what is fallacy?

BEL313 – Introduction to Critical Thinking
Logical Fallacy

What is Fallacy???

Explain Please!!!

Example Please!!!

Fallacy = mistake in reasoning
What is Fallacy?

Fallacious Argument = Argument that contains a mistake in reasoning

What is fallacious argument?

Two types of fallacy are:

Two types of fallacy?

Valid Argument:

Fallacious Argument:

Fallacy of Relevance: arguments in which the premises are logically

P1: Joe has two brothers

P1: Joe has two sisters

irrelevant to the conclusion.

P2: Joe has a sister

P2: Joe has three kittens

Fallacy of Insufficient Evidence: arguments in which the premises,

C: Joe is not the only child

C: Joe is the only child

though logically relevant to the conclusion, fail to provide sufficient evidence for the conclusion.

The rejection of a person’s argument or claim by means of an attack on the
Fallacy of Relevance
1)

Personal Attack

Mubarak, the President of New Kolan, has argued against

person’s character rather than the person’s arguments or claim.

illegal human trafficking. But Mubarak is an out-of-wedlock

Arguer attacks the character of another arguer.

child and keeps on hiding the story behind his dumb face.

(ad hominem)

Therefore, his arguments about illegal human trafficking are flawed. Criticizing a person’s motivation for offering a particular argument or claim,
Fallacy of Relevance
2) Attacking the Motive

Mr Ishak has suggested in favour of building a new terrace

rather than examining the worth of the argument or claim itself.

of houses for the poor people at Merbok. But why we

Arguer attacks the motive of another arguer.

should accept his suggestion? As the CEO of Batu Bata Petak
Constructions, of course he has his own agenda behinds it.

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The rejection of another person’s arguments or claim because that person
Fallacy of Relevance
3) Look Who’s Talking

fails to practice what he or she preaches.
The arguer attacks the hypocrisy of another arguer.

(Tu Quoque)

Ah Pek: Hi fellow friends, as a senior member in this cell,
I would like to urge you to stop doing any crimes!
Ah Li: Look who’s talking! This cell is his second home.

Attempting to justify a wrongful act by claiming that some other acts are
Fallacy of Relevance
4) Two Wrongs Make a Right

Mama: Megat, stop hitting your brother!

just as bad or worse.

Megat: Well, he punched and kicked me.

Arguer tries to justify a wrong by citing another wrong.

Threatening harm to a reader or listener, when the threat is irrelevant to
Fallacy of Relevance
5) Appeal to Force

Papa: Mimi, you better stop playing the video game now

the truth of the arguer’s conclusion.

because the bulldog is going to bite your fingers like

Arguer threatens a reader or listener

cookies.

(Scare Tactics)

Mimi: OMG!!!

Attempting to evoke feelings of pity or compassion, when such feelings,

6) Appeal to Pity

however understandable, are not relevant to the truth of the arguer’s

But I don’t deserve this speeding ticket. I’ve had a really

conclusion.

tough week. Yesterday I got fired from my job, and last

Arguer tries to insert some emotional feelings to readers or listeners.

Fallacy of Relevance

“Tok , I know I was going 120 km/h in a 30 km/h school zone.

Wednesday, my lovely girlfriend had died of swallowing a marshmallow, and my mom had chased me out from her house. I got no one now,” said Muaz to a police officer.

An appeal to a person’s desire to be popular, accepted, or valued rather
Fallacy of Relevance
7) Bandwagon Argument

Lobbyist: All of you should join the UiTM Single is Happy

than to logically relevant reasons or evidence.

Club as all the dean’s list students do so. In fact,

Arguer appeals to a reader’s or listener’s desire to be accepted or valued.

Nora Danish and Yusri KRU like it too.

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The misrepresentation of another person’s position in order to make that
Fallacy of Relevance
8) Straw Man Fallacy

Minah has argued on the statement given by Adam that

position easier to attack.

Kolej Malinja is a better hostel than Kolej Murni. She said

Arguer misrepresents or distorts an opponent’s view.

that Kolej Murni is not a bad hostel. It has a great number of facilities, and located near the faculties. Clearly, Minah speaks out of her mind.

An attempt to sidetrack an audience by raising an irrelevant issue and then

to reduce baby dumping cases in Malaysia. However, the

diversion.

most serious social illness is about gossiping. If all people stop loafing, chit-chatting and gossiping the whole day, we

issue.

9) Red Herring

claiming that the original issue has been effectively settled by the irrelevant

Arguer tries to distract the attention of the audience by raising an irrelevant

Fallacy of Relevance

Zubaidah has argued that immediate steps should be taken

could even develop a strong community. Frankly, I would say that Zubaidah’s view is funny.

The use of a key word in an argument in two (or more) different senses.
Fallacy of Relevance
10) Equivocation

Liza: If you want to see the stars, look high at the sky.

A key word is used ambiguously or equivocally (give two or more distinct

Faris: Hmmm... I can’t see Farid Kamil, Fasha Sandha or even

senses).

Johnny Depp at the high sky. They are big stars right?
Liza: Oh goshhh (while knocking her head at the wall)....

An arguer states or assumes as a premise the very thing he or she is trying /

11) Begging the Question

Fallacy of Insufficient Evidence
12) Inappropriate Appeal to

seeking to prove as conclusion. (repetition of the premise and conclusion)

Shira: Why you say so?

Arguer assumes the point to be proven.

Kiera: because think critically is hard. Therefore it is difficult.

An arguer cites a witness or authority who, there is good reason to believe,

Fallacy of Relevance

Kiera: Critical Thinking is difficult.

My maid, Latipah Karno told me that her uncle, Rano Karno

is unreliable.

was the founder of Sabak Bernam. So, it is sensible to

Citing a witness (proof) or an authority that is untrustworthy.

believe that Rano Karno did find Sabak Bernam.

Authority

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An arguer claims that something is true because no one has proven it false
Fallacy of Insufficient Evidence
13) Appeal to Ignorance

Aimi: I would say that baboons are handsome and sexy.

or vice versa.

Aiman: You are nuts!

An arguer treats a lack of evidence as reason to think that a claim is true or

Aimi: No! I’m not. No one has proven that they are not!!!

false.
An arguer poses a false either / or choice.
Fallacy of Insufficient Evidence
14) False Alternatives

“Look, the choice is simple. Either you support Kamal, a true

Arguer claims that there are only two relevant choices when, in fact, there

honest and pious man or you support a lazy fat horse to be

are more than two.

the class representative. Of course you don’t want to support a lazy fat horse, right? Therefore, you should support Kamal,” said Karmiella as to support her boyfriend.

Question that contains an unfair or questionable assumption.
Fallacy of Insufficient Evidence
15) Loaded Question

Tina: Are you still dating with that total loser Nizam?

It occurs when an arguer asks a question that contains an unfair or

Elly: Yes

unwarranted assumption.

Tina: Well, at least you admit he’s a total loser.
Explanation: Tina’s question is asking for two things:
[dating with Nizam] + [Nizam is a total loser]
-

The answer from Elly is only to answer the first intention, but Tina came out with the unfair conclusion. An arguer claims, without adequate evidence, that one thing is the cause of
Fallacy of Insufficient Evidence
16) Questionable Cause

“One month after I had the critical thinking examination, my

something else.

ears blockage cleared up completely and I’m now can hear

Claiming without sufficient evidence that one thing is the cause of others.

clearly. So do your critical thinking examination if you want to hear clearer,” said Johan to his friends.

An arguer draws a general conclusion from a sample that is biased or too
Fallacy of Insufficient Evidence
17) Hasty Generalization

My two Indonesian maids, Lili Kurni and Lila Kurna always

small.

fail to wake up in early morning. Therefore, I would say that

Jump to the conclusion with the insufficient evidence / reason.

all maids are hard to wake up early.

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An arguer claims, without sufficient evidence, that a seemingly harmless
Fallacy of Insufficient Evidence
18) Slippery Slope

We can’t allow Hafiz to join our club, because Hafiz is the

action, if taken, will lead to a disastrous outcome / result.

leader of the Gang Pencil and surely he will ask us to write

An action, if considered, leads to a very bad result.

an essay of 35,000 words. We for sure don’t want to write an essay of 35,000 words, right?

An arguer compares two (or more) things that are not really comparable in
Fallacy of Insufficient Evidence
19) Weak Analogy

“Nobody would buy a car without first taking it for a test

relevant respects.

drive. Why then should not two mature secondary school

When the comparison goes between “apples and oranges” (expression).

students live together first before they decide whether to get married or not?” asked a student to his counsellor.

It occurs when an arguer asserts inconsistent or contradictory claims.
Fallacy of Insufficient Evidence
20) Inconsistency

“I’m talking rubbish only if I hold irrational principle. For the

Two statements are inconsistent when they both can’t be true.

time being, I don’t hold any irrational principle but I think this state is being governed by monkeys, birds and snails,” said Fahmi loudly.