Typhoid Fever In The Early 1900's
Science advancements has helped us answer mysteries of the world and help cure diseases. Bacteriology is the study of bacteria helped scientists find the cause of source for diseases, explanations, and possibly cures for disease. In the early 1900's many people were getting sick from typhoid fever in the united states, this led to an investigation and virtually a whole new explanation of diseases spreading thru "healthy carriers." After reading Typhoid Mary by Judith Walzer Leavitt one has found that this is a story about an Irish immigrant that was a victim of circumstance and her struggle for her freedom. Mary Mallon was an Irish immigrant that came to America in 1884, by herself at the age of fifteen years old. Mary never had a college
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education to find a high-paying job such as a doctor or a lawyer, but she made a living by cooking for wealthy families in New York. (Leavitt, 14) She was the first person in the United States to be identified as a healthy carrier. (Leavitt, 7) Health officials concluded her to be a menace to society and had the power to isolate and lock her up away, how can one lock and imprisonment someone who has not committed any crime? Is the cost of Mary Mallon's freedom beneficial in protecting the public from contracting unwanted typhoid cases? (Leavitt,11) I will analyze and examine, George Soper's investigations, Mary Mallon's mindset throughout the book after she had been accused, health officials investigations, and other typhoid cases that were found during this time in my paper. In the summer of 1906 an outbreak of typhoid fever caused six out of eleven people to be sick with the disease.(Leavitt, 14) George Soper was hired to investigate the source of the infection in order to protect the disease from further spreading.(Leavitt, 15) Soper was an engineer and had great expertise on sanitary engineering.(Leavitt, 15) He first began his investigation by seeing if the water or the milk was contaminated. He researched if the family had been in contact with anyone that had typhoid fever to provide some sort of explanation of why everyone was getting sick.(Leavitt, 15) Soper learned about a cook by the name of Mary Mallon, he suspected her as the source of the disease when he could not find any other answer.(Leavitt, 15) He investigated Mary Mallon's employment records, he found twenty-two possible cases of typhoid fever that could possibly be traced to Mary Mallon as the source of possibly infecting these people with the disease.(Leavitt,18) George Soper approached Mary Mallon the wrong way, which was the first mistake of Soper's that made his investigation more difficult.(Leavitt, 19) Soper just showed up to Mary Mallon's place of stay and started accusing her of spreading disease to many people through her cooking career.(Leavitt, 19) Mary Mallon has quickly became defensive because if you were to look at her she appeared to be a healthy woman.(Leavitt, 20) She claimed she has never been sick with Typhoid fever so how can she possibly spread the disease if she never was sick from it? Mary Mallon's hostile and rude reaction to Soper's accusations were her first mistakes in this case. (Leavitt, 100) Soper just wanted to help Mary not imprison her, and even offered her a book deal and a great deal of money through helping him in his investigations of being a healthy carrier.(Leavitt, 110) Soper found it impossible to reason with Miss Mallon, even though he had evidence showing her that she can be a possible explanation for the outbreaks, Mary Mallon chose not accept it.(Leavitt, 110)
Mary Mallon was a victim of fate and struggle because she was working class and a immigrant.(Leavitt, 117) Society felt that most poor immigrants that come to America were "dirty" and unsanitary and the source of infection and spreading of diseases.(Leavitt, 118) Mary Mallon's reaction to Soper, and other health officials were against the norm during the time of the 1900's.(Leavitt, 124) Mary would act really hostile and threatening, even so much as to pull a knife on Soper to scare him off. (Leavitt,19) Woman were expected to act more civilized especially to authorities and since she acted hostile and in denial of the evidence did not help her case at all. Mary Mallon probably figured that she was going to be a victim of unfortunate circumstance if she did not fight for her freedom, she felt that health officials were not trying to help her but were out to conspire against her. (Leavitt, 174) S. Josephine Baker was the official health inspector and had a deep interest in Mary Mallon's case because she was a woman. Baker felt as if she was able to help Mary more for this reason.(Leavitt, 44) Baker was sent to go collect stool's of Mary's to check for tyhoid bacteria in her stool. Mallon was hiding from Baker however in the she was residing at and even had the other servants cover for her. They claimed they did not know the whereabouts of Mallon.(Leavitt, 46) Mary Mallon came out fighting and trying to resist going to the Willard Parker Hospital.(Leavitt, 47) At the hospital, bacteriologist found a high number of typhoid bacteria in her stool.(Leavitt, 47) Baker and other health officials found woman to be more dangerous bacteria carriers than men because of the role of cooking they play in the kitchen.(Leavitt, 97) More and more carriers were woman, 1923 statistics show that there were 106 healthy carriers and 82 of them were revealed to be woman.(Leavitt, 98) Mary Mallon would not comply with health officials about understanding that she was a healthy carrier. They felt she was a menace to society. In the year of 1907 Mary Mallon was sent to left in a isolated college for quarantine on North Brother island in New York.(Leavitt, 20) Mary Mallon was there for two years even though she appeared to be healthy.(Leavitt, 20) Mary Mallon wanted to be released from the island because she still claimed she was healthy and never had typhoid fever in her life.
She hired George Francis O'Neil to take her case. (Leavitt, 76) O'Neil did not believe in bacteriology science. This was still a new concept to understand in society during this time.(Leavitt, 84) Even though there was a lot of evidence that there was many typhoid cases were Mary worked, O'Neil felt as if there were not enough evidence that she was the reason everyone was getting sick.(Leavitt, 85) Statistics have showed in 1907 that there was 4,400 new cases of typhoid fever, only two of them were traced to Mary Mallon, so why was she being locked up when there were many other menaces in society?(Leavitt, 85) O'Neil felt that Soper and Baker's evidence was incomplete. Mary Mallon said she had worked in many homes where no one got sick from Typhoid fever.(Leavitt, 86) Health officials continued to study Mary Mallon's stool to keep examining for typhoid bacteria. O'Neil was trying to prove that it was wrong to isolate Mary Mallon from the world when there were many other healthy carriers walking freely.(Leavitt, 88) The department of health claimed she was dangerous to society to the judge because she was a cook and refused to acknowledge that she was a healthy carrier and that Mallon could get more people sick.(Leavitt, 89) Mary Mallon was the first publically identified healthy carrier, and since she did not behave to the norm of woman roles …show more content…
in society as being calmed and collected about the situation, the health department was going to make her an example of how not to act as a healthy carrier.(Leavitt, 90) O'Neil filed for habeas corpus for Mary Mallon's case so she can be released from the island. (Leavitt, 76) Public soon caught on to the story thru newspaper and did not understand why a healthy person's liberty can be taken away. Mallon's story was seen to be more sympathetic now because of the press. Health commissioner Lederle listened to the public's opinion and released her from North Brother Island in February 1910. (Leavitt, 145) It became known to the public thru newspapers that there was other large numbers of healthy carriers walking free and Mary Mallon should not be singled out.(Leavitt, 145) Mary Mallon was released from the island after almost 3 years of staying there. She made an agreement with Health officials that she would no longer cook as her profession. Health officials even helped her find another job cleaning clothes, even though it did not pay as well as a cook, they felt it was safer to society.(Leavitt, 145) Even though Mary Mallon claimed to never be sick, she still signed this agreement, she probably felt it was safer than to have her gallbladder removed in order to get better in the eyes of the health department.(Leavitt, 173) Five years later after her release, Mary Mallon was found my Baker working at Sloane Hospital as a chef.(Leavitt, 151) This angered the public once the story was released in the press. Mary Mallon had a chance at freedom and ruined it purposely.(Leavitt, 151) Sloane hospital was a maternity hospital and Mallon could possibly got 300 people sick.(Leavitt, 152) Mary Mallon was sent back to North Brother Island on the month of March, in the year 1915. (Leavitt, 192) Mallon started working on the island as a nurse and help assist in the hospital laboratory to look for tuberculosis bacteria in patients stools. (Leavitt, 194) This is unusual for Mallon's case as she did not believe in the new science of bacteriology, yet she was helping North Brother Island during her confinement.(Leavitt, 199) There were many other publically know healthy carriers in society but they were not sent to confinement and isolation like Mary Mallon.
Alphonse Cotils and Tony Labella both worked in the food handling business and made an agreement not to work in that line of business. Both were found violating the agreement however.(Leavitt, 119) Labella had more typhoid cases than Mary Mallon, more people died because of him yet he was not isolated as Mary Mallon was.(Leavitt, 119) Labella violated his agreement two more times, yet health officials were still letting him walk free.(Leavitt, 119) The health department even found him construction business to earn a living.(Leavitt, 120) What made Labella's case different than Mary's is that he was a man who had a family to support, where as Mary was a single woman by herself.(Leavitt, 120) Perhaps if Mary Mallon had family or some kind of support she would not of have been confined to the North Brother Island for the rest of her life. Another healthy carrier case was by a man name Frederick Moersch. Moersch lived in Brooklyn, New York and owned a ice cream shop.(Leavitt, 121) He affected fifty-nine people and was placed in Riverside Hospital.(Leavitt, 121) He was more like Cotils and Labella's case and had a family to support.(Leavitt, 122) Moersch made an agreement that he would be released back into society just as long as he did not serve ice cream or any kind of food to the public.(Leavitt, 122) Moersch had a sick wife and the only
means of living was his ice cream shop. In the year of 1928, Moersch found himself in a situation where he was not able to find himself any work. (Leavitt, 123) He returned to the ice cream shop business, even though it violated his agreements with the courts.(Leavitt, 123) The press soon caught on to this story and the health department promised it would protect society and isolate Moersch just as they isolated Mary Mallon for violating her agreement.(Leavitt, 123) Moersch did spend many years at the North Brother island but he was not isolated for life as Mary Mallon was.(Leavitt, 124) Moersch infected more people than Mallon did, and the health department even help financially support Moersch and his family.(Leavitt, 124)
Alphonse Cotils was another healthy carrier of typhoid. He was a danger to society because he owned a bakery and a restaurant and had a extremely high chance of spreading typhoid bacteria.(Leavitt, 57) Cotils knew about his agreement and still deliberately violated it as he was found in court again in 1924.(Leavitt, 57) Cotils was found guilty, but the judge permitted him his freedom because he promised to stay away from his bakery and his restaurant.(Leavitt, 58) It became clear that the health department were treating each healthy carrier different and that there were not set of official rules on whether or not a healthy carrier should be isolated.(Leavitt, 125) Mary Mallon was becoming ill and suffered many strokes in the year of 1932.(Leavitt, 160) She was bedridden because of the the strokes paralyzed her.(Leavitt, 160) Mary Mallon spent more than half of her adult life at North Brother Island, even though she was "healthy."(Leavitt, 160) Even though there was other cases similar to Mary's but far more drastic, she was the one that had to pay the price of being an example of how not to act as a healthy carrier. Perhaps if she had not immigrated to the United States alone this would of not have happened to her. Perhaps if she was not so hostile to Soper, and Baker, and other health officials she would been permitted her freedom. Health officials should of done a better job explaining Mary Mallon's situation to her because she did not fully understand. Even though there were other healthy carriers who violated their agreement like Mary did five years after her released, they were still permitted their freedom because the press sympathized with their family situations. Mary Mallon was not isolated because she was a single, Irish immigrant, but because she did not act a certain way that was expected in society at the time. Mary Mallon was a victim to circumstance that led to a horrible fate of isolation at North Brother Island. The main problem with Mary Mallon's case was the cultural differences from her and the rest of the American society.
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education to find a high-paying job such as a doctor or a lawyer, but she made a living by cooking for wealthy families in New York. (Leavitt, 14) She was the first person in the United States to be identified as a healthy carrier. (Leavitt, 7) Health officials concluded her to be a menace to society and had the power to isolate and lock her up away, how can one lock and imprisonment someone who has not committed any crime? Is the cost of Mary Mallon's freedom beneficial in protecting the public from contracting unwanted typhoid cases? (Leavitt,11) I will analyze and examine, George Soper's investigations, Mary Mallon's mindset throughout the book after she had been accused, health officials investigations, and other typhoid cases that were found during this time in my paper. In the summer of 1906 an outbreak of typhoid fever caused six out of eleven people to be sick with the disease.(Leavitt, 14) George Soper was hired to investigate the source of the infection in order to protect the disease from further spreading.(Leavitt, 15) Soper was an engineer and had great expertise on sanitary engineering.(Leavitt, 15) He first began his investigation by seeing if the water or the milk was contaminated. He researched if the family had been in contact with anyone that had typhoid fever to provide some sort of explanation of why everyone was getting sick.(Leavitt, 15) Soper learned about a cook by the name of Mary Mallon, he suspected her as the source of the disease when he could not find any other answer.(Leavitt, 15) He investigated Mary Mallon's employment records, he found twenty-two possible cases of typhoid fever that could possibly be traced to Mary Mallon as the source of possibly infecting these people with the disease.(Leavitt,18) George Soper approached Mary Mallon the wrong way, which was the first mistake of Soper's that made his investigation more difficult.(Leavitt, 19) Soper just showed up to Mary Mallon's place of stay and started accusing her of spreading disease to many people through her cooking career.(Leavitt, 19) Mary Mallon has quickly became defensive because if you were to look at her she appeared to be a healthy woman.(Leavitt, 20) She claimed she has never been sick with Typhoid fever so how can she possibly spread the disease if she never was sick from it? Mary Mallon's hostile and rude reaction to Soper's accusations were her first mistakes in this case. (Leavitt, 100) Soper just wanted to help Mary not imprison her, and even offered her a book deal and a great deal of money through helping him in his investigations of being a healthy carrier.(Leavitt, 110) Soper found it impossible to reason with Miss Mallon, even though he had evidence showing her that she can be a possible explanation for the outbreaks, Mary Mallon chose not accept it.(Leavitt, 110)
Mary Mallon was a victim of fate and struggle because she was working class and a immigrant.(Leavitt, 117) Society felt that most poor immigrants that come to America were "dirty" and unsanitary and the source of infection and spreading of diseases.(Leavitt, 118) Mary Mallon's reaction to Soper, and other health officials were against the norm during the time of the 1900's.(Leavitt, 124) Mary would act really hostile and threatening, even so much as to pull a knife on Soper to scare him off. (Leavitt,19) Woman were expected to act more civilized especially to authorities and since she acted hostile and in denial of the evidence did not help her case at all. Mary Mallon probably figured that she was going to be a victim of unfortunate circumstance if she did not fight for her freedom, she felt that health officials were not trying to help her but were out to conspire against her. (Leavitt, 174) S. Josephine Baker was the official health inspector and had a deep interest in Mary Mallon's case because she was a woman. Baker felt as if she was able to help Mary more for this reason.(Leavitt, 44) Baker was sent to go collect stool's of Mary's to check for tyhoid bacteria in her stool. Mallon was hiding from Baker however in the she was residing at and even had the other servants cover for her. They claimed they did not know the whereabouts of Mallon.(Leavitt, 46) Mary Mallon came out fighting and trying to resist going to the Willard Parker Hospital.(Leavitt, 47) At the hospital, bacteriologist found a high number of typhoid bacteria in her stool.(Leavitt, 47) Baker and other health officials found woman to be more dangerous bacteria carriers than men because of the role of cooking they play in the kitchen.(Leavitt, 97) More and more carriers were woman, 1923 statistics show that there were 106 healthy carriers and 82 of them were revealed to be woman.(Leavitt, 98) Mary Mallon would not comply with health officials about understanding that she was a healthy carrier. They felt she was a menace to society. In the year of 1907 Mary Mallon was sent to left in a isolated college for quarantine on North Brother island in New York.(Leavitt, 20) Mary Mallon was there for two years even though she appeared to be healthy.(Leavitt, 20) Mary Mallon wanted to be released from the island because she still claimed she was healthy and never had typhoid fever in her life.
She hired George Francis O'Neil to take her case. (Leavitt, 76) O'Neil did not believe in bacteriology science. This was still a new concept to understand in society during this time.(Leavitt, 84) Even though there was a lot of evidence that there was many typhoid cases were Mary worked, O'Neil felt as if there were not enough evidence that she was the reason everyone was getting sick.(Leavitt, 85) Statistics have showed in 1907 that there was 4,400 new cases of typhoid fever, only two of them were traced to Mary Mallon, so why was she being locked up when there were many other menaces in society?(Leavitt, 85) O'Neil felt that Soper and Baker's evidence was incomplete. Mary Mallon said she had worked in many homes where no one got sick from Typhoid fever.(Leavitt, 86) Health officials continued to study Mary Mallon's stool to keep examining for typhoid bacteria. O'Neil was trying to prove that it was wrong to isolate Mary Mallon from the world when there were many other healthy carriers walking freely.(Leavitt, 88) The department of health claimed she was dangerous to society to the judge because she was a cook and refused to acknowledge that she was a healthy carrier and that Mallon could get more people sick.(Leavitt, 89) Mary Mallon was the first publically identified healthy carrier, and since she did not behave to the norm of woman roles …show more content…
in society as being calmed and collected about the situation, the health department was going to make her an example of how not to act as a healthy carrier.(Leavitt, 90) O'Neil filed for habeas corpus for Mary Mallon's case so she can be released from the island. (Leavitt, 76) Public soon caught on to the story thru newspaper and did not understand why a healthy person's liberty can be taken away. Mallon's story was seen to be more sympathetic now because of the press. Health commissioner Lederle listened to the public's opinion and released her from North Brother Island in February 1910. (Leavitt, 145) It became known to the public thru newspapers that there was other large numbers of healthy carriers walking free and Mary Mallon should not be singled out.(Leavitt, 145) Mary Mallon was released from the island after almost 3 years of staying there. She made an agreement with Health officials that she would no longer cook as her profession. Health officials even helped her find another job cleaning clothes, even though it did not pay as well as a cook, they felt it was safer to society.(Leavitt, 145) Even though Mary Mallon claimed to never be sick, she still signed this agreement, she probably felt it was safer than to have her gallbladder removed in order to get better in the eyes of the health department.(Leavitt, 173) Five years later after her release, Mary Mallon was found my Baker working at Sloane Hospital as a chef.(Leavitt, 151) This angered the public once the story was released in the press. Mary Mallon had a chance at freedom and ruined it purposely.(Leavitt, 151) Sloane hospital was a maternity hospital and Mallon could possibly got 300 people sick.(Leavitt, 152) Mary Mallon was sent back to North Brother Island on the month of March, in the year 1915. (Leavitt, 192) Mallon started working on the island as a nurse and help assist in the hospital laboratory to look for tuberculosis bacteria in patients stools. (Leavitt, 194) This is unusual for Mallon's case as she did not believe in the new science of bacteriology, yet she was helping North Brother Island during her confinement.(Leavitt, 199) There were many other publically know healthy carriers in society but they were not sent to confinement and isolation like Mary Mallon.
Alphonse Cotils and Tony Labella both worked in the food handling business and made an agreement not to work in that line of business. Both were found violating the agreement however.(Leavitt, 119) Labella had more typhoid cases than Mary Mallon, more people died because of him yet he was not isolated as Mary Mallon was.(Leavitt, 119) Labella violated his agreement two more times, yet health officials were still letting him walk free.(Leavitt, 119) The health department even found him construction business to earn a living.(Leavitt, 120) What made Labella's case different than Mary's is that he was a man who had a family to support, where as Mary was a single woman by herself.(Leavitt, 120) Perhaps if Mary Mallon had family or some kind of support she would not of have been confined to the North Brother Island for the rest of her life. Another healthy carrier case was by a man name Frederick Moersch. Moersch lived in Brooklyn, New York and owned a ice cream shop.(Leavitt, 121) He affected fifty-nine people and was placed in Riverside Hospital.(Leavitt, 121) He was more like Cotils and Labella's case and had a family to support.(Leavitt, 122) Moersch made an agreement that he would be released back into society just as long as he did not serve ice cream or any kind of food to the public.(Leavitt, 122) Moersch had a sick wife and the only
means of living was his ice cream shop. In the year of 1928, Moersch found himself in a situation where he was not able to find himself any work. (Leavitt, 123) He returned to the ice cream shop business, even though it violated his agreements with the courts.(Leavitt, 123) The press soon caught on to this story and the health department promised it would protect society and isolate Moersch just as they isolated Mary Mallon for violating her agreement.(Leavitt, 123) Moersch did spend many years at the North Brother island but he was not isolated for life as Mary Mallon was.(Leavitt, 124) Moersch infected more people than Mallon did, and the health department even help financially support Moersch and his family.(Leavitt, 124)
Alphonse Cotils was another healthy carrier of typhoid. He was a danger to society because he owned a bakery and a restaurant and had a extremely high chance of spreading typhoid bacteria.(Leavitt, 57) Cotils knew about his agreement and still deliberately violated it as he was found in court again in 1924.(Leavitt, 57) Cotils was found guilty, but the judge permitted him his freedom because he promised to stay away from his bakery and his restaurant.(Leavitt, 58) It became clear that the health department were treating each healthy carrier different and that there were not set of official rules on whether or not a healthy carrier should be isolated.(Leavitt, 125) Mary Mallon was becoming ill and suffered many strokes in the year of 1932.(Leavitt, 160) She was bedridden because of the the strokes paralyzed her.(Leavitt, 160) Mary Mallon spent more than half of her adult life at North Brother Island, even though she was "healthy."(Leavitt, 160) Even though there was other cases similar to Mary's but far more drastic, she was the one that had to pay the price of being an example of how not to act as a healthy carrier. Perhaps if she had not immigrated to the United States alone this would of not have happened to her. Perhaps if she was not so hostile to Soper, and Baker, and other health officials she would been permitted her freedom. Health officials should of done a better job explaining Mary Mallon's situation to her because she did not fully understand. Even though there were other healthy carriers who violated their agreement like Mary did five years after her released, they were still permitted their freedom because the press sympathized with their family situations. Mary Mallon was not isolated because she was a single, Irish immigrant, but because she did not act a certain way that was expected in society at the time. Mary Mallon was a victim to circumstance that led to a horrible fate of isolation at North Brother Island. The main problem with Mary Mallon's case was the cultural differences from her and the rest of the American society.
Word count: 2,336