Summary Of Chapter 30 The Americas In The Age Of Independence Outline

Chapter 30: The Americas in the Age of Independence Outline

I. The Building of American States
A. The United States: Westward Expansion and Civil War * Almost all adult white men eligible to participate in political affairs of republic and vote by 1820s 1. Westward Expansion and Manifest Destiny * After American Revolution, British ceded to new republic all lands between Appalachian Mountains and Mississippi River * U.S. doubled in size * Napoleon Bonaparte allowed U.S. to purchase France’s Louisiana Territory (extended from Mississippi River to Rocky Mountains * U.S. doubled in size again * By 1840s, westward expansion was well underway * “Manifest destiny”, the United States was destined, even divinely ordained, to expand across the North American continent from
Atlantic seaboard to Pacific and beyond * invoked to justify U.S. annexations

2. Conflict with Indigenous Peoples * Followed westward expansion; people resisted efforts to push them from ancestral lands and hunting grounds * Indian Removal act of 1830 moved all native Americans west of Mississippi River into “Indian Territory” * affected Seminoles from the east * Cherokees suffered 800-mile migration from eastern woodlands to Oklahoma on Trail of Tears (1838-1839) * thousands died from disease, starvation, and difficulties of location * Native Americans on plains ultimately lost war against forces of U.S. expansionism (despite occasional successes) * U.S. massacre at Wounded Knee Creak in 1890 * Sioux man accidentally shot off gun; cavalry overreacted slaughtering more than 200 men, women, and children with machine guns * Represented place where “a people’s dream died,” as later a native leader put it

3. The Mexican-American War (1846-1848) * Westward expansion generated tension between U.S. and Mexico (territories included Texas, California, and New Mexico) * Moves that led to war * Texas declared independence in 1836 b/c many U.S. migrants who had settled wanted to run their own affairs * U.S. accepted Texas as new state in 1845 and moved to consolidate hold on territory * U.S. instigated war then inflicted punishing defeat on Mexican army * By Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848), U.S. took possession of approx. ½ of Mexico’s territory, paying 15 million dollars in exchange for Texas north of Rio Grande, Cali, and New Mexico * westward expansion also created problem by aggravating tensions between regions and raising question of whether settlers could extend slavery to newly acquired territories * slavery most serious and divisive issue

4.
Sectional Conflict * North v.s. South over slavery * Invigoration of slave system by rise of cotton as cash crop in early 19th century * As numbers of slavery grew, antislavery forces fought to limit slavery spreading to new territories * Missouri Compromise of 1820, a series of political compacts attempted to maintain a balance between slave and free states as republic admitted new states carved out of western territories * Compromises proved too brittle to endure; proslavery and slavery forces became strident * Presidential election of Abraham Lincoln sparked war between the states (1861-1865) * Lincoln considered slavery as immoral and committed to free soil – territories without slavery

5. The U.S. Civil War * 11 southern states withdrew from the Union in 1860 and 1861, affirming their right to dissolve the Union and their support for states’ rights * Slavery and cultivation of cotton as cash crop isolated southern states from economic developments in rest of U.S. * Southern states, world’s major source of cotton (bulk of crops went to British
isles) * Considered themselves to be self-sufficient and believed they didn’t need rest of U.S. * Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation made abolition an explicit goal of the war * Lincoln viewed destruction of slavery the only way to preserve the Union * Ironically, in states remaining faithful to Union, slavery protected by U.S. Constitution * Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution ratified in 1865, completely abolished slavery throughout the U.S. * Northern states prevailed in the Civil War after bloody battle at Gettysburg in July 1863 * victory ended slavery * ensured U.S. would remain politically united; enhanced authority of federal government in the republic

B. The Canadian Dominion: Independence without War
1. Autonomy and Division * Canadian independence came gradually as Canadians and British government agreed on general principles of autonomy * Distinctiveness of 2 dominant ethnic groups, British Canadians & French Canadians, ensured process of building independent society would not be smooth * Canada, land in control of its own destiny by late 19th century, despite continuing ties to Britain and looming presence of U.S. to the south * After 1781 large numbers of British loyalists fled the newly formed U.S. to the south and sought refuge in Canada

2. The War of 1812 * Stimulated sense of unity against external threat * U.S. declared war on Britain in retaliation for encroachment on U.S. rights during Napoleonic wars * Canada experienced era of rapid growth after war * in 1830s, tension between English speaking migrants and the Canadian’s discontent (identity of Quebec threatened) * Between 1840 and 1867, tension defused by expanding home rule in Canada and permitting province to govern their own internal affairs * Durham Report inspired move toward Canadian autonomy, issued by John George Lambton (1782-1840) * first earl of Durham and recent governor-general and lord high commissioner of Canada who advocated good deal of self-government for united Canada * report became model for British imperial policy and colonial self-rule in other states

3. Dominion * The British North America Act of 1867 joined Quebec, Ontario, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick and recognized them as the Dominion of Canada * Act created federal government headed by governor-general who acted as British representative * John A. Macdonald (1815-1891) first prime minister of Canada, moved to incorporate all of British North America into the Dominion * negotiated purchase of Northwest Territories from Hudson’s Bay Company in 1869 * persuaded Manitoba, British Columbia, and Prince Edward Island to join the Dominion * Transcontinental railroad completed in 1885 * facilitated transportation and communications throughout Canada; eventually helped bring new province into the Dominion

C. Latin America: Fragmentation and Political Experimentation
1. Creole Elites and Political Instability * Latin American leaders less experienced in self-government * Spanish & Portuguese colonial regimes far more autocratic * Several Latin American lands lurched from one constitution to another as leaders struggled to create machinery of government that would lead to political and social stability * Creole elites dominated newly independent states and prevented mass participation in public affairs * Aggravating political instability were differences among elites

2. Conflicts with Indigenous Peoples * Most intense conflict in Argentina and Chile; cultivators and ranchers longed to take over South American plains * Brought modern weapons to bear in their campaign to conquer indigenous peoples of South America * By 1870s, they pacified the most productive lands and forced indigenous peoples either to assimilate to Euro-American society or to retreat to marginal lands that were unattractive to cultivators and ranchers

3. Caudillos * Division and discord in newly independent states helped caudillos, or regional military leaders, come to power in much of Latin America * Juan Manuel de Rosas (1829-1852) ruled an Argentina badly divided between cattle-herding and gaucho society of the pampas and urban elites of Buenos Aires * called for regional autonomy in an attempt to reconcile competing interests; worked to centralize government he usurped * Rosas did what caudillos did best: he restored order.

4. Mexico: War and Reform * Shifted from monarchy to republic to caudillo rule; generated liberal reform movement * Mexican-American war caused political turmoil in Mexico and helped General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna (1797-1896) perpetuated intermittent rule * La Reforma of the 1850’s aimed to limit power of military and Roman Catholic church in Mexican society * led by President Benito Juarez (1806-1872) Mexican of indigenous ancestry * called for liberal reform, designed in part to create rural middle class * Constitution of 1857 set forth ideals of La Reforma * curtailed prerogatives of priests and military elites; guaranteed universal male suffrage and other civil liberties

5. Mexico: Revolution (1910-1920) * Liberals and conservatives in Mexico stayed bitterly divided * a bloody and bitter conflict broke out when middle-class Mexicans joined with peasants and workers to overthrow powerful dictator Pofirio Diaz (1830-1915) * first major, violent effort in Latin America to attempt to topple grossly unequal system of landed estates turned increasingly radical as those denied land and representation armed themselves and engaged in guerrilla warfare against government forces * Emiliano Zapata (1879-1919) and Francisco (Pancho) Villa (1878-1923) organized massive armies fighting for tierra y libertad (land and liberty) * killed U.S. citizens in retaliation for U.S. support of Mexican government officials * Mexican Constitution of 1917 provided land redistribution, universal suffrage, state-supported education, minimum wages and maximum hours for workers, and restrictions on foreign ownership of Mexican property and mineral resources

II. American Economic Development
A. Migration to the Americas
1. Industrial Migrants * in 1850s European migrants to U.S. numbered 2.3 million; volume of migration surged until early 20th century * dominated textile industries of the northeast; without labor, U.S. experienced remarkable industrial expansion * Asian migrants furthered swelled U.S. labor force and contributed to construction of American transportation infrastructure * 1852-1875, 2 hundred thousand Chinese migrated to California & 5 more thousand entered Canada to search for gold in British Columbia or work on Canadian Pacific Railroad

2. Plantation Migrants * Those who went to Latin American lands mostly worked on agricultural plantations * Many Italians settled permanently in Latin America, esp. Argentina * some known as golondrinas traveled back and forth annually between Europe and South America to take advantage of diff growing seasons in northern & southern hemispheres * More than 15 thousand indentured laborers from China worked in sugarcane fields of Cuba * Indian migrants traveled to Jamaica, Trinidad, Tobago, and Guyana * Chinese and Japanese laborers migrated to Peru working on cotton plantations, mining guano deposits for fertilizer, and building railroad lines * U.S. expanding influence in Pacific Islands lef to Chinese, Japanese, Filipino, and Korean migrations to Hawai’I to tend sugarcane

B. Economic Expansion in the United States
1. British Capital * British investment capital in U.S. proved crucial to early stages of industrial development by helping businesspeople establish textile industry * spurred expansion in U.S. industry by funding entrepreneurs who opened coal and iron ore mines, built iron and steel factories and constructed railroad lines * Flow of investment in British industrialization generated wealth and created need for investors to find profitable outlets for their funds * In case of U.S., creation of rival industrial power that would outperform British economy

2. Railroads * linked all U.S. regions and helped create integrated national economy * By 1900, more than 320,000 kilometers (200,000 miles) of track, U.S. rail network stretched from coast to coast * Provided cheap transportation for agricultural commodities, manufactured goods, and individual travelers as well * by 1880s some 75% of U.S. steel went to railroad industry and supported other industries

3. Space and Time * Railroads altered landscape in often extreme fashion, and transformations consequent to building of railroads only furthered environmental impact of railroads * Differences in local sun times created schedule nightmares for railroad managers; by 1880s had to keep track of more than 50 time standards * in 1883, railroad companies divided North American continent into 4 zones which all railroad clocks read precisely the same time * 1918, U.S. government legally established 4 time zones as nation’s official framework of time

4. Economic Growth * between 1870-1900, ventors designed new products and brought them to market * electric lights, telephones, typewriters, phonographs, film photography, motion picture cameras, and electric motors * Big business prevailed in its disputes with workers during 19th century, often with support from federal or state governments

C. Canadian Prosperity
1. The National Policy * program of economic development after establishment of the Dominion * Idea to attract migrants, protect nascent industries through tariffs, and build national transportation systems * centerpiece of transportation network was transcontinental Canadian Pacific Railroad, built largely with British investment capital and completed in 1885 * Canada experienced booming agricultural, mineral, and industrial production in late 19th and early 20th centuries * Population surged for both migrations and natural increase * Economic expansion took place on foundation of increasing wheat production and extraction of rich mineral sources

2. U.S. Investment * By 1918, American owned 30% of all Canadian industry * U.S. and Canadian economies became increasingly independent

D. Latin American Investments
1. British Investment * Little desire to transform Latin American states into dependent trading partners for simple they offered no substantial market for British goods * took advantage of opportunities that brought them profits and considerable control over Latin American economic affairs * investors encouraged development of cattle and sheep ranching * Argentina became Britain’s principal supplier of meat

2. Attempted Industrialization * Porfirio Diaz represented interests of large landowners, wealthy merchants, and foreign investor * railroad tracks and telegraph lines connected all parts of Mexico; production of minerals surged * Mexico City underwent transformation (paved streets, streetcar lines, and electric streetlights) * Latin American economies expanded rapidly due to exports * copper and silver from Mexico, bananas and coffee from Central America, rubber and coffee from Brazil, beef and wheat in Argentina, copper from Chile, and tobacco and sugar from Cuba

III. American Cultural and Social Diversity
A. Societies in the United States
1. Native Peoples * Forced into increasingly cramped and marginal territories * Dawes Severalty Act of 1887 shifted land policies away from collective tribal reservations and toward individual tracts of land meant to promote family farms * white migrants, railroad employees, hunters, and “wild west” men (Buffalo Bill Cody) shot and killed hundreds of thousands of bison(exterminating buffalos and economy of Plain Indians) * Government officials removed native children from their families and tribes; enrolled in white-controlled boarding schools * Carlisle Indian School and Toledo Indian School illustrate extent to which white society sought to eliminate tribal influences and inculcate Christian, U.S. values

2. Freed Slaves * Northern forces sent armies of occupation to southern states and forces them to undergo program of social and political Reconstruction (1867-1877) * Civil rights of voting extended to freed slaves and black men * Violent backlash soon dismantled program’s reform after Reconstruction * freed slaves not received land grants or any means of economical support; many worked as sharecroppers for former slave owners * white southerners took back political and civil liberties of former slaves * Southern states segregated society that deprived African-American population of educational, economical, and political opportunities

3. Women * At Seneca Falls Convention in 1848, feminists issued “declaration of sentiments” modeled on Declaration of Independence * demanded equal political and economic rights for U.S. women * fought for equal rights and new opportunities for education and employment offered alternatives to marriage and domesticity * women’s colleges, reform activism, and professional industrial jobs allowed pursuing careers over marriage

4. Migrants * Between 1840 and 1914, 25 million European migrants landed on American shores * Introduced new foods, music, dances, holidays, sports, and languages to U.S. society; contributed cultural diversity of western hemisphere * native-born citizens of U.S. hostile to migrants who flooded into expanding industrial cities * Migrants and families concentrated on certain districts, Little Italy and Chinatown, preference of neighbors with familiar cultural traditions * partly because native-born discouraged migrants from moving into other neighborhoods * Growing numbers of migrants w/ diff cultural and social traditions led to exclusion of new arrivals from Asian lands * U.S. government halted migration from China in 1882 and from Japan in 1907

B. Canadian Cultural Contrasts
1. Ethnic Diversity * British and French settlers viewed selves as Canada’s founding people * Indigenous displaced by British and French settlers * Slave legal in British empire until 1833, brought to Canada; some escaped from U.S. after 1830s (reached Canada by Underground Railroad) * Blacks free but not equal, segregated and isolated from political and cultural mainstream (LOL, the politics and culture in Canada were too mainstream for the Blacks just like raps about money and baby making actions are too mainstream for “hipsters” today) * China also migrated to Canada and lived mostly in segregated Chinatowns in cities of British Columbia * lured by gold rushes such as Fraser River rush of 1858 and by opportunities to work on Canadian Pacific Railway in 1880s * Between 1896 and 1914 3 million migrants from Britain, the U.S., and eastern Europe arrived in Canada * After 1867, British Canadians led effort to settle Northwest Territories and incorporate them into Dominion, frictions between two groups intensified * Westward expansion brought British Canadian settlers and cultivators into conflict w/ French Canadian fur traders and lumberjacks

2. The Metis and Louis Riel * major outbreak of civil strife in 1870s and 1880s * Natives and metis moved west to preserve land and trading rights; British Canadians drove them west and threatened them * Louis Riel (1844-1885) leader of metis and indigenous peoples of western Canada * assumed presidency of provisional government in 1870 * led troops in capturing Fort Gary and negotiated incorporation of province of Manitoba into Canadian Dominion * Canadian authorities outlawed his government and exiled him (wandered through U.S. and Quebec, suffering confinement in asylums) * Work on Canadian Pacific Railroad in 1880s renewed threat of white settlement to indigenous and metics society * Riel organized military force of metis and nativesin 1885 in the Saskatchewan river country, led insurrection known as Northwest Rebellion * Rebels subdued and Riel executed for treason * French Canadian suspicious of the British elites thereafter

C. Ethnicity, Identity, and Gender in Latin America
1. Migration and Cultural Diversity * Large-scale migration brought added cultural diversity to Latin America in 19th century * Chinese migrants in Cuba mostly intermarried and assimilated into working classes with leaving foreign influence on societies they joined * Indian migrants to Trinidad and Tobago formed distinctive communities which they spoke their native languages, preparing foods from homeland, and observed inherited cultural and social traditions * European migration to Argentina brought lively diversity to Bueno Aires * capital enjoyed reputation as “the Paris of the Americas” * Argentine president Domingo Faustino Sarmiento (1811-1888) despised caudillo rule emerging after independence; worked for development of the best society based on European values * Facundo: Civilization and Barbarism (1845) argues necessity for Buenos Aires to bring discipline to disorderly Argentine countryside

2. Gauchos * Argentina’s “cowboys” admired by Sarmiento for bravery and independence * one symbol of Latin American identity; mostly mestizos/castizos and also white and black * acquired ethnic egalitarianism rarely found elsewhere in Latin America * most prominent in Argentine pampas; cultural practices linked to cowboys, or vaqueros, found throughout Americas; led independent and self-sufficient lives * lived off own skills and needed only horses to survive * dressed distinctively, with sashed trousers, ponchos, and boots * countless songs and poems lauded courage, skill, and lovemaking bravado * Poet Jose Hernandez, romanticized vers. of gaucho life and protested its decline in epic poem The Gaucho Martin Fierro (1873)

3. Male Domination * Women no vote or hold office, work or manage estates w/o permission from male guardians * women liable to rough treatment and assault by gaucho * others steeped in values of machismo – social ethic honoring male strength, courage, aggressiveness, assertiveness, and cunning * Voiced discontent with male domination and machismo; “To Be Born a Man” (1887) Adela Zamudio * No strong women’s moment; education opportunities expanded for young girls and young women after mid-19th century

4. Female Activism * in early 20th centuries, women served in conjunction with men in Mexican revolution * Zapatistas, or followers of Emiliano Zapata * Zapata women followers labored with domestic realm to provide food for soldiers, others breached domestic barriers to become soldiers and officers themselves * Soldaderas (female soldiers of supporters of soldiers)