes oblivious of his own sovereignty. He merges his personality in the collective with the result that ultimately he is accustomed to tolerate every form of tyranny and cruelty in the name of the collective wellbeing of the society. There are some of the most eloquent ills which result from an unchecked pursuit of industrialism. As a matter of fact, many thinkers and social reformers, Wen, Simon, Fouriser and especially Marx tired to go into the causes of these ills. According to them, therefore, the root of the malady lay in the system of ownership; all social, political and cultural ills were due to private ownership of the means of production. Once this private system of ownership was removed and instruments of production socialized, they thought the malady would disappear, rather melt as if into thin air.However, experience gave a lie to the rosy picture, which these reforms and especially Marx had pained. Even after socialization, the ills tended to appear in diverse other forms. Liberty disappeared and the mad pursuit after power tended to reduce man to the lowest denominator of beast living as George Orwell would like to call on ‘Animal Farm’. Where lay then the root of the disease, the fallacy in the whole approach? Undoubtedly many of the evil originated from the system of ownership. Gandhi accepted Marx in this respect. But he went a step further and delved deeper. According to him, both the system of ownership and the technique of production were the real cause of the malady. Marx attacked the system of ownership in his humanistic zeal. But he left the technique of production altogether untouched. Gandhiji focused his attention to the technique also. He suggested that largescale technique should give way to small-scale technique. This, therefore, forms the core of his decentralization theory. Does this mean that Gandhi was against the application of science to the instruments of production, i.e. machinery? To this he replied, ‘What I object to is the craze for machinery, not machinery as such.....’ Indeed he favoured the application of science towards developing the small-scale technique: ‘I would welcome every improvement in the cottage machine’, he wrote in Young India. Replying to a suggestion whether he was against all machinery he said, ‘My answer is emphatically No. but I am against its indiscriminate multiplication. I refuse to be dazzled by the seeming triumph of machinery. But simple tools and implements and such machinery as saves individual labour and lightens the burden of millions of cottages, I should welcome.’ We see, therefore, that Gandhi was not against machinery as such. His whole approach to machinery and the use of science was radically different, deeply revolutionary and humanly conscious. A technique which tends to make man a robot, robs him of his perennial urge to freedom and makes an all-out invasion on his political, economic and social liberties is not acceptable to Gandhi. ‘Science in so far as it consists of knowledge, must be regarded as having value, but insofar as it consists of technique, the question whether it is to be praised or blamed depends upon the use that is made of the technique. In itself it is neutral, neither good or bad and any ultimate views that we may have about what gives value to this or that must come from some other source than science.’ This is what Bertrand Russell has to say about the use of scientific technique. According to Gandhi, the scientific technique, therefore, must be informed by a deep awareness of values which it is out to create. In other words, the advancement of technique and perfection must accord with the general aims. Large-scale technique strikes at the very root of the general aims. Gandhi, therefore, does not show any quarter to it.

B. A. – 2nd Semester – Summer Drive 2012
B.A. (English)
Subject Name: Indian Society: Structure and Change.
Subject code: BAE 203
4 credits (60 marks)
(BKID: B1532)
Set 1

1. Write a short note on the concept of unity in diversity.

Unity in Diversity

There have been various judicial decisions wherein religious pluralism has been emphasized as the quintessence of the Indian society. The Apex court’s description of India as a mosaic representing a synthesis of different religions and cultures only put a seal of affirmation on what indeed has always been the ground reality in this country. The law in the secular India of our times respects religious beliefs and practices. It ensures religious liberty but keeps it within internationally recognized limits. It prohibits abuse and misuse of religion and religious sensitivities and provides laws and statutory mechanisms for controlling and managing specific religious and religion-related affairs. On the whole, modern India remains a deeply religious country and spirituality continues to be an integral part of the social order. India’s secular Constitution and constitutionally sanctioned legislation are, therefore, sensitive enough to this ground reality. Secularism Let us try and understand the concept of secularism as it exists in India. Secularism is a basic feature of the Indian Constitution, which cannot be changed even by the Parliament. There is no state religion and the state is prohibited against discrimination on the basis of religion. Secularism ensures that religion does not determine state policy. It insulates public policy-making from the influence of religion and, thereby, eliminates any bias or discrimination that can creep into this process. Secularism is a very important aspect of the Indian way of life and governance. It has helped in promoting communal harmony and in keeping national integration at the forefront. Communal harmony can prevail only when you ensure equality of status among people and equal opportunity for everyone as conceived in the Constitution of India. Notwithstanding the adoption of secularism, India has witnessed horrifying communal riots at times. In this context, it is commonly felt that secularism is the solution to such religious violence in India, especially with regard to conflicts between Hindus and Muslims. On the contrary, secularism is fiercely contested by a variety of groups. It is important for us to know that, historically, notions of secularism and tolerance originated as solutions to problems related to the religious strife in the West. Therefore, it is important for religious studies to develop an understanding of those problems that secularism and tolerance can solve, and whether or not these are also the problems Indian society faces with regard to religious pluralism.

2. Write a short note on India’s caste system.

Despite the numerous diversities in our cultural life and the extent of cultural pluralism in India, we do adhere to certain common national ethos and notions.
There is definitely an ‘Indian culture’ that permeates our existence howsoever diverse we may be at an individual or group level. We respect the same traditions and heritage; we celebrate the same festivals; and we share similar food habits.
Some important questions that arise are what bring about the cultural unity among Indians despite the plethora of diversities existing in our society?
Is the unity maintained administratively or it comes from within our society?
What is the role of religion in forging this cultural unity?
The answers to these three questions are not easy to find. Firstly, the reason or reasons for the cultural unity among Indians, despite the plethora of diversities, is/are not easy to pinpoint. Thus, the first question remains unanswered even though the readers are free to do their own research and come to certain conclusive findings.
However, with regard to the second question, we can say with reasonable correctness that the unity has not been brought about administratively. Rather, it has come from within the Indian society. This is so because cultural unity in
India is more than skin deep. People genuinely share a common culture that is symbolized by festivals, art, rituals, etc., which are similar. These things cannot be brought about through administration or external directions. Rather, cultural unity emerges from the depths of our society. While the administrative reasons could be there, like the modern and progressive constitution; the integration of princely states with the nation; the promotion of Hindi as the national language; etc., it would only be a modern day phenomenon. This gives rise to some further queries like how can we explain the cultural unity that prevailed hundreds of years earlier? Or was there no such unity in those times and it is a recent phenomenon, i.e., something which was observed only after the beginning of the freedom movement in the nineteenth century?
In the context of these sub-queries, it would suffice to say that it would be incorrect to hold the view that cultural unity is a thing of the recent past. Centuries ago, even though there was no political state called India; the people residing in the sub-continent had certain common cultural traits. Though the various territories were often at war with each other, the people of these territories were generally a large homogeneous group with shared values and ideals. They celebrated festivals like Diwali and Rath Yatra with devotion and fanfare. With the advent of the Muslim rulers, the cultural unity amongst the Hindu population got stronger in the face of foreign aggression. However, there were many benevolent Muslim and Mughal rulers, like Akbar, who made all religious groups feel safe and secure. Such rulers promoted the cultures of different religious groups and tried to create a national culture.
The third question as to what role religion has played in forging this unity is complex and demands a careful analysis. We have earlier talked about communalism and the danger that it poses to unity in our country. People get swayed away by irrational religious issues and become violent towards people belonging to a different religion. Thus, it would appear that religion would have a negative bearing upon cultural unity. But it is not so simplistic. Admittedly, communal passions are ignited by religion and unity gets torn apart. But religion also has a tremendous contribution towards the growth of cultural unity in India.
One reason for this could be the overwhelming majority of the Hindu population.
More than 80 per cent of the Indians are Hindus. This huge number covers all kinds of people belonging to different regions, castes, linguistics, classes, etc. The Hindu religion acts as an umbrella for Marathi Brahmanas, Kashmiri
Pandits; Orissi farmers, Telugu entrepreneurs; Bihari zamindars, etc. They are all from diverse backgrounds and enjoy different levels of social status but they all are united by the bond of Hinduism. They celebrate Hindu festivals together, like Holi, Diwali, Durga Puja, Ganesh Chaturthi, etc. They practice similar customs and rituals during times of birth and death in the family. Thus, we see that a religion is playing the role of a unifier. Hinduism is promoting cultural unity among diverse groups.
A related question that arises is that if one religion promotes unity amongst its followers, is it not promoting communalism? Is it not creating an adversarial position between different religions? Is it not true that Hindu unity might make the smaller religions feel insecure? These are all very difficult questions to answer.
They may be true or at least partly true. But that does not take away from the role of religion – especially the religion followed by a vast majority of the population – in fostering cultural unity.
A peculiar thing about this issue is that Hinduism is not seen merely as a religion. It has been accepted by many as a way of life. Even many non-Hindus have accepted this view. If that is so, then we can say that Hinduism has played a very big role in bringing together the disparate groups of people in our country.
Thus, on balance, we can say that religion does play a significant role in unifying people and making them share their cultural beliefs and traditions.
Another important facet about India is its caste system. We have discussed in the previous section that casteism has been generally a divisive force in our country. However, there is another school of sociological thought which believes that the caste system has also provided a common cultural ideology to Indians.
This school believes that though caste has created inter-caste conflicts and the social problems emanating from untouchability, it is also true that the jajmani system had succeeded in maintaining harmony and cooperation among various castes in the rural areas of our country. Jajmani system or vetti-chakiri is a
Indian social caste system and its interaction between upper castes and lower castes. It was an economic system in which lower castes have only obligations or duties to render free services to the upper caste community.
In recent years, the numerically large castes – who had been socially exploited for centuries – have realized their potential in the political arena and have started flexing their muscles. They have forged a caste unity among like groups and have attained political power. This is both good and bad for cultural unity. While it is good for the groups that have come together, it is bad in the overall social scenario as it pits some castes against the others.
Like in case of caste, there is an alternate school of thought in relation to languages. This school holds the view that language also contributes towards cultural unity because a national language binds the people together and preserves and protects the culture of a nation. This is true but does not address the issue of the effects of a plethora of languages as is the case in India.
The discussions in this and the previous section can be summarized by saying that though religion, caste and language have definitely created some problems in the Indian society, they also contain the idea of the unity of India within themselves.

3. Discuss the distinctive features of tribal communities and their geographical spread in India.

Tribes are relatively isolated from the non-tribal population and have some kind of a cultural homogeneity. They earn their living from simple economic activities and use very simple technology. They usually follow their own religion and believe in magic, witchcraft and spirits. They practice taboo and have taboos that prohibit them from doing anything that is impermissible. Violation of taboos results in punishment handed down by the community or the supernatural.
Many tribal populations believe in animism, which propagates that every animate or inanimate object is inhabited by spirits. Scholars believe that animism was the earliest form of religion of the tribes. Tribal society is inconceivable without magic. Techniques being simple, the ability of the tribes to control the processes of nature is limited. Hence, reliance upon the supernatural is very high. The main characteristics of Indian tribes are as follows:
? Common name: Each tribe has its own name that distinguishes it from another tribe.
? Common territory: Every tribe has a traditional territory, which it occupies.
Emigrants always refer to such territory as their homes.
? Common language: Members of an Indian tribe speak a common language. Each tribe has its own dialect even if it does not have its own script. ? Common culture: Each tribe has unique customs and rituals to follow and its own festivals to celebrate. They have their own Gods to worship and taboos to observe strictly.
? Endogamy: The Indian tribes are endogamous and the members of a particular tribe usually marry within the same tribe. However, in respect of clans within a tribe, they practice clan exogamy and do not marry within the same clan.
? Political organization: Politically, Indian tribes are under the overall control of the state government and are also governed by the Panchayats.
However, they all have their own political organizations where the elders control the others. These organizations are usually in the nature of village councils. ? Simple economy: Generally, the members of the Indian tribes are engaged in economic activities that are primitive in nature and require simple tools and techniques to be employed. Agriculture, both shifting and normal, and gathering of forest produce are the chief economic activities of Indian tribes. Artisans also are a significant part of the tribal community. Despite the advent of the modern economy, the tribes still depend upon barter system in many parts of the country.
? Kinship: The tribes of India are closely knit due to the strong kinship bonds that they share. Kinship operates within every Indian tribe as a strong regulative and integrating principle. In tribal life, the principal links for the whole society are based on kinship. Kinship is not only a principle of social organization; it is also a principle of inheritance, division of labour and distribution of power and privileges.
? Dormitories: The dormitory institution in tribal society is a unique feature and is also seen among the Indian tribes. The Nagas of Assam call the dormitories as Morung. In Uttar Pradesh, it is known as Rangbhang. The
Munda and Ho tribes of Madhya Pradesh call their dormitories Gitiora.
Gonds call it as Gotul. Youth dormitories are the place where tribal people learn the facts of life. This institution, till a few years ago, was solely responsible for education and social change amongst the young tribal. It is slowly weakening due to the advent of modern education and greater access of the tribal children to schools.
? Low literacy: Due to paucity of modern and formal schools in tribal areas, access to modern education is limited. Therefore, literacy levels are very low among the Indian tribes. Besides, till independence, formal education was a distant dream for the tribal and they had only their education system to fall back upon. Through concerted efforts by the Government and NGOs, the literacy rate among the Indian tribes is slowly creeping up.

4. Explain the concept of Rural-Urban continuum.

Rural–urban continuum
Both rural and urban societies are part of the same human society and do share a lot of features of each other. There is no clear demarcation between the two. There is no sharp demarcation to tell where the city ends and the country begins. It is very difficult to actually distinguish between the two societies in the geographical realm. While theoretically we talk about the two societies, the dichotomy between the two is not based upon scientific principles.
Since, no concrete demarcation can be drawn between the ‘rural’ and the
‘urban’, sociologists take recourse to the concept of rural–urban continuum.
The bottom line of the concept is that rural and urban societies do not exist in water tight compartments but do have a lot in common. They share lifestyles, value systems, traditional festivals and customs because they, ultimately, belong to the same society. The difference between them is usually of degree rather than of kind. They are not mutually exclusive.
The differences between them are getting further blurred with the advent of modernization and industrialization. Countries where these processes have become universal are good examples of similarities between rural and urban areas. Universal modern education, modern means of transportation, access to television and computers, etc. have radically changed the lifestyle in rural areas and have reduced the differences that were earlier visible between rural and urban areas. Countries like India still have huge differences between these two areas because of poverty and illiteracy continuing to dominate the rural landscape The Rural–Urban Continuum
The extreme left depicts a remote village and the extreme right a metropolitan city. Such sharp differences do not usually exist between villages and cities and, in reality, rural and urban areas can exist at any point on the above line or continuum. Thus, there is no clear cut demarcation and the difference can be seen to be one of degree and not kind.
The fringe at the centre of the diagram is an interesting concept. It is also known as the rural–urban fringe. It is some sort of an overlapping geographical area between a city and a rural area. The cities have expanded and penetrated into rural areas. This is due to haphazard and unplanned growth of the cities. As one moves out of cities, one can see some residential colonies, a few factories, open sheds storing marble, timber or other construction material, automobile showrooms, petrol/diesel filling stations, etc. In between these structures, one can see large tracts of agricultural fields. These areas are known as the rural– urban fringe. The fringe is defined as an area of mixed urban and rural land users between the point where city services cease to be available and the point where agricultural land users predominate.

5. Write a short note on the concept of de-urbanization.

CONCEPT OF De-urbanization
It is interesting to note that in the midst of rapid urbanization in India, a simultaneous process of de-urbanization is also happening.
At the outset, you should be clear that this process has to be seen from the prism of activity of groups of people and not from the prism of the city being only a physical entity. As a physical entity, the city still attracts people and urbanization is said to be continuing. But when you focus on the activity of groups of people within a city, you see that many of the activities are actually slowing down or moving out from the city centres to the peripheries.
The hectic economic activity in the city centres or the central business districts of the cities have slowed down in many Indian cities. These areas have become inhabited by the low income groups and are faced with very many social problems. The new immigrants to the city also find their way to these places.
Together they constitute a big group, which is willing to do some unskilled or semi-skilled work. In short, they have become a large, low-income, low priority group. The new service sector industries like information technology companies, software parks, business process outsourcing units (BPOs), etc. are all setting up their business on the outskirts of these cities. They are far removed from the central business districts. As a result, the educated and upwardly mobile technocrats and entrepreneurs are all moving out from the inner confines of our urban centres. The new growth centres are emerging on the boundaries of our cities. This process of economic decline in the city centres and economic boom at the periphery of the cities is what is being called as de-urbanization of the cities. It is also being referred to as urbanization of villages. This is so because a number of villages on the fringes of the Indian cities are getting converted in urban areas by the movement of economic activity towards them. A fine example of this is Delhi and the National Capital Region. Places like Gurgaon, Noida,
Ghaziabad, etc. have seen a massive boom and a large number of villages in these areas have become urbanized. This has happened due to the setting up of new service sector industries and the development of high quality residential complexes. Thus, while the business districts of Delhi got de-urbanized to some extent, the sub-urban and rural areas outside the city got urbanized.

6. Describe the types of families. What functions does a family discharge in society? Types of Family
Though family is a universal institution, its structure or forms vary not only from one society to another but also from one class to another within the same society.
Sociologists have spoken of different forms or types of families and they have taken into consideration different factors for the purposes of making such classifications. A few types of family classifications are discussed as follows:
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? On the basis of marriage, family has been classified into two major types: ο Monogamous ο Polygamous
(i) Polyandrous
(ii) Polygynous
Monogamy is a system of marriage in which one man marries one woman.
In almost all the modern societies, marriages are monogamous and such families are known as monogamous families.
? Polygamy is a system of marriage that permits the marriage of one man with more than one woman or the marriage of one woman with more than one man. Polygamous marriages or families are rarely seen in the modern societies. ? On the basis of nature of residence, family can be classified into three major types: o Family of matriarchal residence o Family of patriarchal residence o Family of changing residence
When the wife goes to stay with her husband in his house after marriage, the residence is known as patriarchal residence. Such families are known as patriarchal families. Most of the families in all modern societies are of this type.
In cases where the husband stays in the wife’s house after marriage, the residence type is known as matriarchal residence. Such families are known as matriarchal families and are predominantly found in tribal societies. In India, such families can be seen amongst the Khasi, Jayantia and Garo tribes of
Meghalaya.
A third type of residence system is the one where both the husband and wife stay in a new house after marriage and start a family. This kind of family is known as a family of changing residence.
? On the basis of ancestry or descent, family can be classified into two main types: o Matrilineal family: When descent is traced through the mother, we have the system known as the matrilineal system. Families that trace their descent through this system are known as matrilineal families.
In such families, lineage and succession are determined by the female line.
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Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 113 o Patrilineal family: When descent is traced through the father or the male line, we have the patrilineal system. Families that follow this system are known as patrilineal families. Most of the families in the world belong to the patrilineal system and the lineage and succession in such families are determined through the father.
? On the basis of the nature of authority, family can be classified into two main types: o Matriarchal family: The matriarchal family is also known as the mother-centred or mother-dominated family. In such families, the mother or the woman is the family head and she exercises authority.
She is the owner of the family property and controls the household.
The Khasis of North-Eastern India may be called mother-right people.
Amongst them, descent is traced through the mother, not the father.
Inheritance passes from mother to the daughter. o Patriarchal family: A patriarchal family is also known as fathercentered or father-dominated family. The head of the family is the father or the eldest male member and he exercises authority. He is the owner and administrator of the family property. His voice is final in all family matters.
? On the basis of nature of relationship amongst its members, a family can be classified into two types: o Conjugal: Ralph Linton has given this classification. He is of the view that a family based on blood relationship is known as consanguine family. For example, the relationship between a father and a son. o Consanguine: On the other hand, a family in which there exists sex relationship between the members on the strength of marriage is known as a conjugal family. The sexual relationship between the husband and wife is a basic ingredient of the conjugal family.
? On the basis of the in-group and out-group affiliation, family can be classified into two types: o Endogamous: It is one where the social norms make it compulsory for members of the family to marry within the larger social group to which it belongs. For example, a Brahmin family in India would be in the nature of an endogamous family because the rigid caste system does not allow inter-caste marriages. Therefore, an Indian family is usually endogamous.
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For example, members of a family belonging to one class can marry members belonging to another class in an open society.
? On the basis of size, family can be classified into three types: ο Nuclear or individualistic family ο Extended family ο Joint family
Nuclear or individualistic family
In nuclear families, the members comprise the husband, wife and their children.
This type of family has become more common with the advent of industrialization and urbanization, which has forced people to move out to new urban centers and seek employment. Further, factors like individualistic ideology, economic aspirations and housing problems in urban areas have strengthened the nuclear family. Murdock has further sub-divided the nuclear family into the following two types: ? The family of orientation
? The family of procreation
The family of orientation is the family in which an individual is born and in which his parents and siblings reside. He grows up in this family of orientation and stays in it till his marriage.
Exteded family
The extended family comprises members belonging to three or more generations. For example, a man living with his parents, his wife and their children is said to be living in an extended family. According to Murdock, an extended family ‘consists of two or more nuclear families affiliated through an extension of the parent-child relationship, i.e., by joining the nuclear family of a married adult to that of his parents.’ Thus, the nuclear family of an individual and the nuclear family of his parents can combine together to form an extended family.
This type of extended family can be seen in India, China, etc. The joint family of
India is also a type of extended family.
An extended family can also be formed when an individual and his several wives live together with the families of his several sons. This kind of extended family is seen in some African and Arab societies.
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Joint family
A joint family, though a type of extended family, is an important social unit of
Indian society. Smt. Iravati Karve says that ‘a joint family is a group of people who generally live under one roof, who eat food cooked at one hearth, who hold property in common and who participate in common worship and are related to each other as some particular kind of kindred.’
In brief, a joint family consists of members spanning horizontally (siblings) and vertically (generations) and living together with common goals and common assets. The family fulfills a number of functions. According to Goode, a family has the following functions:
? Procreation
? Socio-economic security to family members
? Determination of status of family members
? Socialization and emotional support
? Social control
Kingsley Davis talks about the following four functions of the family:
? Reproduction
? Maintenance
? Placement
? Socialization
Ogburn and Nimkoff have outlined the following six functions of the family:
1. Affection
2. Economic
3. Recreational
4. Protective
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5. Religious
6. Educational
The functions of a family mentioned above can be divided into four broad categories: 1. Biological
2. Social
3. Psychological
4. Economic
The biological needs of an individual are satisfied in the family. Thus, it is a very important function of the family. Firstly, the family institutionalizes the need of sex satisfaction through marriage. Social sanction is accorded to this need by the family. Secondly, the family also fulfills the biological need of procreation. The existence of the human race is dependent upon procreation and, therefore, this is a very crucial function discharged by the family.
The family discharges the various social functions also. According to
Goode, it brings up children and helps in their socialization. Children learn their language, customs, traditions, etc. while growing up in the family. The family also discharges the functions of imparting socialization to its members, regulation of their behaviour and ensuring social control. The family transmits the familial values to its members and they do not deviate from the path of proper social behaviour. In addition to biological and social functions, the family also satisfies psychological and emotional needs of its members. The members get love, adulation, sympathy and emotional support from within the family.
Another important function of the family is economic. In pre-industrial economies, the family is the unit of production. All members of a family contribute to the family occupation like agriculture, cattle-rearing, hunting, etc. The family provides economic security to its members. It takes care of their basic needs like food, shelter, clothing, education, health, etc.

B. A. – 2nd Semester – Summer Drive 2012
B.A. (English)
Subject Name: Poetry – Evolution, Elements, Genres.
Subject code: BAE 204
4 credits (60 marks)
(BKID: B1533)
Set 1

1. Evaluate the three stages of the neoclassical period. Cite examples of various kinds of literature to bring out the differences between them.

Neoclassical Period
Neoclassicism was a reaction against the optimistic and high-spirited
Renaissance view of man as a being that is fundamentally good and that possesses infinite potential for spiritual and intellectual growth. Neoclassical theorists saw man as imperfect, prone to sin and faced with limited potential.
They replaced imagination, invention, experimentation and mysticism with order and reason, restraint, common sense, and religious, political, economic and philosophical conservatism. These theorists saw art as valuable as well as useful and as intellectual rather than emotional.
The neoclassical period drew inspiration in decorative and visual arts, literature, theatre, music, and architecture from the classical art and culture of ancient Greece or ancient Rome. Eighteenth century neoclassical art was marked by restraint in composition and severity of line, as compared with the excesses of the Rococo style. Neoclassical architecture followed both classical and Renaissance structures that laid stress upon order and simplicity.
Neoclassical art and literature emphasized on martial courage seen in the Greek and Latin epics.
The favourite literary forms of prose of neoclassical theorists were essays, letters, satires, parodies, burlesque and moral fables. In poetry, the favourite form of verse was the rhymed couplet, while theatre saw themes of heroic drama, melodrama, sentimental comedy and comedy of manners.
The neoclassical period can be divided into three parts:
? The Restoration Age (1660–1700): Milton, Bunyan, and Dryden were the dominant influences.
? The Augustan Age (1700–1750): Pope was the central poetic figure, while
Defoe, Richardson, Fielding and Smollett dominated the novel form.
? The Age of Johnson (1750–1798): dominated and characterized by
Dr. Samuel Johnson. The Age of Johnson also saw the following: o Beginnings of understanding and appreciation of Shakespeare o Development, by Sterne and others, of the novel of sensibility o Emergence of the Gothic school
Neoclassicism laid stress upon the following characteristics:
? Imitation of classical form
? Artificiality and aristocracy in society
? Derivation of honour from reputation
? Polite, urbane and witty style
? Distrust of innovation and invention
? Restraint in passion and personal expression
? Ideals of order, logic, accuracy, correctness and decorum
? Propriety in terms of subject matter
? Subordination of details to an overall design
? Employment of symmetry, proportion, unity, harmony and grace to entertain, instruct, educate and correct man
Restoration literature
Restoration literature, written in the English language, during the English
Restoration from 1660 to 1689 is literature that corresponds to the final years of the reign of the Stuarts in the United Kingdom. Restoration literature denotes the consistent styles of literature that are based on the celebration of or reaction to the restored court of Charles II. This form of literature includes extremes, such as the following:
? John Milton’s Paradise Lost
? John Wilmot’s, the second Earl of Rochester, Sodom, or the Quintessence of Debauchery
? William Wycherley’s The Country Wife
? John Bunyan’s The Pilgrim’s Progress from This World to That Which Is to Come
This period also saw John Locke’s Two Treatises of Government, the establishment of the Royal Society, the experiments and meditations of Robert
Boyle, the hysterical attacks on theatre by Jeremy Collier and the start of literary criticism by John Dryden and John Dennis. The period also saw news becoming a commodity, essay develop into a periodical art form and the beginning of textual criticism. Dates for Restoration literature vary across genres. This means that Restoration drama spanned until 1700, Restoration poetry spanned only until 1666 and Restoration prose spanned until 1688.
Thus, Restoration literature encompassed laudatory odes for the restored aristocracy, theological and philosophical literature that showed an increasing despair among Puritans and literature that facilitated trade and communication in England’s mercantile empire.
The Restoration age was marked by the development of poetry. It was the most important form of literature, with themes ranging from political events to social scenarios. Throughout this period, the lyric, ariel, historical and epic forms of poems were being developed. Some of the poems written during this age, both finished and unfinished, are listed are as follows:
? Edmund Spenser’s Faerie Queene
? Sir William Davenant’s Gondibert
? Richard Blackmore’s Prince Arthur and King Arthur
? Samuel Butler’s Hudibras
? Philip Sidney’s Absalom and Achitophel and Religio Laici
Augustan literature
Augustan literature, written in the English language, was produced during the reign of Queen Anne, Kings George I and George II in the first half of the eighteenth century and came to an end with the death of Pope (in 1744) and
Swift (in 1745). The Augustan era saw the rapid development of novels, especially satires, development of drama from political satire to melodrama and the use of the poetry form for personal exploration. Augustan era philosophy was increasingly based on empiricism, while the politico-economic writings saw the development of mercantilism, capitalism and trade as formal philosophies. This period saw a bold style of writing in all genres, with satire using irony, nuances and a superficial air of dignified calm that hid pointed criticism.
Essays, satires, novels and philosophical and religious dialogue flourished during this age. Literacy thrived among the people, including the working and middle classes, and was not confined to men. Some of the important works of prose written during this period are listed as follows:
? Joseph Addison and Richard Steele’s The Spectator
? Daniel Defoe’s The Shortest Way with the Dissenters; Or, Proposals for the Establishment of the Church, Robinson Crusoe, Moll Flanders
? William Law’s A Serious Call to a Devout and Holy Life
? Robert Boyle’s Meditations
? Bernard de Mandeville’s The Fable of the Bees
? Adam Smith’s Theory of Moral Sentiments
? Jonathan Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels, Tale of a Tub
? Miguel de Cervantes’s Don Quixote
? Samuel Richardson’s Pamela, or, Virtue Rewarded
? Henry Fielding’s Shamela, or an Apology for the Life of Miss Shamela
Andrews
? Samuel Richardson’s Clarissa
? Tom Brown’s Amusements Serious and Comical, Calculated for the
Meridian of London
? Ned Ward’s The London Spy
? Tom D’Urfey’s Wit and Mirth: or Pills to Purge Melancholy
? Pope’s The Rape of the Lock, The Dunciad
? Joseph Addison’s Cato
? John Home’s Douglas
Johnson literature
The Age of Johnson, referred to as The Age of Sensibility, ranges from the middle of the eighteenth century up to 1798. This period is named after Samuel Johnson (1709–1784), poet, critic and author, who played a critical role during this era. His work focussed on the study of natural and artistic beauty and lay emphasis on the values of Enlightenment – use of knowledge, not faith and superstition, to enlighten others. This led to further studies in social, economic, and cultural areas, including astronomy, politics, and medicine. Writers in this age used themes of intellect, reason, balance and order in their work. Some of the major works of this period include the following:
? Burke’s A Philosophical Inquiry into the Origins of Our Ideas on the Sublime and Beautiful
? Johnson’s The Rambler
? Goldsmith’s The Vicar of Wakefield
? Johnson’s Dictionary of the English Language
? Laurence Sterne’s Tristam Shandy
? Henry Mackenzie’s The Man of Feeling
Johnson fervently believed that the language used in should be simple and easy to understand and that writers should avoid using grammar and vocabulary that did not appeal to the masses. It can be rightly concluded that the eighteenth century was marked by tremendous interest in reason, scientific development and analysis and in the development of exclusive interest in prose forms. It can be called the age of prose and reason. However, the middle of eighteenth century saw the rise of skeptic philosophers like David Hume, who argued that human reason can discern only partial truth. The only valid truth we perceive is through our sentiment. This led to the phenomenal growth of sentimental literature – drama (Steel and Cumberland) and novel (Stern, Mackenzie).
This age can also be called the Age of Enlightenment. Along with development of science and reason, the European society saw revolution in three other areas:
? Politics: After the revolution in 1688, the English rejected tyranny, and power was distributed between the King of England and the parliament.
This led to the establishment of democracy.
? Law: Legal procedures were simplified and laws were rationalized and made more tolerant.
? Society: Society became more refined, tolerant and politically stable.
People thus engaged themselves in refined activities of pleasure, which gave a boost to literature and the performing arts. There was a general feeling of progress and movement away from the darkness of the Medieval and Renaissance periods.

2. Discuss the various forms of poetry.

Forms of Poetry
All cultures have developed specific forms of poetry. In some poetic forms, elements such as the rhyming scheme and meter are based on rules that might range from relatively loose to inflexible. These determine the construction of elegies, ghazals as well as villanelles. Following listed are some common forms of poetry widely used across a number of languages.
Ode
The root of the term ‘ode’ lies in the Greek word aeidein which means ‘to sing’ or ‘to chant’. Odes are a part of the lyric poetry tradition and are poems that have a formal poetic diction, that are addressed to an absent person or an object. They deal with serious subjects. Odes usually have three segments: strophe, antistrophe and epode. In the earlier days, odes were accompanied by music and dance. The performance involved two choruses or individuals. The first chorus/individual recital or singing of the strophe, followed by the second chorus or individual reciting/singing of the antistrophe and then both together singing the epode. Romantic poets used this lyrical form to express their strongest sentiments.
There are three varieties of odes, distinguished by form and structure:
? Pindaric
? Horatian
? Irregular
The Pindaric ode is named after the classical Greek poet Pindar, who is acknowledged with introducing the ode form. It is performed by a chorus and accompanied by dancers. These performances consisted of strophe, antistrophe and epode. Pindaric odes were performed to commemorate victories related to athletic pursuits. William Wordsworth’s Ode on Intimations of Immortality from Recollections of Early Childhood is an excellent example of a Pindaric ode in English. It begins with a formal opening, the middle segment mirrors the opening; and the ending - that is of varying length - is composed with a variety of metrical structures: There was a time when meadow, grove, and stream, The earth and every common sight To me did seem Apparelled in celestial light, The glory and the freshness of a dream. It is not now as it hath been of yore;— Turn wheresoe’er I may,
By night or day, The things which I have seen I now can see no more.
The Horatian ode owes its name to Horace, the Roman poet. It is more informal, less elaborate and more tranquil and meditative in tone than the Pindaric ode.
This form is more apt when one is reading or writing for personal pleasure, rather than for theatrical performances. The Horatian ode has a regular pattern of stanza. An example is Allen Tate’s Ode to the Confederate Dead:
Row after row with strict impunity
The headstones yield their names to the element,
The wind whirrs without recollection;
In the riven troughs the splayed leaves
Pile up, of nature the casual sacrament
To the seasonal eternity of death;
Then driven by the fierce scrutiny
Of heaven to their election in the vast breath,
They sough the rumour of mortality.
The irregular ode is formal in manner and has the characteristics of the classical ode in terms of its thematic value. The following is a well-known example of this form is Ode on a Grecian Urn written by John Keats.
Thou still unravish'd bride of quietness!
Thou foster-child of silence and slow time
Sylvan historian, who canst thus express
A flow'ry tale more sweetly than our rhyme:
What leaf-fring'd legend haunts about thy shape
Of deities or mortals, or of both,
In Tempe or the dales of Arcady?
What men or gods are these? What maidens loth?
What mad pursuit? What struggle to escape?
What pipes and timbrels? What wild ecstasy?
The other examples of this form of ode are Robert Lowell’s Quaker
Graveyard in Nantucket, Percy Bysshe Shelley’s Ode to the West Wind, and
Robert Creeley’s America. It is important to mention here that the ‘qasida’ form found in Persian poetry has similarity with the ode form.
Lyric
Lyric is a genre of poetry that is used to express personal and emotional feelings.
In the ancient times, lyric poems were sung to the tune of the lyre. These poems do not have to rhyme or do not need to be set to music or a beat. Though lyric poems date back to the Romantic era, they had thematic antecedents in ancient
Greek and Roman verse. The most popular form of lyric poetry in the Western tradition is the 14-line sonnet, either in its Petrarchan or its Shakespearean form. However, lyric poetry appears in a variety of forms, such as ballades, villanelles, odes, pastourelle and canzone.
Ancient Hebrew poetry was composed using repetition, alliteration and chiasmus. Ancient Greek and Roman lyric poetry was composed in strophes.
Pindar’s epinician odes, where an epode follows strophe and antistrophe, represents an extention of this same principle. The Greeks established a difference between lyric monody (e.g., Sappho and Anacreon) and choral lyric
(e.g., Pindar and Bacchylides). In such forms of poetry, the basic feature is the repetition of a metrical pattern larger than a verse or distich. In some cases, form and theme are fused in the conception of a genre. This can be seen in alva or aubade, a dawn song in which lovers have to part after a night of love, often with the watchman’s refrain telling them it is time to go. A common feature of some lyric forms is the refrain of one or more verses that end each strophe. The refrain is repeated either exactly or with variation throughout the poem.
Lyric poetry mostly depends on regular meter that is based either on the number of syllables or on stress. The most common meters are as follows:
? Iambic: Two syllables, where the short or unstressed syllable follows the long or stressed syllable.
? Trochaic: Two syllables, where the long or stressed syllable follows the short or unstressed syllable. This meter is found almost entirely in English lyric poetry.
? Pyrrhic: Two unstressed syllables.
? Anapestic: Three syllables, where the first two are short or unstressed and the last are long or stressed.
? Dactylic: Three syllables, where the first one is long or stressed and the other two are short or unstressed.
? Spondaic: Two syllables, where there are two successive long or stressed syllables. Some forms have a combination of meters and often use a different meter for the refrain.
Haiku
A haiku is a very short poem that consists of only seventeen syllables, whose subject matter revolves around a natural object. For a poem belonging to this genre, aesthetic appeal is of great importance. In a haiku, one does not encounter a distinction between form and content, a feature that is common in Western literature. The writer becomes a part of the scene s/he is representing.
It is generally believed that the length of a haiku is usually the tenure of a single respiration. For example, let us look at the following haiku: yellow leaves on branches overhead now falling
These lines narrate the specific moment that captures the falling of leaves from the tree and touching the ground. With the exhaustion of breath the moment has elapsed. This very short form depicts the short-lived momentary experiences of human lives. Hence, the interlinking of form and content in a haiku. The subject matter in a haiku is mundane and commonplace, something that is perceived by the sensory organs of the author, but it turns out to be an aweinspiring experience. It usually lacks the general rhetorical devices like rhyming, simile and metaphor. Juxtaposition of two seemingly different ideas is found which have their connection in the essence or theme. A haiku mostly describes something that has caught the poet’s fancy and is not intellectually binding.
In the English literary scenario, poets began to experiment with the haiku from the early 1900s. In English, a haiku is usually around ten to fourteen syllables and does not follow the Japanese syllable count.
During the early twentieth century, a number of mainstream poets such as Ezra Pound wrote a five-seven-five syllable form poem which they called hokku. Poets like WH Auden, Donald Hall, Ruth Stone, John Ashbery and others too composed haiku without adhering to the Japanese form, content or subject matter. Richard Wright, the African-American novelist, composed many haikus towards the end of his life. The following is an example from his book Haiku:
This Other World.
Whitecaps on the bay:
A broken signboard banging
In the April wind.
In 1956, the first English language Haiku Society was founded in America.
Robert Spiess is one of the prominent American haiku writers. One of his haikus from Red Moon Anthology reads like this: an aging willow— its image unsteady in the flowing stream
Some English language haiku magazines are Modern Haiku, Frogpond,
Mayfly and The Heron’s Nest.
Monoku is a one-line variation of the three-line standard format. One example is: pig and i spring rain
Another example is a haiku of four lines: she watches satisfied after love he lies looking up at nothing
Some prominent contemporary haiku writers in English are Lenard D.
Moore, Alan Pizzarelli and Paul Reps.
Tanka
Tanka is the oldest form of Japanese poetry that originated in the seventh century.
The term ‘tanka’ means ‘short song’ and is composed of five lines. The first and third line consists of five syllables and the remaining three lines are of seven syllables. It is a thirty-one syllable composition. One example of Tanka is the poem To live Is to Break written by Ueda Miyoji:
To live is to break
One’s heart for the sake of love;
A couple of doves,
Beaks touching on their way,
Are stepping out in the sun
Tanka usually adheres to a 5, 7, 5, 7, 7 syllable count. The varied scope and spectrum of expression of the tanka makes it ideal for communication. This made it popular in the royal court as well as among the masses. The Japanese tanka has a resemblance with the English sonnet form in terms of subject matter.
It starts off with a serious matter and there is a transition in the tone by the time it reaches the concluding lines. Lady Akazone Emon and Yosano are among those female poets who compose in the tanka form. The Tale of Genji composed by Akiko and Lady Murasaki Shikibu contains over 400 tankas.
The English language has few tanka writers. Some of them are Amy Lowell,
Kenneth Rexroth, Sam Hamill, Cid Corman and Carolyn Kizer. Some tankas available in translated form are One Hundred Poems from the Japanese, One
Hundred More Poems from the Japanese and The Ink Dark Moon: Love Poems by Ono Komachi and Izumi Shikibu. The modern English language tankas are quite different in form, technique and subject matter in comparison to their
Japanese counterparts. They do not follow any rigid rules and compose tankas in free verse.
The following tanka written by Ruby Spriggs deals with traditional themes of love, sorrow and nature. a sudden loud noise all the pigeons of Venice at once fill the sky that is how it felt when your hand accidentally touched mine
Let us consider another tanka by Geraldine Clinton Little: ah, summer, summer, how quickly you fade. I cut rusted zinnias; place them on a glassed tabletop, as if time could double
This tanka is more complicated in structure and has three parts and makes use of enjambment.
Robert Kusch’s tanka is more minimalist in approach:
Lightning on the horizon my child takes a huge bite from a pear
Jintishi
The word jintishi in Chinese means ‘modern style poetry’. One can trace the usage of this form of poetry to 222–589 AD. This poetic form is based on a series of set tonal arrangements that are modelled on the four tones existing in classical Chinese language. Every couplet consists of the level, rising, falling and entering tones. There exists a predominant grammatical relationship among the words used in the poem.
The two basic varieties of jintishi are lüshi meaning regulated verse and jueju meaning truncated verse. Lüshi can be further subcategorized into two forms:
? Wulü: It is an eight-line poem with five characters in each line.
? Qilü: It is an eight-line poem with seven characters to in each line.
Jueju can also be subcategorized into the following two forms:
? Wujue: It is a four-line poem with five characters in each line.
? Qijue: It is a four-line poem with seven characters in each line.
The poems incorporate vibrant poetic diction that is full of allusion ranging from the mundane to history and politics. One of the greatest writers of this form was Du Fu who wrote during the eighth century.
Ghazal
A ghazal is a form of poetry that is found in the verses of Arabic, Persian and
Urdu languages. It is usually composed of five to fifteen rhyming couplets. There is a refrain at the end of every second line. Each couplet is complete in itself. It is a composite whole in terms of subject matter and thought. A ghazal usually deals with love or God. The last couplet usually bears the name of the poet who has composed the ghazal. The form is ancient, originating in the sixth century
Arabic verse. In terms of style and content, it is a genre that has proved capable of an extraordinary variety of expression around its central themes of love and separation. It is one of the principal poetic forms that the Indo-Perso-Arabic civilization offered to the eastern Islamic world. The ghazal form spread into
South Asia in the twelfth century under the influence of the new Islamic Sultanate courts and Sufi mystics. Although ghazal is most prominently a form of Urdu poetry, today it is found in the poetry of many languages of Indian subcontinent.
Rubai
The term ‘rubai’, in Urdu-Persian poetic form, is Arabic for quatrain. The plural form of rubai is rubaiyat, which is used to describe a collection of such quatrains.
Each stanza of the rubai consists of four lines, and every first, second and fourth line rhymes. The first three lines contain all the ornamentations and poetic devices and the fourth line completes the meaning and the poem. In an interlocking rubaiyat, the third line of each stanza rhymes with the first, second and fourth line of the next stanza. The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam is one of the most popular rubaiyats. There are a number of possible rhyme schemes to the rubaiyat form, such as AABA, AAAA. In Persian verse, a rubai visually contains only four lines, its rhyme falling at the middle and end of the lines.

3. Why does the poet Philip Sidney relate so easily with the moon’s agony in the poem - With How Sad Steps

With how sad steps, oh Moon, thou climb’st the skies,
How silently, and with how a face.
What, may it be, that even in heav’nly place
That busy archer his sharp arrow tries?
Sure, if that long with Love acquainted eyes
Can judge of Love, thou feel’st a lover’s case;
I read it in thy looks; thy languish’d grace
To me that feel the like, thy state descries.
In these lines, the poet is addressing the moon. The poet looks at the moon and finds it to be moving silently across the sky, like one would alight stairs, with a very pale face. Thus, the poet guesses that the moon must be feeling sad and gloomy for a long time. He asks the moon if it has been struck by Cupid’s bow too and if it is suffering from the pangs of love just like him. Here, the poet considers the moon to be a mythic god and therefore he uses the phrase ‘heavenly place’ to indicate the place where the moon lives. The poet thinks that Cupid, the Roman God of Love, can strike anyone, be it a human or a celestial being. The poet tells the moon that he can relate with its pain and sorrow because he is a victim of the same love that has struck the moon. The statements in the first sonnet make clear that Sidney is conflicted in his role as a zealous lover and a self-critical poet. This sonnet describes the first of many clashes between reason and passion that appear in the sonnet sequence. The poet already seems to know that he will never truly win Stella, but he cannot help but desire her. This conflict between contradicting forces is a crucial element of the sequence. Sidney’s connection to the moon is an example of ‘pathetic fallacy’ in which elements of nature appear to experience human emotions. At first, Sidney describes the moon in accordance with classical mythology as an individual being. Then, Sidney switches his perception of the moon to adhere to Copernican belief and describes the moon as a planet. The series of questions he asks expresses his desire for a logical explanation of Stella’s behaviour.

4. What, according to William Shakespeare, makes beautiful things even more beautiful in the poem ‘O, How Much More Doth Beauty’?

O, how much more doth beauty beauteous seem,
By that sweet ornament which truth doth give!
The rose looks fair, but fairer we it deem
For that sweet odour which doth in it live.
In the opening lines of the poem, the poet suggests his beloved friend to adopt such inherent qualities that can make him immortal. Just as a beautiful woman becomes more beautiful when she decorates herself with the ornaments, the virtue of truth increases a man’s inner beauty. A rose looks charming but the sweet fragrance in it makes it more worthwhile to be remembered.
The canker blooms have full as deep a dye,
As the perfumed tincture of the roses,
Hang on such thorns, and play as wantonly,
When summer's breath their masked bunds discloses;
In these lines, the poet compares between the garden rose and the wild dog roses. Both look beautiful and both have shining colour. But the wild dog roses are only outwardly beautiful as they lack the fragrance of the garden rose. But they bloom among thorns just as roses do and also dance playfully in the summer breeze that causes their budding. That is the reason they are not preferred by people.
But, for their virtue only is their show,
They live unwooed and unrespected fade,
Die to themselves. Sweet roses do not so;
Of their sweet deaths are sweetest odors made.
Here the poet , in order to examplify his idea of immortality, describes the wild dog roses to be having only outwardly beauty. He says that dog roses are beautiful only from outside. Nobody desires to pluck them or smell them as they do not have any fragrance. They are not soft to touch. People do not love or admire them and hence they die unrespected, unloved and alone in wilderness. But sweet roses are always loved and praised. People always surround them because people crave for both their outer beauty as well as the sweet fragrance that they possess. Although even the sweet roses wither away, dry and die but when they do they leave behind their sweet fragrance.
And so of you, beauteous and lovely youth,
When that shall vade, by verse distills your truth.
The poet advises his beloved to emulate the superior sweet rose so that when he dies, his inner beauty and virtue will be immortalized through the poet’s poetry. According to the poet, if you are only outwordly beautiful then people tend to forget you as soon as you are out of their lives but if you have a beautiful soul and fine virtue then you will be remebered long after you are gone. Poet wants his beloved to remain in the hearts of others for a long time after his death so he wants him to develop an inner beauty; make his inner self beautiful.

5. Write a detailed note on the arguments put forward by the poet John Donne in the poem “Sweetest Love, I do not Go”.

The poem Sweetest Love, I do not go illustrates the idea that if two people are truly in love, nothing can separate them, including death. The speaker tells his beloved to regard their separation as simply being turned aside to sleep, still together but dreaming in their own separate worlds. His tone is reassuring as he is trying to convince his beloved that they will not be separated. He tells his love to think of their brief separation as a practice for the eternal separation of death. The image of the sun’s setting and rising the next day represents their brief separation, showing they will be back together soon. It shows how individuals do not have the power to control time and they should not take the time they have together for granted. He asks his beloved not to mourn and cry over his departure because they will never really be separated; they will live on in each other’s memories as their love for each other is true and not superficial.
Sweetest love, I do not go,
For weariness of thee,
Nor in hope the world can show
A fitter love for me;
But since that I
At the last must part, ’tis best,
Thus to use myself in jest
By feigned deaths to die.
In this stanza, the lover consoles his beloved that he is not leaving because he is tired of her or because he would find a better love. But rather he is going because he has to ultimately separate from her and it is better for her to bear the pangs of separation early. He then makes an effort to cheer the lady by comparing his departure to that of dying. He states that these ‘feigned deaths’ or short partings from her will prepare him for the final parting or death, which is real and irreversible. He says that he is not leaving because he hopes to find someone else on his travels but he is leaving as one day he will die, and so she can see this parting merely as play acting. The poet asks his beloved to believe that he will return to her and that his return will be swifter, and that his leaving is only preparation for their eventual separation–death.
Yesternight the sun went hence,
And yet is here to-day;
He hath no desire nor sense,
Nor half so short a way;
Then fear not me,
But believe that I shall make
Speedier journeys, since I take
More wings and spurs than he.
The poet’s lover is asking him that how long will it be untill he returns. To which the poet responds by making reference to the sun that even the sun takes only a night’s time to travel a long distance although he has ‘no desire nor sense’ of his own. Here, he is indirectly talking about the absence of understanding or human intellect in sun. But the lover, on the other hand, has a much shorter journey to undertake because he is bound by love. His beloved’s true love would give him extra wings to complete his journey in the shortest possible time and return back to her. Therefore, the lover would finish his journey faster than the sun. The poet is reassuring his lover that he, a man with intellect, sense and desire to return will employ ‘wings and spurs’ to hurry home as fast as he can so that they can be together.
How feeble is man’s power,
That if good fortune fall,
Cannot add another hour,
Nor a lost hour recall;
But come bad chance,
And we join to it our strength,
And we teach it art and length,
Itself o’er us to advance.
The poet’s lover laments that the time he is going will seem very long, no matter how quickly he hurries back to her. To this, the poet describes his helplessness to hold back or to speed it up. He accepts the fact that while good times fly by quickly, and he is powerless to slow them or go back and relive those joyful hours. When something bad happens, our own misery extends it so that that time seems even longer than it really is. He describes that during good times, the moments of happiness are short and you cannot extend those moments further as being a human you lack the power to do so. But on the other hand, man makes moments of despair longer by providing them more strength by his constant grief and sorrow, and so bad times take a better advantage of man as compared to the good times. Thus, the poet here indicates that both the good as well as the bad times are beyond the control of man.
When thou sigh’st, thou sigh’st not wind,
But sigh’st my soul away;
When thou weep’st, unkindly kind,
My life’s blood doth decay.
It cannot be
That thou lovest me as thou say’st,
If in thine my life thou waste,
That art the best of me.
The poet, as she is sad on his leaving, heaves a sigh.
The poet’s lover heaves a sigh of sadness. In medieval beliefs, it was thought that sighs and tears shorten a person’s lifespan. Donne is famous in his poetry for drawing a connection between the two lovers by saying that they two are one single being, and in this poem it is no different. The lover requests his beloved to control her grief and sighing as people believe that sighs and tears shorten the life of the person for whom one is crying. Thus, he tells his beloved that whenever she sighs, she sighs his soul away. When she weeps, she wastes away the lover’s blood. Hence, it cannot be true that the beloved loves him as much as she states because she is shortening his life by crying and grieving.
Let not thy divining heart
Forethink me any ill;
Destiny may take thy part,
And may thy fears fulfil.
But think that we
Are but turn’d aside to sleep.
They who one another keep
Alive, ne’er parted be.
The poet’s lover reproaches him, as she thinks that she fears he will find another lover and never return to her. On hearing this, he tells her not to forethink any ill, i.e., not to predict his unfaithfulness, because by doing so it may come true. He advises his beloved to not allow her divining heart to indulge in any type of bad dreams as destiny might read her mind and make all her bad dreams and fears come true. Rather, the lover convinces the beloved to just imagine that they are not truly separate in a physical way but they have only turned to opposite directions to sleep. The lover states that they would always be present for each other even in their absence as they would be alive in each other’s memories and their love would never cease.

6. According to Pope, how can a happy man maintain a ‘balanced life’ in the poem – ‘Ode on Solitude’?

Sound sleep by night; study and ease
Together mix’d; sweet recreation,
And innocence, which most doth please,
With meditation.
These lines state that a happy man is able to maintain a very balanced life. He enjoys a sound sleep in the night, gets time for study and rest, is able to sincerely meditate on life and God. The third and fourth stanzas seem to mesh together with the line ‘Quiet by day’ for it can be recited as part of either. Although it rhymes with the stanza that it stands in, it can also be logically incorporated into the next stanza due to its coincidence with the phrase ‘sound sleep by night’. Once again, this meshing of stanzas shows the uniformity of this kind of lifestyle. Each day is so much just like the next that the happy man may not be able to differentiate where one week ends and another begins, just due to how repetitive his life his.

Thus let me live, unseen, unknown;
Thus unlamented let me dye;
Steal from the world, and not a stone
Tell where I lye.
In the last lines, the poet wishes to live an isolated life like the happy man and wants to leave the world silently without having a tombstone built for him as a memorial on his grave. The last stanza expresses the farmer’s, i.e., poet’s acceptance of his life. He comprehends that he is unknown and thus does not try to fight for his identity. He also recognizes that like all of the seasons he experiences, he will die as well. In most poetry, the concept of an ‘unlamented death’ seems extremely depressing; however, to this farmer, it is an ideal ending to a quiet life. It is from this stanza that we come to know about the fact that this farmer does not have a family. It looks like this individual is so used to being alone that he does not make any effort to alter that situation, as it has worked for him for so long. This ‘solitude’ could also be an allusion to Pope’s own love life since he never got married when he lived. Alexander Pope has used extremely simple language and structure in this poem. The ideas used in this poem communicate the thoughts of a solitary, but not lonely, farmer in an exemplary manner. He also subtly expresses his own wish to experience some of life the way that this individual does. In addition, he actually makes certain statements that would make this image of a farmer’s life complete; for example, mention of other family, to illustrate the degree of interesting secrecy that draws Pope to thinking about this type of lifestyle. He successfully implements various simple elements to effectively communicate the meaning of ‘Ode on Solitude’.

B. A. – 2nd Semester – Summer Drive 2012
B.A. (English)
Subject Name: Foundation in Business and Commerce.
Subject code: BAE 2012
4 credits (60 marks)
(BKID: 1442) Set 1

1. Distinguish between industry, trade and commerce.

Industry
Industry primarily refers to all such business activities concerned with production or processing of goods and services. It processes raw materials or semi-finished goods into finished goods. For example, manufacturing goods and commodities, producing crops, constructing buildings, dams, roads, etc.

Industry can be classified into:
1. Primary industry
(i) Extractive industry like coal-mines, iron-ore mines, etc and
(ii) Genetic industry like diary farming, poultry farming, etc.

2. Secondary industry
(i) Manufacturing industry and
(ii) Constructive industry

3. Tertiary/service industry
(i) Transport
(ii) Banking
(iii) Insurance
(iv) Warehousing.

Commerce
Commerce is the sum total of all the activities connected with the placing of the product before the ultimate consumer. It provides the necessary link between the producer and the consumer of goods. For example, when somebody produces bread, he has to make it available to consumers at convenient locations at right time. This involves activities like making people aware about the product, storing the product at right places, arranging retail Foundations in outlets, packaging the product, transportation of the product, selling the product and so on. All these activities combined together are known as commerce.
The components of commerce are given below:
Trade
Trade is an integral part of commerce. It simply refers to sale, transfer or exchange of goods and services. It helps in making the goods and services available to ultimate consumers. For example, the local grocery shop owner sells grocery items to the consumers after buying it from the manufacturers. Sometimes, he buys it from the wholesalers who buy goods in bulk from the manufacturers and sell it to him. In this process, the wholesalers as well as the grocery shop owners are said to be engaged in trading.

2. Define business alliances. What are the key objectives and forms of business alliances? Business Alliances
A business alliance occurs when two or more business firms co-operate with one another formally or informally for the purpose of attaining some common objectives, e.g., to stabilize prices and increase profits. Business alliances are usually handled by a structured project team or project unit, for instance code sharing in case of airline alliances.
Examples of business alliances are strategic alliances, joint ventures, licensing, network alliances, franchising alliances and equity partnerships. In a number of circumstances, comprehensively planned business alliances are regarded as feasible options in comparison to mergers and acquisitions. At present, business alliances are growing to a substantial extent.
Some of the important business alliances that are worth mentioning are the following:
• Business alliance between Toyota and General Motors
• The R&D (Research and Development) alliances of Merck
• Business alliances of IBM with Dell and Cisco Computers
• Business alliances of Oracle
The different forms of business alliances can be broadly categorized into the following:
• Joint venture alliance
• Sales alliance
• Geographic-specific alliance
• Solution-specific alliance
• Investment alliance
• Strategic alliance
• Licensing
• Network alliances
• Equity partnerships
• Franchising alliance
Sometimes the business alliances between firms may include two or more classes or forms of business alliances. For Example:
• A sales alliance takes place in case two firms concur in selling interchangeable goods and services.
• A solution-specific alliance happens at that time when two firms accord in formulating and selling a particular marketplace solution in a collaborative manner.
• A geographic-specific alliance is formed in case two firms consent for collectively selling and co-branding their goods and facilities in a particular geographical location.

3. Define co-operative organisation. What are the different types of co-operative
Organisations.

Co-operative Sector
The term ‘cooperation’ is derived from the Latin word ‘co-operari’, where the word ‘Co’ means ‘with’ and ‘operari’ means ‘to work’. Thus, the term cooperation means working together. Therefore, those who want to work together with some common economic objectives can form a society, which is termed as ‘cooperative society’.
Section 4 of the Indian Cooperative Societies Act, 1912, defines Cooperative Society as “a society, which has its objectives for the promotion of economic interests of its members in accordance with cooperative principles.”
Co-operative organisation is a voluntary association of persons who work together to promote their economic interest. It works on the principle of self-help and mutual help.
The main objective of co-operative society is providing service rather than earning revenue, mutual help instead of antagonism and self help in place of dependence. The main features of a co-operative society are:
1. Providing service rather than earning revenue,
2. The membership is open to all those having a common economic interest. Any person can become a member irrespective of his/her caste, creed, religion, colour, sex, etc.
3. Self help in place of dependence.
Types of Co-operatives
The types of co-operative societies include:
1. Consumer Co-operatives: These are shaped to protect the interests of normal consumers of society by making consumer goods obtainable at reasonable prices. Kendriya Bhandar in Delhi, Alaka in Bhubaneswar are some of the examples of consumer co-operatives.
2. Producers’ Co-operatives: These societies are set up to profit small producers who have problems in collecting inputs and advertising their goods. For example, The Handloom owners are small producers, of such co-operatives.
3. Marketing Co-operatives: These marketing co-operatives are created by producers and manufacturers to reduce exploitation by the middlemen while marketing their product. Kashmir Arts, J&K Handicrafts, etc., are examples of marketing co-operatives.
4. Housing Co-operatives: To provide residential houses to the members, housing cooperative societies are formed generally in urban areas. They are called as co-operative group housing societies.
5. Credit Co-operatives: These societies are formed to facilitate finance for its members. For example, the rural credit societies, the credit and thrift societies, the urban co-operative banks,These are created by small farmers to work together and thereby divide the benefits of large scale farming.

4. State Fayol’s 14 principles of management.

Principles of Management
The following are the key principles given by different management experts:
• Fayol’s Principles: It was Henry Fayol who stated a set of 14 principles of management based on his practical experience as a manager. According to Fayol, these principles can be applied in all types, functions, levels and sizes of organisations. For a long time, Fayol’s list was accepted as complete and comprehensive. A description of these principles is given below: ϖ Division of work: Specialisation of labour is necessary for organisational success. ϖ Authority: The right to give orders must accompany responsibility. ϖ Discipline: Obedience and respect help an organisation run smoothly. ϖ Unity of Command: Each employee should receive orders from only one superior. ϖ Unity of Direction: The efforts of everyone in the organisation should be coordinated and focused in the same direction. ϖ Subordination of Individual Interests to the General Interest: Resolving the tug of war between personal and organisational interests in favour of the organisation is one of the management’s greatest difficulties. ϖ Remuneration: Employees should be paid fairly in accordance with their contribution. ϖ Centralisation: The relationship between centralisation and decentralisation is a matter of proportion; the optimum balance must be found for each organisation. ϖ Scalar chain: Subordinates should observe the formal chain of command unless expressly authorised by their respective superiors to communicate with each other. ϖ Order: Both material things and people should be in their proper places. ϖ Equity: Fairness that results from a combination of kindliness and justice will lead to devoted and loyal service. ϖ Stability and Tenure of Personnel: People need time to learn their jobs. ϖ Initiative: One of the greatest satisfactions is formulating and carrying out a plan. ϖ Esprit de corps: Harmonious effort among individuals is the key to organisational success.
• Mooney and Reiley’s Staff Principle: According to this principle, staff units must be created in order to provide service and expert advice to the line managers.
• Taylor’s Principle of Management by Exception: Routine work, according to this principle, must be handled by subordinates and management must concentrate on strategic, key and important issues.
• Weber’s Principles: Organisation work must be performed according to rules. All administrative actions must be recorded in writing so as to have a ready reference in future: a hierarchy of positions should provide for supervision of each unit by a higher official, etc.
• Likert’s Principle of Supportive Relationship: According to this principle, managers should provide social, psychological and moral support to subordinates. The basic purpose should be to improve the subordinate’s sense of personal usefulness and dignity and secure commitment to organisational goals.
• Human Relations: Human relationists (Mayo and Roethlisberger) and behavioural scientists (McGregor, Bennis, Argyris) have avoided providing prescriptions and have suggested ideas and concepts to prescribe some fundamental guides to managerial thought and action. These concepts are largely aimed at improving the ‘quality of life’ rather than achieving organizational goals. The importance of human element is recognised and efforts are made to make human life more interesting, meaningful and challenging in an organisation.
• Modern Organisation Theories and Principles of Management: Systems and contingency theorists advocate that, a manager should know and understand the existence of certain fundamental concepts advanced by theorists from time to time and use them judiciously. Managers should understand that there is a way to apply these concepts. The principles must be applied in a flexible way, keeping the changing circumstances in mind.

5. Discuss the role of government in trade, commerce and policy regulation.

Important Role of Government in Trade and Commerce Policy
Government business interface implies interaction and interdependence between business and government. This interaction depends upon the role which Government plays in the economic activities of a country. These roles of the Government or the forms of Government business interface are as follows:
The Government prescribes rules and regulations concerning entry into business, conduct of the enterprise, disposal of surplus and relationships. In other words, the regulatory role of Government encompasses:
(i) Determining the conditions under which individuals or associations would be allowed to enter certain lines of business or avail of public facilities and scarce resources, e.g., grant of licence, restriction on location of industry, etc.

(ii) Regulating the conduct of business ventures, e.g., regulation of working conditions in factories, ceilings on managerial remuneration, prohibition of certain activities, etc.

(iii) Controlling the accrual and disposal of business income, e.g., ceilings on dividends, tax on income of business enterprises, limiting the tariffs of electric supply undertakings, etc.

(iv) Regulating the relationship between various segments of the 'economy to prevent conflict of interests or to protect legal rights or to prevent undue concentration of economic power, e.g., prohibiting interlocking directorship of companies, regulating inter-company investments, provisions for settlement of labour management disputes, etc.

6. What are the important challenges faced by service sector?

Service Sector Challenges
Service providers face obstacles selling services that goods-sellers rarely face. Services are not substantial, making it difficult for prospective customers to understand what they will receive and what value it will hold for them. Indeed, some consulting and investment services, offer no guarantees of the value for price paid.
Since the quality of most services depends mostly on the quality of the individuals providing the services, it is true that "people costs" are a high factor of service costs. Whereas a manufacturer may use technology, generalization, and other techniques to lower the cost of goods sold. The service provider often faces a remorseless pattern of increasing costs.
Differentiation is often difficult. How does one choose one investment adviser over another, since they (and hotel providers, leisure companies, and consultants, as well as many others) often seem to provide identical services? Charging a payment for services is usually an option only for the most established firms, who charge extra based upon brand acknowledgment.