Summary: The Science Of Psychology

Chapter One: The Science of Psychology
Chapter Overview

Experiencing Psychology: The Mystery that Is You
King discusses how people view others and how everyone, including you, can be an everyday hero.
Psychology is considered a science, but it is different from the other sciences with which students are familiar. Psychology, as a science, focuses on the many facets that make everyone who they are.

Psychology as a Science of All Human Behavior

Psychology is defined as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
As a science, psychology uses the scientific method to observe, describe, and predict behavior.
Behavior is everything that a person does that can be directly observed.
Mental processes are the internal
thoughts, feelings, and motives that cannot be directly observed.

A. The Psychological Frame of Mind
Scientists are critical thinkers: They question what others consider factual. They accept nothing at face value.
Scientists practice curiosity. A scientist wants to know why things in the world are the way they are and how they became that way. Science is concerned with asking questions.
Scientists practice skepticism. They ask questions about things that other people take for granted.
Scientists apply objectivity in conducting research using empirical methods (through observation and logical reasoning) to gather data.

B. Psychology as a Science of All Human Behavior

The scope of psychology as a whole is much more than that of the clinical psychologists who treat and study psychological disorders.

Sigmund Freud studied the dark, unpleasant, and unconscious aspects of psychology. His view influenced the way psychology is generally perceived.

Psychology seeks to gain knowledge in all dimensions, both positive and negative, of human behavior.

Research on forgiveness (letting go of anger and resentment toward others who have harmed us) has shown that good can come out of negative events or situations. (For example, the Amish were able to forgive the person who killed their daughters in a school shooting.)

Psychology addresses all sides of being human and participates in healthy debate.

C. Psychology in Historical Perspective

For thousands of years, people have been trying to answer the basic questions of human behavior, such as (a) how do our senses perceive the world? (b) how do we learn? (c) what is memory? (d) and why does one person grow and flourish, whereas another struggles in life?
Early philosophers, such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, debated the nature of thought and behavior, including the possible link between the mind and the body.
Psychology has its roots not only in philosophy but also in biology and physiology. Wilhelm Wundt, a German philosopher-physician, founded the academic discipline of psychology.
Structuralism was first studied by Wundt and his collaborators. They focused on the basic elements or structures of mental processes. Introspection was the method used to study these mental structures. Individuals were asked to think about what was occurring mentally as events were taking place. These studies focused mainly on sensation and perception, because those were the aspects that could be broken down into component parts.
Functionalism is concerned with the functions and purposes of the mind in individuals’ adaptation to the environment. Structuralists were looking inside the mind, while functionalists were focusing on how humans interacted with the outside world. Functionalism meshed well with another intellectual development, Charles Darwin’s principle of natural selection.

I. Contemporary Approaches to Psychology
The biological approach emphasizes the study of the body, especially the brain and the nervous system. Neuroscience is the scientific study of the structure, function, development, genetics, and biochemistry of the nervous system. It emphasizes that the brain and nervous system are central to understanding behavior, thought, and emotion.
The behavioral approach emphasizes the scientific study of observable behavioral responses and their environmental determinants. John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner were the first behaviorists. Behaviorism dominated psychological research during the first half of the twentieth century.
The psychodynamic approach emphasizes unconscious thought, the conflict between biological instincts and society’s demands, and early family experiences. Sigmund Freud, the founder of the psychodynamic approach, believed that a person’s early interactions with his or her parents were the major factor that shaped an individual’s personality.
The humanistic approach emphasizes a person’s positive qualities, his or her capacity for positive growth, and the freedom to choose any destiny. Humanistic psychologists stress that people have the ability to control their lives and avoid being manipulated by the environment.
The cognitive approach emphasizes the mental processes involved in knowing: how we direct our attention, how we perceive, how we remember, and how we think and solve problems.
The evolutionary approach uses evolutionary ideas such as adaptation, reproduction, and the concept of the survival of the fittest as the basis for explaining specific human behaviors. Evolutionary psychologists believe that their approach provides an umbrella that unifies the diverse fields of psychology.
The sociocultural approach emphasizes the ways in which the social and cultural environments influence behavior.

III. Psychology’s Scientific Method

Observing a Phenomenon

The first step in conducting scientific research is observing some phenomenon.
A variable is anything that can change.
When trying to formulate a research question from your observation, define operationally how your variable will be measured. By establishing an operational definition, you will eliminate any gray areas that might arise when thinking about a problem.
Formulating Hypotheses and Predictions
The second step in conducting scientific research is stating a hypothesis, an idea that is arrived at logically from a theory.
Testing Through Empirical Research
The third step in conducting scientific research is to test the hypothesis by collecting and analyzing data (i.e., doing empirical research).
One of the key aspects of testing a hypothesis is data analysis, which applies mathematical procedures to understand what the data mean. Data are the information collected in a study.

Drawing Conclusions
Based on what was found after data analysis, researchers can draw conclusions from their research.
A research finding is considered reliable when a study has been replicated again and again and yields similar findings.

Evaluating Conclusions

Evaluation never really ends. Conclusions become part of the research community, which continues to question them.

IV. Types of Psychological Research

A. Descriptive Research
Descriptive research involves investigating the parameters of a variable. Such research allows the researcher to develop a sense for something but does not answer the how and why of a situation. One study of happiness compared the Inuits of Greenland, the Masai of southern Kenya, and U.S. “old order” Amish. These people live in what might be considered reduced or harsh circumstances or engage in stringent cultural practices. All three groups of subjects scored from 4.4 to 5.4 on the happiness scale. Observation

For observations to be effective, they must be systematic. Researchers must know what they are looking for, who they are observing, where and when observations will take place, and how observations will be made.
Surveys and Interviews

One method to gain information about people is to interview them directly.
When information needs to be taken from a large group of people, a survey or questionnaire can be used. A survey consists of questions about a person’s self-reported attitudes or beliefs about a topic.
Survey questions can either be unstructured and open ended, or they can be structured and more specific.

Surveys and interviews can be problematic, because sometimes participants will answer the questions in a way they believe is socially acceptable instead of how they really feel.

Case Studies
A case study is conducted when a researcher takes an in-depth look at a single individual.
A case study is usually conducted by a clinical psychologist when the unique aspects of an individual’s life cannot be duplicated in other individuals. B. Correlational Research
Correlational research is conducted when studies are concerned with identifying the relationships between two or more variables so it can be understood how the variables change together.
In a correlational study the variables are measured by the researcher to see how they relate.
The strength of the relationship between two variables is expressed as a correlation coefficient, represented as a lowercase r.

The numeric value of a correlation coefficient falls between –1.00 and +1.00, where the number determines the strength of the relationship between the variables and the – or + sign determines the direction of the relationship between the variables.

A positive correlation occurs when the variables move in the same direction, so that if one variable increases the other variable also increases, and if one variable decreases the other variable decreases as well.
A negative correlation occurs when the variables move in opposite directions, so that if one variable increases the other variable decreases, and vice versa.

Correlational studies can take place anywhere, whether in the classroom, in the outside world, or in the laboratory.
Correlation is not causation
Correlation does not equal causation. A correlation between two variables states only that there is a relationship between the two variables, not that one of the variables causes the other one.
The so-called third variable problem occurs when an extraneous variable that has not been measured accounts for the relationship between two variables.
Even with the risk of a third variable, correlational studies are important, because they allow us to research variables that cannot be manipulated. Correlational studies can also be conducted on variables that would be considered unethical to carry out in an experiment.
Correlational studies can be used when researchers are interested in everyday experience. This practice is called experience sampling method (ESM). It can consist of writing in a diary or recording a measurement of some kind upon being reminded to do so by an electronic organizer.
Longitudinally designed studies
Another way of controlling for causation is by conducting a longitudinally designed study in which the measures of the variables are obtained in multiple waves over time.

C. Experimental Research

If there is a relationship between two variables, the researcher must use experimental methods to determine the direction of the causality.

In an experiment the researcher manipulates one of the variables to see if it influences the behavior in question. If the behavior changes when one of the variables is manipulated, then the manipulated variable is considered to have caused the behavior to change.
Researchers use random assignment by dividing a study’s participants randomly into two different groups.
Independent and dependent variables
The independent variable is the variable that is manipulated in an experiment.
The dependent variable is the result of manipulating the independent variable. Researchers measure changes in the dependent variable. correlational studies are important, because they allow us to research variables that cannot be manipulated. Correlational studies can also be conducted on variables that would be considered unethical to carry out in an experiment.
Correlational studies can be used when researchers are interested in everyday experience. This practice is called experience sampling method (ESM). It can consist of writing in a diary or recording a measurement of some kind upon being reminded to do so by an electronic organizer.
Longitudinally designed studies
Another way of controlling for causation is by conducting a longitudinally designed study in which the measures of the variables are obtained in multiple waves over time.

C. Experimental Research

If there is a relationship between two variables, the researcher must use experimental methods to determine the direction of the causality.

In an experiment the researcher manipulates one of the variables to see if it influences the behavior in question. If the behavior changes when one of the variables is manipulated, then the manipulated variable is considered to have caused the behavior to change.
Researchers use random assignment by dividing a study’s participants randomly into two different groups.
Independent and dependent variables
The independent variable is the variable that is manipulated in an experiment.
The dependent variable is the result of manipulating the independent variable. Researchers measure changes in the dependent variable.
A confederate is a person given a role in an experiment in order to manipulate the social context.
Experimental and control groups
The experimental group is the group whose variable is manipulated.
The control group is exactly like the experimental group, except that there is no manipulation of the variable. The control group is used as a comparison group.
Some cautions about experimental research
External validity refers to whether the experimental design is representative of real-world issues.
Internal validity refers to whether changes in the dependent variable are actually due to the manipulation of the independent variable.
Experimenter bias

Experimenter bias occurs when the experimenter’s expectations influence the results of the study.
Demand characteristics are any aspects of a study that communicate to the subject how the researcher wants them to behave.
Research participant bias and the placebo effect

Research participant bias occurs when the participant’s behavior during an experiment is influenced by how the participant believes he or she is supposed to be behaving.
A placebo effect occurs when the participant’s expectations produce an experimental outcome, even though the participant did not receive any manipulation.
A placebo is an innocuous, inert substance that has no effect on the behavior of the participants. However, participants are kept unaware of this, so that they believe they actually received the manipulation.
One method to control for both experimenter and participant bias is to conduct a double blind experiment. In this type of experiment, neither the experimenter nor the participant is aware of which participants are in the experimental group and which are in the control group.
Applications of the three types of research

All three types of research—descriptive, correlational, and experimental—can be used to examine the same topic. V. Research Settings and Types of Research
Research samples
The researcher wants to be able to draw conclusions from the results that will apply to a larger group of people or animals.
This larger group is known as the population.
The group that the study uses is called the sample. The sample is a subset of the population.
As a way to more closely resemble the population, a researcher uses a random sample. Choosing a random sample means that each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.
Research Setting
The setting where the research takes place does not determine what type of research it is. Common settings include the laboratory and natural settings.
Laboratory research takes place in a controlled environment from which the complex factors of the real world are removed. There are many drawbacks to conducting laboratory research: the participants know that they are being studied; the laboratory setting is unnatural; the participants who go to a university setting to take part in laboratory research may not be representative of the general population; and some aspects of the mind and behavior are difficult to examine in a laboratory.
When research is conducted in a natural setting, it is naturalistic observation. In such research, people’s behaviors are being observed in real-world situations.

VI. Conducting Ethical Research
The consideration of ethical standards came about after Nazi doctors in concentration camps used prisoners as guinea pigs in their experiments.
Ethical guidelines
Subjects in a research study should be no worse off after participating in the study.
Colleges and universities have what are termed institutional review boards that evaluate the ethical nature of research studies before approving them.
The American Psychological Association (APA) has developed guidelines for researchers to follow when conducting research involving human participants.
Researchers must obtain the informed consent of the participants prior to the start of the experiment. That is, the participants must know in advance what will be involved in the experiment and what, if any, risks there might be.
Researchers are responsible for the maintaining the confidentiality of all the data collected from the participants in the experiment.
After an experiment has been conducted, the researcher is responsible for debriefing the participants. At this time the participants are informed of the experiment’s purpose and the methods that were used in the experiment.
Deception is allowed in an experiment if telling the participants in advance about the expected outcome of the study could potentially alter the participants’ behavior and therefore invalidate the results of the experiment.
The ethics of research with animals
Experiments using animals as research subjects have provided a better understanding of and solutions for many human problems.
The APA has established guidelines for researchers to use in housing, feeding, and maintaining the psychological and physiological well-being of animal subjects.
Values
The issue of values in psychological research (the standards for judging what is worthwhile and desirable) is two sided. On the one side, psychologists believe that psychology should be value-free and morally neutral. On the other side, people believe that because psychologists are humans, they cannot be value-free.
Chapter Two: The Brain and Behavior

The Nervous System

The nervous system is the body’s electrochemical communication system. Neuroscience is the field of study of the nervous system. The researchers who conduct research on the nervous system are neuroscientists.

A. Characteristics of the Nervous System

1. Complexity

The brain is made up of billions of nerve cells, the orchestration of which allows a person to carry out a variety of activities.
2. Integration
The brain integrates information from the environment so that people can function in the world.
Each nerve cell in the brain communicates with some 10,000 other nerve cells.
3. Adaptation
As the world constantly changes, the brain and nervous system allow a person to adjust to those changes.
The brain has a lot of plasticity, meaning it has a vast capacity for modification and change.
4. Electrochemical Transmission
Electrical impulses and chemical messenger systems allow the brain and nervous system to work as an information-processing system.

B. Pathways in the Nervous System
As people interact with and adapt to the world around them, the brain and nervous system receive and transmit incoming sensory information. The brain and nervous new skills, this process is creating new pathways in the brain.

B. Characteristics of the Nervous System

5. Complexity

The brain is made up of billions of nerve cells, the orchestration of which allows a person to carry out a variety of activities.
6. Integration
The brain integrates information from the environment so that people can function in the
world.
Each nerve cell in the brain communicates with some 10,000 other nerve cells.
7. Adaptation
As the world constantly changes, the brain and nervous system allow a person to adjust to those changes.
The brain has a lot of plasticity, meaning it has a vast capacity for modification and change.
8. Electrochemical Transmission
Electrical impulses and chemical messenger systems allow the brain and nervous system to work as an information-processing system.

C. Pathways in the Nervous System
As people interact with and adapt to the world around them, the brain and nervous system receive and transmit incoming sensory information. The brain and nervous system integrate this information and direct the body’s motor activities.
Afferent nerves carry information to the brain.
Efferent nerves carry information from the brain out to the body.
Neural networks, made up of nerve cells, integrate sensory input and motor output.

C. Divisions of the Nervous System
1. The central nervous system (CNS) is comprised of the brain and spinal cord.
2. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of the nerves that connect the brain and spinal cord to other parts of the body. The function of the PNS is to direct information to and from the brain and spinal cord. It also carries out the commands of the CNS.
The PNS is comprised of the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. The function of the somatic nervous system is to convey information from the skin and muscles to the CNS. It regulates information such as signals about pain and temperature. The autonomic nervous system’s function is to take messages to and from the body’s internal organs, thus regulating breathing, heart rate, and digestion.
The autonomic nervous system is comprised of both the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. The sympathetic nervous system prepares a person for a stressful situation; the parasympathetic nervous system calms the body down after the stressful situation.
Stress is the response of individuals to stressors, circumstances or events that threaten an individual’s well-being.
When a person experiences stress, physiological changes take place, such as sweating and an elevated heart beat.
When a person is exposed to a stressful situation this activates their sympathetic nervous system (the fight or flight response).
Acute stress, the momentary stress response, ends with the ceasing of the stressful event.
Chronic stress is stress that occurs continuously. In this type of stress the nervous system sends out corticosteroids (stress hormones) that can wear down the immune system.

II. Neurons
Neurons are the nerve cells that control the information-processing function.
Mirror neurons play a role in imitation. They are activated when we perform an action or observe others in action. These neurons are implicated in empathy and understanding others.
Glial cells provide support and nutrition to the nervous system.

A. Specialized Cell Structures

Not all neurons are alike, but they all have a cell body, dendrites, and an axon.
The cell body contains the nucleus that manufactures what neurons need for growth and maintenance.
Dendrites receive information and send it on to the cell body.
The axon carries information away from the cell body and on to other cells.
A myelin sheath, which covers the axon, is semipermeable, meaning that certain substances can pass into and out of the axon. The nerve disorder called multiple sclerosis occurs when there is a breakdown of the myelin sheath.

B. The Neural Impulse this activates their sympathetic nervous system (the fight or flight response).
Acute stress, the momentary stress response, ends with the ceasing of the stressful event.
Chronic stress is stress that occurs continuously. In this type of stress the nervous system sends out corticosteroids (stress hormones) that can wear down the immune system.

III.
Neurons
Neurons are the nerve cells that control the information-processing function.
Mirror neurons play a role in imitation. They are activated when we perform an action or observe others in action. These neurons are implicated in empathy and understanding others.
Glial cells provide support and nutrition to the nervous system.

B. Specialized Cell Structures

Not all neurons are alike, but they all have a cell body, dendrites, and an axon.
The cell body contains the nucleus that manufactures what neurons need for growth and maintenance.
Dendrites receive information and send it on to the cell body.
The axon carries information away from the cell body and on to other cells.
A myelin sheath, which covers the axon, is semipermeable, meaning that certain substances can pass into and out of the axon. The nerve disorder called multiple sclerosis occurs when there is a breakdown of the myelin sheath.

C. The Neural Impulse
In order for a neuron to send information to another neuron, the source neuron first sends an electrical charge.
Positive and negative ions float inside and outside the axon. The positive ions are sodium and potassium. The negative ions are
chlorine.
Inside the membrane of the axon are gated pathways known as ion channels. These channels open and close, allowing the positive and negative ions to cross into and out of the axon. When a neuron is at rest and not transmitting information, the ion channels are closed and there is a negative charge on the inside of the axon and a positive charge on the outside of it.
When a neuron is inactive it is said to be at resting potential.
When an electrical impulse flows down the axon it becomes depolarized. The channels open and the positive ions move into the axon and the negative ions move outside the axon. Then the potassium channels open and the positive ions move back out and return the axon to its normal charge.
An action potential is the term given to the electrical impulses flowing down the axon.
The all-or-none principle refers to the situation that occurs when an electrical impulse reaches a certain level of intensity, then fires and moves all the way down the axon, without losing any of its intensity.

C. Synapses and Neurotransmitters
1. Synaptic Transmission
Synapses are the junctions between neurons. The space between one neuron and the dendrites of another neuron is called the synaptic gap.
At the end of the axon there are fibers that end in what are called terminal buttons. Neurotransmitters are stored in the terminal buttons. These carry the electrical information across the synaptic gap.

2. Neurochemical Messengers
There are a variety of neurotransmitters. Each plays a different role and has its own function. Some neurotransmitters excite the neuron and cause it to fire, while other neurotransmitters inhibit the neuron.
After the neurotransmitter crosses over the synaptic gap, it gets picked up by a receiving neuron. Most neurons pick up and secrete only one type of neurotransmitter.
3. Neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine sets the firing of neurons into motion and is involved in muscle action, learning, and memory.
GABA keeps many neurons from firing. Low levels of GABA are involved in anxiety.
Norepinephrine inhibits neuron firing in the CNS, but it excites the heart muscle, intestines, and urogenital tract.
Stress releases norepinephrine.
Dopamine is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that helps control voluntary movement.
Dopamine also affects sleep, mood, attention, learning, and the ability to recognize rewards.
Low levels of dopamine are associated with Parkinson’s disease.
Serotonin is mostly an inhibitory neurotransmitter.
Serotonin is involved in sleep regulation, mood attention, and learning.
Endorphins stimulate neuron firing.
Endorphins alleviate pain and elevate feelings of pleasure.
Oxytocin plays a role in the feelings of love and human bonding.
4. Drugs and Neurotransmitters
A drug that mimics a neurotransmitter’s effect is known as an agonist.
A drug that blocks a neurotransmitter’s effect is known as an antagonist.
a.c.1.D. Neural Networks

Neural networks can be altered through changes in synaptic connections.
How strongly neurons are connected determines how well a person remembers information.

IV. Structures of the Brain and Their Functions
Neuron networks are not visible to the human eye; however, technology has helped neuroscientists form pictures of the structures of the neurons and the brain.
A. How Researchers Study the Brain and Nervous System
Much of the brain imaging available today has come from studies on patients with brain damage or injury from disease.
1. Brain Lesioning
Brain lesions can be the result of injury or disease.

Neuroscientists sometimes create lesions in the brains of animals to see the effect on the animal’s behavior.
Brain lesions can be made by removing brain tissue, destroying tissue with a laser, or eliminating tissue by injection with a drug.
2. Staining
Much of what is known about neural pathways has been found through the use of stains or dyes that are selectively absorbed by neurons.
Neuroscientists can see through high-powered microscopes which neurons have absorbed the stain.
3. Electrical Recording The electroencephalograph (EEG) records the electrical activity in the brain. When electrodes are placed on a person’s scalp, they detect brain-wave activity, which is recorded on a chart.
The EEG is used to assess brain damage, epilepsy, and other problems.
Single-unit recording is used when a probe is inserted in or near an individual neuron. The probe transmits the electrical activity to an amplifier so that researchers can see the activity.

4. Brain Imaging
A computerized tomography or CT scan produces a three-dimensional image obtained through x-rays of the head.
A positron-emission tomography or PET scan measures the amount of glucose in various areas of the brain, and then sends this information to a computer, where it is analyzed.
A magnetic resonance image (MRI) creates a magnetic field around a person’s body and uses radio waves to construct images of the person’s tissue and biochemical activities.
A newer method of the MRI is the functional magnetic resonance image (fMRI), which allows researchers to see what is happening in the brain while it is working.

B. How the Brain Is Organized

The nervous system starts out as a long, hollow tube. Then, three weeks after conception, cells making up the tube start to differentiate into neurons. These neurons begin to develop into the three major parts of the brain: the hindbrain, the midbrain, and the forebrain.

1. The Hindbrain
The hindbrain is the lowest portion of the brain.
The medulla helps in controlling breathing and regulates reflexes.
The cerebellum controls leg and arm movements.
The pons is involved in sleep and arousal.
The brain stem (the oldest part of the brain) includes much of the hindbrain except the cerebellum and the midbrain. The brain stem determines alertness and regulates such basic survival functions as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.
2. The Midbrain
The midbrain is located between the hindbrain and the forebrain.
The midbrain communicates information between the brain and the eyes and ears.
The reticular formation is involved in walking, sleeping, or turning to attend to a noise. It uses the neurotransmitters serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine.
The brain stem encases the reticular formation. It regulates survival-type functions like breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure.

3. The Forebrain
The forebrain is the highest level of the brain.

a. The Limbic System
The limbic system is important in both memory and emotion.
The amygdala is somewhat like an awareness center. It fires selectively at the sight of appropriate foods, mates, and social rivals. The amygdala is also involved in emotional awareness and expression.
The hippocampus is involved in the formation and storage of memories. People who have hippocampus damage cannot retain new memories after the damage.
b. The Thalamus
An important function of the thalamus is to sort through information and send it to the appropriate place in the forebrain. c. The Basal Ganglia
The basal ganglia works with the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex in coordinating voluntary movements.
d. Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus monitors eating, drinking, and sexual behavior, along with emotion, stress, and reward.

C. The Cerebral Cortex
The cerebral cortex, the outer layer of the brain, controls some of the highest mental functions, such as thinking and planning.
The neocortex, the outermost part of the brain, makes up 80 percent of the cerebral cortex.

1. The Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex
The lobes are divided into two hemispheres, and each hemisphere is divided into four lobes: the occipital lobe, the temporal lobe, the frontal lobe, and the parietal lobe.
The occipital lobe, in the back of the head, involves visual stimuli.
The temporal lobe, in the cerebral cortex just above the ears, involves hearing, language processing, and memory.
The frontal lobe, behind the forehead, is involved in the control of voluntary muscles, intelligence, and personality. Phineas Gage, a 19th-century railroad worker, during an accident had an iron rod go through his face and up into his brain. The iron rod went through his frontal lobe. After the accident, Phineas’s personality changed dramatically. He became obstinate, moody, irresponsible, selfish, and incapable of taking part in planned activities.
The parietal lobe, at the top and toward the rear of the head, involves registering spatial location, attention, and motor control.
2. The Somatosensory Cortex and the Motor Cortex
The somatosensory cortex processes information about body sensations.
The motor cortex processes information about voluntary movements.
The somatosensory and motor areas are associated with different parts of the body. When Wilder Penfield conducted research on the somatosensory and motor areas, he found that when he stimulated a part of one of the areas a certain part of the body would move.
3. The Association Cortex
The association cortex processes information about sensory input and motor output.
The association cortex is involved in thinking and problem solving.
80 percent of the cerebral cortex.

1. The Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex
The lobes are divided into two hemispheres, and each hemisphere is divided into four lobes: the occipital lobe, the temporal lobe, the frontal lobe, and the parietal lobe.
The occipital lobe, in the back of the head, involves visual stimuli.
The temporal lobe, in the cerebral cortex just above the ears, involves hearing, language processing, and memory.
The frontal lobe, behind the forehead, is involved in the control of voluntary muscles, intelligence, and personality. Phineas Gage, a 19th-century railroad worker, during an accident had an iron rod go through his face and up into his brain. The iron rod went through his frontal lobe. After the accident, Phineas’s personality changed dramatically. He became obstinate, moody, irresponsible, selfish, and incapable of taking part in planned activities.
The parietal lobe, at the top and toward the rear of the head, involves registering spatial location, attention, and motor control.
3. The Somatosensory Cortex and the Motor Cortex
The somatosensory cortex processes information about body sensations.
The motor cortex processes information about voluntary movements.
The somatosensory and motor areas are associated with different parts of the body. When Wilder Penfield conducted research on the somatosensory and motor areas, he found that when he stimulated a part of one of the areas a certain part of the body would move.
4. The Association Cortex
The association cortex processes information about sensory input and motor output.
The association cortex is involved in thinking and problem solving.

D. The Cerebral Hemispheres and Split-Brain Research
Aphasia is a language disorder associated with brain damage.

Damage to Broca’s area will cause a person to have difficulty in speaking a language.
Damage to Wernicke’s area will cause a person to have difficulty understanding a spoken language.
The corpus callosum is a bundle of axons that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain. If the corpus callosum is severed, the two hemispheres cannot communicate with each other. If a memory is stored in the left hemisphere it cannot communicate with the right hemisphere; therefore, the memory appears to be gone.
Speech and grammar are controlled by the left hemisphere. The right hemisphere involves the processing of nonverbal information like special perception, visual recognition and emotion.

E. Integration of Function in the Brain

There is considerable integration of function between different areas in the brain. When information, or stimuli, is noticed, the information gets sent to the correct area of the brain, where it is processed, then sent out of the brain to the correct area in the body. Along the way, from the beginning to the end, the information goes through various areas of the brain and all the areas work together to have the information processed.

V. The Endocrine System

A. The Endocrine System’s Structures and Functions

The endocrine system consists of glands that regulate certain organs by releasing their chemical products into the bloodstream.
Hormones are chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine system.
The pituitary gland involves growth and regulates other glands.
The adrenal glands are involved in regulating mood, energy level, and the ability to cope with stress. The adrenal glands secrete both epinephrine and norepinephrine.
The pancreas is involved in the digestive and endocrine functions. It secretes insulin, which controls blood sugar, which itself is implicated in metabolism and weight and obesity.
The ovaries in females and the testes in males are involved in sexual development, reproduction, and sexual characteristics.

VI. Brain Damage, Plasticity, and Repair

Research has been conducted on patients with brain damage to determine how well the brain can repair itself. Recovery from brain damage depends on the age of the individual and the extent of the brain damage.

A. The Brain’s Plasticity and Capacity for Repair
Most of the human brain’s plasticity is found in young children before the age of five. For example, if a child below the age of five has brain damage to the left hemisphere, then the right hemisphere will pick up much of the language function. However, if damage occurs after the age of five, there may be permanent language disability.
Much of the brain’s ability to repair itself depends on whether the neurons in the damaged area have been completely destroyed. If these neurons were not totally destroyed, brain function may be restored over time.
Collateral sprouting is one way in which the brain can repair itself. In this process, the axons on adjacent neurons grow more branches.
Substitution of function is a second way the brain can repair itself. When this happens, another area in the brain takes over the functions of the damaged area.
Neurogenesis is the process through which new neurons are generated.
B. Brain Tissue Implants
Brain grafts are implants of healthy tissue that are placed into the damaged brain.
The most successful cases of brain grafts occur when the tissue for the implants comes from the fetal stage.
The use of stem cells has been a topic for hot debate in recent years. Stem cells are unique, because they have the ability to develop into most types of cells.

VI. Genetics and Behavior
A. Chromosomes, Genes, and DNA
The nucleus of each cell contains 46 chromosomes, which are essentially 23 pairs of chromosomes with one of each pair coming from each parent.
Chromosomes contain deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA. DNA is the molecule that carries a person’s genetic information.
Genes are the segments of chromosomes that are composed of DNA. Genes carry the heredity information of the individual.
According to the dominant-recessive genes principle, if one of the genes of a pair is dominant over the other, the dominant gene resides over the recessive one. For example, if a person inherits the blue-eyed gene from his or her mother and the brown-eyed gene from the father and the blue-eyed gene is dominant, the person will have blue eyes.

B. The Study of Genetics
Gregor Mendel first started the research on genetics in the mid-nineteenth century when he studied heredity in pea plants.

1. Molecular Genetics
Molecular genetics involves the manipulation of genes.
The term genome refers to the instructions for making an organism.
2. Selective Breeding
Selective breeding occurs when organisms are chosen for reproduction based on how much of a particular trait they display. 3. Behavior Genetics Behavior genetics is the study of the degree and nature of heredity’s influence on behavior.
In twin studies, behavior genetics studies the extent to which individuals are shaped by their heredity and the influence of the environment on them. The behavioral similarity of identical twins is compared to the behavioral similarity of fraternal twins.
5.a.4. Genes and the Environment
A genotype is a person’s genetic heritage.
A phenotype is a person’s observable characteristics. It refers to both the physical and psychological characteristics.
Chapter 4
I. The Nature of Consciousness
Metacognition refers to thinking about thinking. The awareness of thinking about something can have survival benefits.
The term consciousness refers to a person’s awareness of external events and internal sensations.
A sleeping person is not in the same state of consciousness as when they are awake.
A. Consciousness and the Brain
Neuroscientists do not believe there is a specific place in the brain for consciousness. They believe there are separate processing systems that connect to produce consciousness.
The two aspects of awareness are awareness itself and arousal. Awareness typically takes place in the cerebral cortex. Arousal occurs in the brain stem, medulla, and thalamus.

a.B. Levels of Awareness

a.B.1. Higher-Level Consciousness
Controlled processes are the most alert states of consciousness. At this level, individuals actively direct their attention toward a goal.
a.2. Lower-Level Awareness
The automatic processes of lower-level awareness are states of consciousness that require little attention and do not interfere with other activities.
3. Daydreaming
Daydreaming lies between active consciousness and dreaming while asleep.
Mind wandering is the most well known type of daydreaming.
Daydreaming can be useful in that in this state a person may be making plans, solving problems, or coming up with a creative idea.
a.i.1.4. Altered States of Consciousness
Altered states of consciousness are mental states that are noticeably different from normal awareness.
Altered states of consciousness can be brought about through drugs, trauma, fatigue, sensory deprivation, and possibly hypnosis.
Subconscious awareness
a. Waking subconscious awareness
During wakefulness, processes are occurring just below the surface of awareness.
a.b. Sleep and dreams
During sleep and dreaming, the level of awareness is below what it is during daydreaming.
Research has shown that while people are asleep they are still somewhat aware of external stimuli.
c. No awareness
When a person is unconscious, he or she has normally been knocked out by a blow or is under anesthesia.
Sigmund Freud believed that unconscious thought was where a person keeps unacceptable wishes, feelings, and thoughts that are beyond their awareness.

II. Sleep and Dreams
A. Biological Rhythms and Sleep

Biological rhythms are the periodic physiological fluctuations in the body.
Biological rhythms are controlled by the body’s biological clock, which includes annual or seasonal cycles, twenty-eight-day cycles, and twenty-four-hour cycles.
a.1. Circadian rhythms
A circadian rhythm is a daily behavioral or physiological cycle.
Circadian rhythms include the sleep/wake cycle, body temperature, blood pressure, and blood sugar levels.
The process of the body’s changing from daytime to nighttime functioning is controlled by the suprachiasmatic nucleus, a small structure in the brain that synchronizes its own rhythm with the daily cycles of light and dusk, which is based on information from the retina.
2. Desynchronizing the Biological Clock
Biological clocks can be desynchronized or put off their cycle by such things as jet travel, sometimes referred to as jet lag, but also by changing work shifts and insomnia.
3. Resetting One’s Biological Clock
With regard to jet lag and resetting one’s biological clock, it is a good idea to spend as much time as possible in the daylight.
Melatonin can help reduce the effects of jet lag. below what it is during daydreaming.
Research has shown that while people are asleep they are still somewhat aware of external stimuli.
d. No awareness
When a person is unconscious, he or she has normally been knocked out by a blow or is under anesthesia.
Sigmund Freud believed that unconscious thought was where a person keeps unacceptable wishes, feelings, and thoughts that are beyond their awareness.

C. Why Do We Need Sleep?
There are many important benefits to sleep, such as its ability to restore the body, promote adaptation, aid in growth, and improve memory.
Sleep is also an important mechanism for survival.
For some animals, it is safer to search for food and water when it is dark outside. For other animals, however, sleep is a time to save energy and avoid being eaten and environmental hazards like falling off a cliff they cannot see.
Many of the body’s cells show increased production and reduced breakdown of proteins during deep sleep. Sleep also gives the neurons used while awake a time to shut down and repair themselves.
Sleep is related to the consolidation, storage, and maintenance of memories.

1. The Effects of Chronic Sleep Deprivation
Lack of sleep affects attention, problem solving, and even moral judgment.
Research has shown that extreme sleep deprivation can cause hallucinations, as well as speech and movement problems.
According to a national survey, 63 percent of Americans sleep less than eight hours per night and 31 percent said they sleep less than seven hours a night.
Sleep deprivation can affect decision making.
Sleep debt is a measurable level of exhaustion from a cumulative lack of sleep.

2. Sleep Deprivation in Adolescents and Older Adults
According to research, adolescents sleeping eight hours or less on school nights were more tired or sleepy and more cranky and irritable than those who slept more. They were also more likely to fall asleep in school, to be depressed, and to drink more caffeinated beverages than other adolescents who had adequate sleep.
Sleep patterns change for people once they enter the age range of middle adult (the forties and fifties). They go to bed earlier and wake up earlier.
Older adults, in their sixties and older, tend to not sleep through the entire night.

C. Sleep Stages
An electroencephalogram (EEG) is used to monitor the brain’s electrical activity, awake and asleep.
The stages of sleep correspond to massive electrophysiological changes that occur throughout the brain as the fast, irregular, and low-amplitude electrical activity of wakefulness.
Beta waves reflect the state of wakefulness. They are the highest in frequency, lowest in amplitude, and are more desynchronous.
Alpha waves reflect the state of relaxation but still one of wakefulness. They slow down, increase in amplitude, and are more synchronous.
The five stages of sleep are differentiated by corresponding types of wave patterns detected by EEGs.
1. Stages 1–4, NREM Sleep
Stage 1 sleep is characterized by theta waves, which are slower in frequency and greater in amplitude than alpha waves. This stage is characterized by myoclonic jerks (sudden muscle movements).
Stage 2 sleep still has theta waves but also has sleep spindles, which involve a sudden increase in wave frequency.
Stages 3 and 4 sleep are characterized by delta waves, the slowest and highest-amplitude brain waves during sleep.
2. REM Sleep
As a person goes through sleep stages 1–4, he or she drifts back up toward wakefulness but does not reach stage 1. Instead he or she enters stage 5, REM sleep. “REM” stands for rapid eye movement.
REM sleep is an active stage of sleep in which dreaming occurs.
An EEG taken in REM sleep Yes, correct shows fast waves that resemble those of wakefulness.
The amount of time people spend in REM sleep throughout the night changes as they age.
3. Sleep Cycling Through the Night
One sleep cycle—the time spent going through the stages of sleep one time—lasts about 90 to 100 minutes. The sleep cycles reoccur several times throughout a night.
The night’s first time in REM sleep lasts only about 10 minutes, but the final time in REM sleep may last about an hour.
4. Sleep and the Brain
The various sleep stages have associated with them neurotransmitters in the reticular formation of the brain.
Serotonin, epinephrine, and acetylcholine are the three important neurotransmitters involved in sleep.
A person is more likely to wake up after a period of REM sleep. If they do not, their level of neurotransmitters starts to decrease and the person enters another sleep cycle.

D. Sleep and Disease
Strokes and asthma attacks are more likely during the night and in the early morning.
Sleeplessness is associated with obesity and heart disease.
Sleep may help the body conserve energy and other resources that the body needs during an infection.

E. Sleep Disorders Insomnia
Insomnia is the inability to sleep. It can involve having trouble falling asleep, waking up during the night, or waking up early in the morning.
Women are more likely to have trouble with insomnia than men, probably as a result of iron deficiencies or hormonal changes.
For short-term insomnia, doctors usually prescribe sleeping pills.
For long-term sleep problems, practice good sleep hygiene: go to bed at the same time every day (even on weekends), set an alarm, avoid naps, sleep in a quiet place, and sleep in the dark.
2. Sleepwalking and Sleep Talking
Somnambulism is another term for sleepwalking.
Sleepwalking occurs during Stage 4 sleep, the deepest phase of sleep.
Sleep talkers are sound asleep.
Nightmares and night terrors
A nightmare, occurs in REM sleep, is defined as a frightening dream that awakens a person. Nightmares peak for children between the ages of three and six years.
A night terror is characterized by a sudden arousal from sleep, accompanied by an intense fear. Night terrors peak for children between the ages of five and seven years.
4. Narcolepsy
Narcolepsy is an overpowering urge to sleep. A person with narcolepsy may fall asleep while talking or standing up.
A person with narcolepsy goes directly into REM sleep when it occurs.
5. Sleep Apnea
Sleep apnea involves individuals who stop breathing during sleep. People with this condition wake up many times during the night so they can breathe better, but they are usually not aware of it.

5.F. Dreams
1. Sigmund Freud believed that dreams symbolize unconscious wishes. Dreams carry with them
Manifest content: The story of the dream; a description of what happened in the dream.
Latent content: The deeper or unconscious meaning of each symbol or item in the dream.
2. Subconscious Cognitive Processing
The cognitive theory of dreaming states that dreaming can be understood by applying the same cognitive concepts used to study the waking mind. Therefore, dreaming also involves information processing, memory, and problem solving.
From the cognitive theory point of view, dreams are a state in which a person can solve problems and think creatively.
3. Finding Logic in Random Brain Activity
The activation-synthesis theory states that dreaming occurs when the cerebral cortex synthesizes neural signals that are generated from activity in the lower part of the brain.
Neural networks in other areas of the forebrain play a role in dreaming.

III. Hypnosis

A. The Nature of Hypnosis
Hypnosis is a psychological state of altered attention and expectation in which the person is receptive to suggestion.
Hypnotized individuals are aware of what is happening and remember the experience later unless they are instructed to forget it.
People under hypnosis show mostly alpha and beta waves (a relaxed state).
1. The Four Steps of Hypnosis
The first step in hypnosis is that distractions should be minimized and the person to be hypnotized should be made comfortable.
The second step is that the hypnotist tells the person to concentrate on something specific.
The third step is that the hypnotist tells the person what to expect in the hypnotic state.
The fourth step is that the hypnotist suggests certain events he or she knows will occur or observes occurring.
2. Individual Variations in Hypnosis
About 65 percent of people are moderately able to be hypnotized and an additional 15 percent are highly susceptible to being hypnotized.
If a person has the capacity to immerse him or herself in imaginative activities such as listening to a favorite piece of music or reading a novel, they are more likely to be able to be hypnotized.
3. Hypnosis and Will
People under hypnosis surrender themselves to the suggestions of the hypnotist. With this being said, people under hypnosis are not likely to do something they would not morally do while not under hypnosis.

B. Explaining Hypnosis

1. A Divided State of Consciousness
There are two states to consciousness. One of the states follows the hypnotist’s commands and the other acts as a hidden observer.
2. Social Cognitive Behavior
The social cognitive behavior view of hypnosis states that hypnosis is a normal state in which the hypnotized person behaves in a way they believe they should be acting while under hypnosis.

C. Applications of Hypnosis
Hypnosis is used for many different reasons, such as a treatment for alcoholism, somnambulism, suicidal tendencies, migraines, overeating, and smoking.
Research has shown that hypnosis can reduce the experience of pain.
Hypnosis is more widely used in Europe than in the United States as a form of pain control during surgery.

a..V. Meditation
A. Mindfulness Meditation
Being alone with one’s own thoughts can be stressful, but it can also be a powerful tool for constructing a healthy life.
Mindfulness meditation can be beneficial for many things such as depression, panic attacks, anxiety, chronic pain, and stress.
Attention is focused on aspects of the present moment.
This form of meditation has been found to be helpful in medical circumstances such as pain, anxiety, stress, and a compromised immune system.
Research on brains shows increased activity in the left hemisphere or the “happy brain” mentioned in Chapter 2. p. 150 of chapter 4, mentioned in Intersection p. 65 of chapter 2
Meditation takes practice.

B. The Meditative State of Mind
Meditation shows both the qualities of sleep and of wakefulness, but it is distinct from each of them. It is kind of like the feeling that everything is going to be okay.
Researchers have found out that a meditative state causes an increase in the basal ganglia and prefrontal cortex (activated during consciousness) While a decrease in the anterior cingulated (associated with acts of will).