Spree Killings: Columbine High School
Spree killings
Eva vollera
FP6030/Research and Evaluation
Instructor : Dr. Carol Aslan, Ph.D.
June 25, 2012 Argosy University
Abstract
Spree Killings is when three or more killings happens’ without any cooling off period, this often happens at two or more locations. Though cases like the Columbine High School in Littleton, Colorado in April 1999, where two teenage boys carried out shootings killing 12 students and one teacher as well as injuring 20 more students and ultimately leading up to the two boys own suicides and the end of the killing spree, was done at one location, the school. Even though there had been shootings at other schools prior to the Columbine shooting it was the …show more content…
Columbine shooting that raised nationwide alarm. This prompted several researchers to research the magnitude of the problem.
Introduction
School shootings’ are still statistically rare.
Two characteristics that came up during studies of school shootings were peer rejection and social rejection. The studies from the literatures also reveals that the intentions of the assailants are often made very clear to their peers often stating time and place. It was shown that 50 percent of school shootings were made known to others, this is known as leakage. It was shown that the Columbine shooters repeatedly let known of their intentions and planned a year a head prior to the incident being carried out. For instance one of the boys English papers stated that the boy wanted to be a bullet himself and strike people, this was 2-3 weeks prior to the shooting. They had built small bombs that they were caught with. One month prior to the shooting one of the boys, Erik Harris, revealed in his psychology class that he had a recurring dream that he started shooting the students and the teachers. He also revealed in his diary that everyone made fun of him. Dylan Klebold , the other shooter wrote in his diary that he was lonely and without friends and was very troubled with his failures with girls (Bartol …show more content…
2011). Results
First Article : The School Shooter: A Threat Assessment Perspective by Mary Ellen O’Tolle, Ph.D., reveals the results to a symposium on school shootings, after the FBI’s NCAVC (National Center for the Analysis of Violent Crime) invited ,160 educators, administrators, law enforcement officers, prosecutors and mental health professionals. The NCAVC’s discovery came from the topics and questions discussed between the eighteen different schools analyst.
The monograph model was shaped by the eighteen different schools NCAVC analysts as well as previous cases the NCAVC assisted in creating the threat assessment in response to threat against school shootings.
Out of the eighteen schools five of them were middle schools and thirteen of the schools were High schools, out of these schools one were public schools except for one. The NCAVC analysts also gathered information from law enforcements and school officials that were involved with the cases and asked to provide interviews, tapes, photos, videos and summaries of the incidents in order to do a proper qualitative research that included situational sampling(observing the same behavior in different situations) and an ex post facto (after the fact) approach. Then a case review was done on each case after reviewing the available information about the shooters behavior after and before the shooting as well as how the victims were selected. The reasons why they are being carried out are different factors that varies from situation to situations and individual. It is a difficult task to assess a threat and keep it from being carried out. A monograph shows a systematic procedure for an intervention or a threat assessment, though a it is not a “profile” of a school shooter nor is it a check list of any dangerous signs showing the next adolescent to most likely to carry out a lethal violence in school.
It is a model that shows systematic procedures of how a threat assessment and interventions takes place. The monograph model should, be used by educators, law enforcement and mental health professionals. The model will hopefully strengthen and add to all ready ongoing preventive measures.
The fundamental building blocks of the threat assessment is the framework for the spoken, written and symbolic evaluation. The four pronged assessment provides a methodical, logical investigation to the threaten individual as well as looks at the chances the threat will in fact be carried out. There are four types of threats: direct, indirect, veiled as well as conditional.
-A Direct Threat is given in a straightforward clear and explicit manner. It is directed at a specific target.
-An Indirect Threats are vague, ambiguous and unclear. The motivation, the intended victim and other views of the threat are masked or equivocal. Violence might be implied but the threat is tentative, for instance “If I wanted to I could kill everyone at this school”.
-A Veiled Threat is a threat that implies but does not show signs of violence, for instance “We would be better off without you around”. Leaving it to the victim to interpret the meaning of the threat.
-A Conditional Threat is when the threat is warned that it would be carried out if the individual did not do this or if this is known then you will die.
Third Article : Rampage violence requires a new type of research by Harris, John M, Jr,M.D., M.B.A., & Harris, Robin B,PhD., M.P.H. (2012). Spree killings also known as, rampage violence shares some relation to episodes of mass violence (Harrison 2012). In article Kathrine Newman, points out a correlation between school related episodes and of mass violence according to the article they are deadly acts performed by mentally disturbed males directly focused on institutions or organizations as well as involving persons not intimately known to them.
This article was also a qualitative research where she had looked at situation sampling though drawing her conclusion from both shootings from schools like the shooting at Columbine and Virginia Tech though she also involved shootings such as from the 1991 Luby’s killings were George Hennard drove his truck into the cafeteria in Texas and shot 43 people that ultimately killed 23 and then killing himself.
She also took in consideration 22 year old Jared Loughner who in 2011, shooting of Congress woman Gabriel Gliffords, which took place in Arizona and killing 6 people as well as injuring 13 individuals. Even though there might be a correlation between these shootings I find that school shootings differ from the last two examples that involved individuals carrying out acts against individuals they did not know. Where as in the school shootings the shooters knew most of their victims and did not seem to suffer from a mental disorder. The article states that most involving individuals are not intimately known to the shooter , I disagree. In the shooting at Columbine High school, Virginia Tech and Columbine shooters Harris and Klebold whom meticulously planned their shooting of their high school a year in advance and definitely knew their 12 victims they killed May 1, 2001 at their high school. The article also brings up the importance of understanding the rampage killings in order to create preventive measures that are taking in the consideration of different situations, this I
agree with. Overall the first article: The School Shooter: A Threat Assessment Perspective by Mary Ellen O’Tolle, Ph.D., was the most useful for preventive measures and a fair qualitative research
Discussion
The Copy Cat effect is a very common fact when it comes to school shootings and other violent incidents. After a school shooting occurs anecdotal reveals that threat increase in schools nation wide. Media coverage of mass murders leads to other mass murders usually within 2 weeks of the prior incident. News media often list unverified impressions of school shooters promoted by the news media, such as:
School violence is an epidemic
All school shooters are the same
The school shooter is always a loner
A school shootings are exclusively motivated by revenge
Easy access to weapon is the most significant factor (http://www.fbi.gov/stats-services/publications/school-shooter ), unusual or aberrant behavior interest or hobbies are hallmarks of a shooter or student that will end up violent. Dr. Dietz that is a renowned forensic psychologist is also part of, TAG, also known as the Threat Assessment Group.
DIETZ WARNING SIGNS OF MASS MURDER * Threats and intimidating comments * Allusions to violence * Excessive or intimidating references to mass murder or shooting sprees, real or fictional * Excessive interest in the police, military * Intimidating weapon comments * Inappropriate communications * Documenting or stalking potential victims * Anger * Depression or suicidal thoughts * Paranoia * Repeatedly accusing other people of causing one’s problems Unreasonable complaints (Columbine: Understanding Why 2007) .
TAG works with schools, corporations, government and other work places to work with the agencies and form a preventative measure for violence (http://www.taginc.com/ ).
This is TAG’s breakdown of motives for a shooter:
Profit
Anger
Thrills
Revenge
Psychosis
Suicide
Fear/ Protection
Sexual
Political/ Religion
Fame
(Columbine: Understanding Why 2007)
Where as in the Columbine shooting Profit and Sexual motives were taken out and the motives that were clear was Suicide, Anger, Revenge and Fame. The Threat Assessment Group examined the evidence from the Columbine High School Shooting in 1999.
Second Article : Early Response to School Violence, another qualitative analysis.
Was a research carried out two weeks after the Columbine shooting, that consisted of interviews of the victims that was done in order to focus on gathering an understanding of emotional and cognitive responses and the feelings in talking to others of their experiences. The article looked at the reaction to traumatic events in dynamic process in which responses was influenced by individuals.
The social context of the response to a trauma occurs. A lot of the literature that is available to focus on the effects of traumatic violence on the minority whom are in need of professional help.
The subjects were four females ages 15 -17 years old from Columbine high school and parents , six females ages 41-49 years old. The participants responded to fliers that were distributed a week after the attack. The flier invited Columbine High School students as well as parents to participate in a research coping with the attack.
In order to participate in the research the student had to have been there the day of the shooting and the parent have to have had a child enrolled in the school during the time of the shooting. The interviews were one hour long and taped, face to face interview. Other series of events affecting the Columbine area after the shooting, such as media intrusion, pending litigations, the Board of Education as well as internet threat, lead to termination of the research gathering data.
The interview questions were closed ended questions and open questions. Most of the data from these analyses comes from open- ended questions.
“Examples of questions include, “What meaning have you found in this experience?” “Since the shootings, have other people done things that have been particularly helpful to you as you have tried to cope with the shootings?” and, “If so, what have they done?” Additionally, we asked whether the shootings had an effect on family, then friends, and then community relationships, and, if so, what effect they had.” (Early Response to school violence). This Research was not beneficial to any further study in the prevention against spree killings at schools.
I found that trying to do a research so soon after the incident is not humanly proper nor is it of any useful purpose to the research as a whole. The open ended questions I also did not found useful or furthering my understanding of the incident. Though their choosing of recording technique, (video taping), I found was good sense all of interest can be captured. It is important to have a rational, fair, standardized method of going about evaluating as well as responding to these kinds of threats. Considering the factors of the threat assessment such as the specific and plausible details are very important. These details could be the reasons for carrying out the threat, have weapons been purchased, were and when was the threat carried out. This method looks at the totality of the circumstances surrounding the student in four areas, taking a look at the personality of the student, family dynamics, the school dynamics and social dynamics. My questions are:
-How are the preventive measures being applied in the schools?
- what is the media doing to prevent Copy cats from acting out?
-How are the teachers responding to red flags of a potential shooter?
- What policies are being applied at the schools in order to prevent shooting sprees from happening?
-Where can an individual turn to at school if they have knowledge of a potential shooting spree? Conclusions
The common thread the articles had is that there is no spree killing profile or a check list to follow. In order to gather an understanding and be able to prevent these acts of violence we need to acknowledge that the on going discipline-based research method is not suited for this type of violence and it is necessary to address and incorporate new unanswered research questions that can assist in gathering information for new policies that will be helpful in preventive measures for rampage violence acts. These new approaches should in order to be successful include trans disciplinary research models such as outcomes focused organizational structures such as those used applied when investigating other catastrophic events as well as be flexible.
References
First Article:,The School Shooter: A Threat Assessment Perspective by Mary Ellen O’Tolle, Ph.D., Retrieved from the internet June 25, 2012, http://www.fbi.gov/stats-services/publications/school-shooter.
Retrieved from the internet June 25, 2012 http://www.taginc.com/
Columbine: Understanding Why 2007, Retrieved from the internet June 25, 2012 http://movies-netflix.com/wiPlayer?movieid=70085273&trikid=7731864
The Army of Two, Retrieved from the internet June 25, 2012 http://movies-netflix.com/wiPlayer?movieid=60031195&trkid=8379860&pt_request_id=
Retrieved from the internet June 25, 2012, http://chronicle.com.libproxy.edmc.edu/article/Good-Policy-Not-Stories-Can/31623/ Second Article :Early Response to School Violence, Retrieved from the internet June 25, 2012,https://webfiles.uci.edu/rsilver/Hawkins%20et%20al.%20J%20Emotional%20Abuse%20Columbine%20ms..pdf.
Retrieved from the Internet June 25, 2012 http://www.securityinfowatch.com/article/10489768/the-psychology-of-a-mass-.
Retrieved from the internet June 25, 2012 ,https://www.myfadv.com/resources/teleconference/parkdietzbio.pdf.
THE, A. P. (2002, Oct 07). Seeking clues in killing spree / geography, psychology analyzed. Newsday, pp. A.06-A06. http://search.proquest.com/docview/279650891?accountid=34899
Third Article: Harris, John M, Jr,M.D., M.B.A., & Harris, Robin B,PhD., M.P.H. (2012). Rampage violence requires a new type of research. American Journal of Public Health, 102(6), 1054-1057. http://search.proquest.com/docview/1015208572?accountid=34899
Same http://search.proquest.com.libproxy.edmc.edu/docview/1015208572/fulltextPDF?acc [ Document3 ]
Bartol, C.R. and Bartol, A.M. (2011). Criminal behavior: A psychological approach (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Footnotes
1Complete APA style formatting information may be found in the Publication Manual.
Table 1
Type the table text here in italics; start a new page for each table
[Insert table here]
Figure Captions
Figure 1. Caption of figure
[Figures – note that this page does not have the manuscript header and page number]
Eva vollera
FP6030/Research and Evaluation
Instructor : Dr. Carol Aslan, Ph.D.
June 25, 2012 Argosy University
Abstract
Spree Killings is when three or more killings happens’ without any cooling off period, this often happens at two or more locations. Though cases like the Columbine High School in Littleton, Colorado in April 1999, where two teenage boys carried out shootings killing 12 students and one teacher as well as injuring 20 more students and ultimately leading up to the two boys own suicides and the end of the killing spree, was done at one location, the school. Even though there had been shootings at other schools prior to the Columbine shooting it was the …show more content…
Columbine shooting that raised nationwide alarm. This prompted several researchers to research the magnitude of the problem.
Introduction
School shootings’ are still statistically rare.
Two characteristics that came up during studies of school shootings were peer rejection and social rejection. The studies from the literatures also reveals that the intentions of the assailants are often made very clear to their peers often stating time and place. It was shown that 50 percent of school shootings were made known to others, this is known as leakage. It was shown that the Columbine shooters repeatedly let known of their intentions and planned a year a head prior to the incident being carried out. For instance one of the boys English papers stated that the boy wanted to be a bullet himself and strike people, this was 2-3 weeks prior to the shooting. They had built small bombs that they were caught with. One month prior to the shooting one of the boys, Erik Harris, revealed in his psychology class that he had a recurring dream that he started shooting the students and the teachers. He also revealed in his diary that everyone made fun of him. Dylan Klebold , the other shooter wrote in his diary that he was lonely and without friends and was very troubled with his failures with girls (Bartol …show more content…
2011). Results
First Article : The School Shooter: A Threat Assessment Perspective by Mary Ellen O’Tolle, Ph.D., reveals the results to a symposium on school shootings, after the FBI’s NCAVC (National Center for the Analysis of Violent Crime) invited ,160 educators, administrators, law enforcement officers, prosecutors and mental health professionals. The NCAVC’s discovery came from the topics and questions discussed between the eighteen different schools analyst.
The monograph model was shaped by the eighteen different schools NCAVC analysts as well as previous cases the NCAVC assisted in creating the threat assessment in response to threat against school shootings.
Out of the eighteen schools five of them were middle schools and thirteen of the schools were High schools, out of these schools one were public schools except for one. The NCAVC analysts also gathered information from law enforcements and school officials that were involved with the cases and asked to provide interviews, tapes, photos, videos and summaries of the incidents in order to do a proper qualitative research that included situational sampling(observing the same behavior in different situations) and an ex post facto (after the fact) approach. Then a case review was done on each case after reviewing the available information about the shooters behavior after and before the shooting as well as how the victims were selected. The reasons why they are being carried out are different factors that varies from situation to situations and individual. It is a difficult task to assess a threat and keep it from being carried out. A monograph shows a systematic procedure for an intervention or a threat assessment, though a it is not a “profile” of a school shooter nor is it a check list of any dangerous signs showing the next adolescent to most likely to carry out a lethal violence in school.
It is a model that shows systematic procedures of how a threat assessment and interventions takes place. The monograph model should, be used by educators, law enforcement and mental health professionals. The model will hopefully strengthen and add to all ready ongoing preventive measures.
The fundamental building blocks of the threat assessment is the framework for the spoken, written and symbolic evaluation. The four pronged assessment provides a methodical, logical investigation to the threaten individual as well as looks at the chances the threat will in fact be carried out. There are four types of threats: direct, indirect, veiled as well as conditional.
-A Direct Threat is given in a straightforward clear and explicit manner. It is directed at a specific target.
-An Indirect Threats are vague, ambiguous and unclear. The motivation, the intended victim and other views of the threat are masked or equivocal. Violence might be implied but the threat is tentative, for instance “If I wanted to I could kill everyone at this school”.
-A Veiled Threat is a threat that implies but does not show signs of violence, for instance “We would be better off without you around”. Leaving it to the victim to interpret the meaning of the threat.
-A Conditional Threat is when the threat is warned that it would be carried out if the individual did not do this or if this is known then you will die.
Third Article : Rampage violence requires a new type of research by Harris, John M, Jr,M.D., M.B.A., & Harris, Robin B,PhD., M.P.H. (2012). Spree killings also known as, rampage violence shares some relation to episodes of mass violence (Harrison 2012). In article Kathrine Newman, points out a correlation between school related episodes and of mass violence according to the article they are deadly acts performed by mentally disturbed males directly focused on institutions or organizations as well as involving persons not intimately known to them.
This article was also a qualitative research where she had looked at situation sampling though drawing her conclusion from both shootings from schools like the shooting at Columbine and Virginia Tech though she also involved shootings such as from the 1991 Luby’s killings were George Hennard drove his truck into the cafeteria in Texas and shot 43 people that ultimately killed 23 and then killing himself.
She also took in consideration 22 year old Jared Loughner who in 2011, shooting of Congress woman Gabriel Gliffords, which took place in Arizona and killing 6 people as well as injuring 13 individuals. Even though there might be a correlation between these shootings I find that school shootings differ from the last two examples that involved individuals carrying out acts against individuals they did not know. Where as in the school shootings the shooters knew most of their victims and did not seem to suffer from a mental disorder. The article states that most involving individuals are not intimately known to the shooter , I disagree. In the shooting at Columbine High school, Virginia Tech and Columbine shooters Harris and Klebold whom meticulously planned their shooting of their high school a year in advance and definitely knew their 12 victims they killed May 1, 2001 at their high school. The article also brings up the importance of understanding the rampage killings in order to create preventive measures that are taking in the consideration of different situations, this I
agree with. Overall the first article: The School Shooter: A Threat Assessment Perspective by Mary Ellen O’Tolle, Ph.D., was the most useful for preventive measures and a fair qualitative research
Discussion
The Copy Cat effect is a very common fact when it comes to school shootings and other violent incidents. After a school shooting occurs anecdotal reveals that threat increase in schools nation wide. Media coverage of mass murders leads to other mass murders usually within 2 weeks of the prior incident. News media often list unverified impressions of school shooters promoted by the news media, such as:
School violence is an epidemic
All school shooters are the same
The school shooter is always a loner
A school shootings are exclusively motivated by revenge
Easy access to weapon is the most significant factor (http://www.fbi.gov/stats-services/publications/school-shooter ), unusual or aberrant behavior interest or hobbies are hallmarks of a shooter or student that will end up violent. Dr. Dietz that is a renowned forensic psychologist is also part of, TAG, also known as the Threat Assessment Group.
DIETZ WARNING SIGNS OF MASS MURDER * Threats and intimidating comments * Allusions to violence * Excessive or intimidating references to mass murder or shooting sprees, real or fictional * Excessive interest in the police, military * Intimidating weapon comments * Inappropriate communications * Documenting or stalking potential victims * Anger * Depression or suicidal thoughts * Paranoia * Repeatedly accusing other people of causing one’s problems Unreasonable complaints (Columbine: Understanding Why 2007) .
TAG works with schools, corporations, government and other work places to work with the agencies and form a preventative measure for violence (http://www.taginc.com/ ).
This is TAG’s breakdown of motives for a shooter:
Profit
Anger
Thrills
Revenge
Psychosis
Suicide
Fear/ Protection
Sexual
Political/ Religion
Fame
(Columbine: Understanding Why 2007)
Where as in the Columbine shooting Profit and Sexual motives were taken out and the motives that were clear was Suicide, Anger, Revenge and Fame. The Threat Assessment Group examined the evidence from the Columbine High School Shooting in 1999.
Second Article : Early Response to School Violence, another qualitative analysis.
Was a research carried out two weeks after the Columbine shooting, that consisted of interviews of the victims that was done in order to focus on gathering an understanding of emotional and cognitive responses and the feelings in talking to others of their experiences. The article looked at the reaction to traumatic events in dynamic process in which responses was influenced by individuals.
The social context of the response to a trauma occurs. A lot of the literature that is available to focus on the effects of traumatic violence on the minority whom are in need of professional help.
The subjects were four females ages 15 -17 years old from Columbine high school and parents , six females ages 41-49 years old. The participants responded to fliers that were distributed a week after the attack. The flier invited Columbine High School students as well as parents to participate in a research coping with the attack.
In order to participate in the research the student had to have been there the day of the shooting and the parent have to have had a child enrolled in the school during the time of the shooting. The interviews were one hour long and taped, face to face interview. Other series of events affecting the Columbine area after the shooting, such as media intrusion, pending litigations, the Board of Education as well as internet threat, lead to termination of the research gathering data.
The interview questions were closed ended questions and open questions. Most of the data from these analyses comes from open- ended questions.
“Examples of questions include, “What meaning have you found in this experience?” “Since the shootings, have other people done things that have been particularly helpful to you as you have tried to cope with the shootings?” and, “If so, what have they done?” Additionally, we asked whether the shootings had an effect on family, then friends, and then community relationships, and, if so, what effect they had.” (Early Response to school violence). This Research was not beneficial to any further study in the prevention against spree killings at schools.
I found that trying to do a research so soon after the incident is not humanly proper nor is it of any useful purpose to the research as a whole. The open ended questions I also did not found useful or furthering my understanding of the incident. Though their choosing of recording technique, (video taping), I found was good sense all of interest can be captured. It is important to have a rational, fair, standardized method of going about evaluating as well as responding to these kinds of threats. Considering the factors of the threat assessment such as the specific and plausible details are very important. These details could be the reasons for carrying out the threat, have weapons been purchased, were and when was the threat carried out. This method looks at the totality of the circumstances surrounding the student in four areas, taking a look at the personality of the student, family dynamics, the school dynamics and social dynamics. My questions are:
-How are the preventive measures being applied in the schools?
- what is the media doing to prevent Copy cats from acting out?
-How are the teachers responding to red flags of a potential shooter?
- What policies are being applied at the schools in order to prevent shooting sprees from happening?
-Where can an individual turn to at school if they have knowledge of a potential shooting spree? Conclusions
The common thread the articles had is that there is no spree killing profile or a check list to follow. In order to gather an understanding and be able to prevent these acts of violence we need to acknowledge that the on going discipline-based research method is not suited for this type of violence and it is necessary to address and incorporate new unanswered research questions that can assist in gathering information for new policies that will be helpful in preventive measures for rampage violence acts. These new approaches should in order to be successful include trans disciplinary research models such as outcomes focused organizational structures such as those used applied when investigating other catastrophic events as well as be flexible.
References
First Article:,The School Shooter: A Threat Assessment Perspective by Mary Ellen O’Tolle, Ph.D., Retrieved from the internet June 25, 2012, http://www.fbi.gov/stats-services/publications/school-shooter.
Retrieved from the internet June 25, 2012 http://www.taginc.com/
Columbine: Understanding Why 2007, Retrieved from the internet June 25, 2012 http://movies-netflix.com/wiPlayer?movieid=70085273&trikid=7731864
The Army of Two, Retrieved from the internet June 25, 2012 http://movies-netflix.com/wiPlayer?movieid=60031195&trkid=8379860&pt_request_id=
Retrieved from the internet June 25, 2012, http://chronicle.com.libproxy.edmc.edu/article/Good-Policy-Not-Stories-Can/31623/ Second Article :Early Response to School Violence, Retrieved from the internet June 25, 2012,https://webfiles.uci.edu/rsilver/Hawkins%20et%20al.%20J%20Emotional%20Abuse%20Columbine%20ms..pdf.
Retrieved from the Internet June 25, 2012 http://www.securityinfowatch.com/article/10489768/the-psychology-of-a-mass-.
Retrieved from the internet June 25, 2012 ,https://www.myfadv.com/resources/teleconference/parkdietzbio.pdf.
THE, A. P. (2002, Oct 07). Seeking clues in killing spree / geography, psychology analyzed. Newsday, pp. A.06-A06. http://search.proquest.com/docview/279650891?accountid=34899
Third Article: Harris, John M, Jr,M.D., M.B.A., & Harris, Robin B,PhD., M.P.H. (2012). Rampage violence requires a new type of research. American Journal of Public Health, 102(6), 1054-1057. http://search.proquest.com/docview/1015208572?accountid=34899
Same http://search.proquest.com.libproxy.edmc.edu/docview/1015208572/fulltextPDF?acc [ Document3 ]
Bartol, C.R. and Bartol, A.M. (2011). Criminal behavior: A psychological approach (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Footnotes
1Complete APA style formatting information may be found in the Publication Manual.
Table 1
Type the table text here in italics; start a new page for each table
[Insert table here]
Figure Captions
Figure 1. Caption of figure
[Figures – note that this page does not have the manuscript header and page number]