A Comparison of Special Education Philosophy, Policies an Dpractice in Malaysia and Japan
A COMPARISON OF SPECIAL EDUCATION PHILOSOPHY, POLICIES,
AND PRACTICE IN MALAYSIA AND JAPAN.
INTRODUCTION
The focus of this study is to compare the educational philosophies, policies,and practices between Malaysia and Japan, with regard to the education of children with special needs. Malaysia and Japan have some common historical experiences in that both countries were involved in the Second World War, both were colonised and given independence by Anglo-American powers. Geographically they are both in Asia. A significant difference between the two countries is the homogenous nature of Japan’s population and the pluralistic multicultural, multi lingual, multi ethnicity and religions of Malaysia. Japan is a developed and industrialised country whereas Malaysia is developing and targeting to be an industrialised one. Japan’s population of 127 million dwarfs Malaysia’s 29 million. It is needful to examine the set up of other countries, discover the root of the problems and analyse their solutions so as to better understand one’s own education system, avoid mistakes made and adopt suitable models accordingly. Hence, in this comparative study, an Asian country was chosen over an Anglo-American one, because Japan and Malaysia are both culturally group-oriented, power concentrated, inclined to be replicative and relationally holistic. As such it is probably easier to relate to contextually in matters relating to adapting globalised best practices in a culturally sensitive way. This paper seeks to look at the special educational policies and philosophies of both countries, study their practises, identify key issues and challenges faced, and to discover possibilities for mutual exchange, growth and development.
There has always been a personal interest in Special education probably from parental influence and also from exposure to special people at a very young age. The increasing awareness of Special Education in Malaysia can undoubtedly be attributed to regular reporting by the media and the escalating pervasiveness of information technology available to the masses.
In recent years, Special Education has given more attention to a wide range of learning difficulties, including dyslexia, autism, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder [ADHD], Asperger’s syndrome and so on, with focus somewhat moving away from visual, hearing impairment and physical, mental impairments.
This is probably because in most developing and developing countries, visual and hearing impairments have already well-established special educational practices. For example, Special schools where various learning aids, such as sign language, Braille and magnified letters are used to accommodate the students’ teaching and learning needs. Some countries such as Japan and the United States of America (USA), have advanced to providing not only basic education but also pioneering tertiary education for the visually and hearing impaired.
Different forms of learning difficulties have emerged over the past 25 years and are probably still emerging. In the past, these special needs (learning difficulties) were all classified under mental retardation, but as discoveries continue to be made and learning difficulties are classified differently, statistics show that mental retardation worldwide has dropped considerably. As these conditions are discovered and researched, some theories about these conditions change and some evolve due to these theories being challenged or disproved and new theories being proposed. For example there is a wide range of autism, from highly-functioning to deeply autistic. Some children who were diagnosed as autistic ten years ago, are now discovered to have Asperger’s disorder. Disorders along the Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) continuum include autism, pervasive developmental disorder, Rett Syndrome (American Psychiatric Assocciation, 1995) and Asperger’s disorder. Since ASD exists along a spectrum, intervention especially communication intervention must be highly individualized ( Schreibman, koegel, Charlop, & Egel, 1990), thus intervention-wise, a child with Asperger’s Disorder is to be regarded quite differently from an autistic child. The field of special education has seen growth that has been unprecedented and it is likely to continue with more contemporary curricula, programmes, materials and resources evolving at a rapid rate, driven by a developmental theoretical perspective. In response to the increasing number of children diagnosed with special needs and especially that of learning difficulty, it is imperative that policies, philosophies and practice of special education need to be redefined, reviewed and refined to cater for the development and nurture of these children. Common special needs include challenges with learning, communication challenges, emotional and behavioral disorders, physical disabilities, and developmental disorders.
There are many famous personalities who have special needs and disabilities but have excelled in sport, fine arts, physics and in the music and movie arena.Olympic swimmer Michael Phelps made history by breaking records and winning eight gold medals. He also inspired thousands by speaking candidly about having ADHD. His mother has also been very public about telling their story. Professor Stephen Hawking, a renowned Physicist, is a well-known example of a person with multiple neurone disease who has against all odds, succeeded in life. Hawking cannot walk, talk, breathe easy, swallow and has difficulty in holding up his head. He could have well been classified as mentally retarded and severely physically handicapped and discharged to a home of the Spastics, yet he defied his doctor’s prognosis of not surviving more than 21 years. Stevie Wonder was born prematurely and as a result, he was never able to see. Wonder stands out as one of the most celebrated American musicians of all time. To his credit, he has won 26 Grammys and an Academy Award. This has earned him rightful standing in the Rock and Roll and Songwriter's Halls of Fame. Phelps was told that he could never focus on anything, Hawking, that he wasn’t an exceptional student and Wonder, that he could never make it in life. They are an inspiration to one and all, both stakeholders and non-stakeholders alike. On this note let us look at Japan.
JAPAN
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Figure1.1 Map of Japan
For many, the word Japan conjures up mystical Samurais, beautiful, graceful and demure kimono-clad geisha girls, sashimi (Japanese raw fish), beautiful spring apple-blossoms, ancient temples, lightning–fast bullet trains, Toyotas and Hondas, even the Iron Chef competitions and the list goes on; but education is certainly not an image that fills your mind when you hear the word Japan!
Japan is an island country located in the Pacific ocean. It’s an archipelago of over six thousand islands, the largest being Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku accounting for 97% of Japan’s land area. Japan is often referred to as the ‘Land of the Rising Sun’ because the Japanese characters that make up Japan’s name, Nippon-koku or Nihon-koku means ‘sun origin’. Most of Japan’ s islands are mountainous and many are volcanic which is not surprising as Japan sits on the Pacific Ring of Fire. Mount Fuji is the highest mountain in Japan and an active volcano that last erupted in 1707–08.
Japan has a population of 127 million people, ranks the tenth-largest populated country in the world. Tokyo is the capital of Japan with a population of 12 million. It is the Japan’s centre for culture and education and also the nation’s economic and industrial hub. The main language spoken is Japanese and most Japanese are of the Shinto-Buddhism faith. Since 1947, Japan has maintained a unitary constitutional monarchy with an emperor and an elected Prime Minister as head of government, with an elected parliament called the Diet. It is a highly industrialized, developed country and a major world economic power. Japan has the world's second-largest economy and the third largest in purchasing power parity. It is also the world's fourth largest exporter and fifth largest importer. It is the only Asian country in the G8 and a current non-permanent member of the United Nations (UN) security council. According to both the UN and World Health Organization (WHO) estimates, Japan has the highest life expectancy of any country in the world, and the third lowest infant mortality rate.
History of Education
Japan’s education maybe conveniently divided into pre-World War II(WW),post WW II, and modern Japan.
On the whole, pre-WWII education was controlled centrally by the government, the education philosophy was guided by the Imperial Rescript Education (1890), Japanese values and Confucian principles were taught and stressed by society. Primary education was available to all but secondary and tertiary studies were elitist and discriminatory. This old system collapsed at the end of WWII and the United States Education Mission (1946) introduced new ideas and structures into the Japanese system such as extending free but compulsory education from six to nine years, higher education became more non-elitist, social studies was emphasized above moral studies, school boards were locally elected as opposed to being appointed under the old system, and teachers unions were formed. In 1952, Japanese sovereignty was restored and many reforms reverted back to the old system; school boards were by appointment, Japanese ideals moral studies were put back into the curricula but the 6-3-3 structure intended at democratizing education remain until today
The University Control Law (1969) and other reforms emerged in the 70’s.
Education in Contemporary Japan is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (known also as the Monbukagakusho or MEXT). Three tiers of administration attend to the financial and supervisory educational services; namely the national (MEXT0, Prefectural (upper tier) and municipal (lower tier).There are five levels of schooling in Japan: Preschool which is free to all but not compulsory, Primary and Lower Secondary levels which are free and compulsory, and Upper Secondary and Higher Education which are neither free nor compulsory. The Fundamental Law of Education, the School Education Law and the Social Education Law provide the philosophies, policies and practices throughout the nation. The Japanese value educational excellence at all levels and their education system is thought to be extremely prestigious. Japan is consistently ranked at the top internationally in both Maths and science by the TIMSS (Trends in Interntional Maths and Science Study). Japanese education helps build student motivation. Their philosophy emphasizes effort over ability hence in the Japanese classroom, everyone is taught the same concepts and students are engaged in higher-order thinking skills. Correct answers are withheld and students are presented with material such as puzzles and encouraged to think of as many ways as possible to solve the problem. Fast and slow learners are not separated and advanced students help the less able, cooperation, a sense of belonging and oneness are fostered. This attitude is particularly important when it comes to special children.
Special Education in Japan A brief history
In 1878, the first special school for children with visual and hearing impairment was established in Kyoto. The first special class for children with intellectual disabilities was set up in 1890 in Matsumoto City, in Nagano Prefecture. To date Japan has 222 and 210 years of history respectively in the area of Special education, a figure to be proud of indeed. The number of special schools and special classes for children with various kinds of disabilities increased favorably until around 1930, but thereafter the WWII devastated special education. At the end of the WWII, the external number of special schools for children with blindness and deafness was still more than 100, but most schools were burned by air raids. In the case of special classes, all were closed except one in Tokyo, at which the children were also moved to rural areas without schools, let alone special classes.
Special education had to be reconstructed after the WWII based on the philosophy of democratic education, which was introduced by the educational policy the United States who was then the occupation army. In 1947 compulsory education for primary school and lower secondary schools was introduced. Special education was rapidly rebuilt beginning with visual and hearing impairments schools and classes, followed closely by schools for intellectual disability, physical and health impairment. The development of special education since the end of WWII maybe seen as
(1) Development of special schools and special classes. 1947- 1979
(2) Movement of integrated education – 2000
(3) Development of special needs education. – Present day
The motto of the Special Needs Education System of Japan (SNES) - Where children with disabilities learn - is bold and apt. Looking at Figure 1.2, it is clear that special-needs children are given due consideration at all levels from pre-school right up to upper secondary school. Figure 1.3 show that as the degree of disability goes from mild to severe, the children are correspondingly moved from regular classes with team-teaching, achievement-based teaching ,small-group classes, Special Support Service in resource rooms, to special classes and then on to Special Needs Schools. The four categories of special needs, the blind, the deaf, the intellectually disabled, the physically disabled and the health impaired in figure 1.4, show the ratio of children with multiple disabilities in Special Schools in elementary and lower secondary levels. Due to increasing number of students with multiple disabilities, there is a move away from of schools catering only for single disabilities for example the blind or deaf.
Japan has a national curriculum standards for children with disabilities called ‘the Course of Study or Gakushyu-shido-yoryo for schools serving the blind ,the deaf, children with physical and mental disabilities and health impairments. It can be amended when necessary to tailor to specific needs for these children. Parents, school board members and or medical and social personel are consulted in order to determine which curriculum suits the child best, be it one to one teaching, small group teaching, individual teaching plans or inclusive integration onto regular classes.
Even when there is profound disability, the child is eligible for education according to their needs. In some cases teachers visit homes or institutitions to provide home tutoring. In major hospitals classes are available for children necessitating hospital treatment. Only 0.001% of children in Japan are allowed postponement or exemption from school education.
Teachers in Special education are required to have a license for special education in addition to their basic teaching license. The NISE provides highly specialized training courses. Local Special Education Centers in prefectures offer programmes to upgrade or learn new skills. Case conferences and Teacher’s study-meetings are conducted at school level.
The NISE conducts research such as nationwide surveys to assist in making future national policies with regard to special education. At prefecture level, research and development schools and model schools are present throughout the country. Local Special Education Centers, Colleges and Universities conduct ongoing research on teaching methods to enhance Special Support Education.
As part of the 2007 reform, the SNES aims to have schools for Special Needs Education where staff are competent in knowledge and understanding on more than one disability, so that students with multiple disabilties are be accepted and integrated into each local community.By mid 2010, Japan plans to launch their first graduate school for students with visual or aural impairments at the state-run Tsukuba University of Technology, their only University for the deaf. According to the university, it will be the world’s first graduate school for visually- impaired students and the third for hearing-impaired ones, following the footsteps of such schools as Gallaudet University in the United States,
Master’s degrees will be offered: Industrial technology for visually challenged students and health science courses for hearing-impaired students. Academia is possible to all, those with special needs and those without, unless there is brain injury and the cognitive abilities are damaged. As the adage goes “There is no learning disability only teacher inability”.
MALAYSIA
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Map of peninsular Malaysia and East Malaysia (Malaysian Borneo)Fig 1.2
Malaysia, is made up of West Malaysia (peninsular Malaya) and East Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak states) in nothern Bourneo. It is a land of beauty in its diversity, located in the heart of South East Asia, see figure 1.2 which had for centuries attracted merchants and traders plying the ancient, lucrative spice and silk route between India and China. It is therefore no surprise that Chinese, Indian and Malays are the major contributors to Malaysia’s rich and vibrant cultural heritage, together with the indigenous people. Malaysia is a multi-ethnic, multi-cultural, multi lingual and multi-religious society, known for their warm hospitality, interesting and delicious variety of food and a delightful fusion of cultures making Malaysians attractive and unique. Bahasa Malaysia is the official language, but English is taught as a second language and many Malaysians are tri lingual: proficient in their mother tongue, in Malay and in English. Malaysia is well endowed in natural resources such as minerals,[ mainly tin and petroleum] agriculture and forestry. It is one of the world’s top exporters of natural rubber, palm oil, sawn timber, coca and pepper. Malaysia boasts of rich biodiversity and a wide habitat range, in the Gunung Mulu National Park, and in the Mount Kinabalu district of Sabah. Both have been marked as World Heritage Sites. In 2009 two interesting and historical townships, Malacca and Penang were also given World Heritage status. Today Malaysia is an independent nation state with a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Kuala Lumpur is the largest city and the capital of Malaysia. It is also the main financial and commercial centre of the country. Malaysia is recognized as an emerging industrialized country with a GDP per capita PPP ranking at 48th in the world and second in South East Asia. For the past 20 years, Malaysia has been on a fast track development drive with measurable physical and economic success. Unfortunately, services and facilities enabling tangible inclusion of People with Disabilities (PWDs) into their communities were not developed in tandem, resulting in Malaysians with Disabilities excluded from enjoying a barrier-free environment and normal enriching independent lifestyle. There is a pressing need to firstly look at the education commitments of Malaysia to the children with disabilities so that indeed the mission of the Ministry of Education ‘To develop a world-class quality education system which will realise the full potential of the individual and fulfil the aspiration of the Malaysian nation” can achieved, and to reach their objectives stated below: - To produce loyal and united Malaysians. - To produce happy, well mannered individuals who have faith, knowledge and vision. - To prepare the nation´s human resource for its developmental needs. - To provide educational opportunities for all Malaysians.
HISTORY OF EDUCATION
Pre WWII, secular schools were mainly an innovation of the British colonial government, and English-Language schools were considered prestigious at that time. Post WWII, education was mainly aimed to feed the needs of the colonial government though the Malay, Chinese and Indian communities fought hard for their mother tongue to be used as a medium of instruction. Post independence (1957) in accordance to the national language policy, the government began to change English-medium primary and secondary national-type schools into Malay-medium national schools. In 1970, the language change was made gradually starting from the first year in primary school, was completed by the end of 1982.
Malaysia’s belief that (NEP),New Economic Policy 1960-1970, the National Development Policy,1071-1990, The first to ninth Malaysia Plan, 1991-2010, ensure adequate funds to the Education sector for the development of the nation’s human resource and capital. It is through this course of action that the Malaysian Education system succeeds in responding to the issues of access, equity, quality and effectiveness of education for all Malaysians in a 6-3-2 structure.
Education in Malaysia is overseen by two government ministries: the Ministry of Education for matters up to the secondary level, and the Ministry of Higher Education for tertiary education. Each state has an Education Department to help coordinate educational matters in their respective states, although education is the responsibility of the federal government. The Education Act of 1996 is the main legislation governing education which designates six years of primary education as compulsory. Pre-school is optional and most pre-schools are for profit and privately run. Five years of secondary schooling is not compulsory. For their pre-university studies, students have an option of doing two years of Form six or the Matriculation. Free education is provided from Primary one right up to Form six.
A Brief History of Special Education
Jabatan Pendidikan Khas (JPK) or the Department of Special Education, from being just a unit in the Education Department was established as a Department in its own right in 1995. It plays a major role in curricula planning and implementing the quality of special education programmes in both the primary and secondary schools in Malaysia. However the programmes for the deaf have a much longer history, the first residential school for the deaf was established in
1954. Interest towards Special Education in Malaysia began in 1920s among volunteers who were involved in the opening of schools for the hearing and visual impaired. The Cabinet Committee Report that studied the Implementation of Education Policy through the Recommendatory 169 was the beginning of a clearer focus and emphasis on the development of Special Education in Malaysia. The recommendatory says that:
“With the awareness that the government should be responsible towards the education of disabled children, it should then take over all the responsibilities from the organizations handling it currently. Moreover, the involvement of volunteers in developing the education for disabled children is encouraged.”
SPECIAL EDUCATION PHILOSOPHY
The MoE Philosophy for Special Education states that ‘Education is given to develop the students physically, emotionally, spiritually and intellectually so that students can be educated to the highest possible level to enable them to obtain employment and live independently’.
Programmes are based on the following policies: • Education Act 1996, Chapter 8. • Education Act (Amendment) Act 2002. • Education Regulations (Special Education) in 1997. • Policy Committee decision, the Ministry of Education [Education Planning Committee (SRC), Meeting Management Ministry of Education, Centre for Curriculum Committee (DFA) and Department of Management Meeting Special Education]. International Declarations: • United Nations' World Programme of Action concerning Disabled Persons (1983). • The World's Declaration on Education for All (1990). • The United Nations' Standard Rules on the Equalisation of Opportunities for Persons With Disabilities (1993). • The Framework for Action on Special Needs Education (Salamanca Statement) in 1994. • Biwako Millennium Framework for Action Towards an Inclusive Barrier-Free and Rights-Based Society for Persons with Disabilities in Asia and the Pacific (2002).
Three ministries service children with disabilities. They are, the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Women, Family and Community Development (WFCD) and the Ministry of Education, but education for these children are only under the auspices of the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of WFCD.
The Ministry of Education provides educational services for students with special needs who have visual and hearing impairment, learning difficulties, and those needing special remedial help. Learning disorders are categorized as follows:
- Downs Syndrome - Mild autism - Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder - Mild Mental Impairment and - Specific learning disabilities (eg. Dyslexia).
The Ministry of WFCD provides services for children with the following problems: - severe physical disability - moderate and severe mental retardation - various other defects such as ?? and - defects that do not allow the children to learn in schools provided by the Ministry of Education.
Special Education Department’s Vision and Mission
JPK’s vision statement is ‘Quality Education Generates Excellence Among Students with Special Educational Needs in line with the National Education System’, with the mission to develop excellent special needs human capital based on a holistic, relevant and quality education system so that there is - Optimum development the individual’s potential - Ability to compete and be marketable - Moral values as a responsible citizen - Smart partnerships with various parties
The Special Education services provided by the Department of Education are:
• Special schools for pupils with visual and hearing impaired and learning (secondary).
• Special Education Integration Programs for students with special needs and learning disabilities, impaired hearing and sight impaired. The program is available in non-residential, normal primary and secondary schools as well as in Technical/Vocational training (secondary) schools which adopt withdrawal or semi-inclusive approach.
Programmes such as the Special Education Integration Programme and the Special Rehabilitation Programmes are fully administered at state levels by the State Education Department, whereas the Integration of Special Education Programs in Technical and Vocational Education is administered by the Department of Technical Education.
The Malaysian Education for All Mid-Decade Assessment Report 2000-2007 states that one of the strategies is to expand preschool places for children with special needs from 32 integration classes to 100 classrooms in order to integrate children aged 5-6 with single disability, usually the learning disabled. Expansion necessitates therefore training the necessary preschool teachers and teacher assistants and also the proviso to amend the Special Education Regulations Act 1997 to accept students with two disabilities.
UNICEF, working together with the Ministry of Health’s Development Division (MHDD) devised a standardised screening tool in 2006 to improve the early detection of autism amongst toddlers so that early intervention can be instituted. Issues with Sexual and reproductive health for children with special needs are also looked into, in response and recognition of their high risk of sexual abuse and exploitation, because it directly impacts their learning and overall development.
ANALYSIS
Japan as a leading economic power and highly industrialised country and Malaysia as a developing and emerging industrialised one, have commonalities in that were both affected deeply by WWII, and both were dominated by a foreign power, so it is interesting to see each country recovered, rebuilt and developed post-war and how Special education has evolved since then.
Looking at the philosophy with regard to Special Education mentioned earlier on, both Japan and Malaysia are very similar in that both are highly commendable, comprehensive and impressive, subscribing also to many international special-education charters such as The United Nations' Standard Rules on the Equalisation of Opportunities for Persons With Disabilities (1993).
|Mission and Vision of JPK Malaysia |Mission and Vision of the NISEJapan |
| |The mission of our institute as the National Institute of |
|JPK’s vision statement is ‘Quality Education Generates Excellence |Special Needs Education is to contribute to:Improving the |
|Among Students with Special Educational Needs in line with |quality of education for children with disabilities and to |
|the National Education System’, with the mission to develop excellent|make educational provision to meet individual educational |
|special needs human capital based on a holistic, relevant and quality|needs. We aim to do this by working with the national and |
|education system so that there is |government organizations. Our vision is |
|- Optimum development the individual’s potential |Research Activities that contribute to National |
|- Ability to compete and be marketable |Administrative Needs |
|- Moral values as a responsible citizen |-To undertake research that contributes to the formulation |
|- Smart partnerships with various parties |of National Policy for Children. |
|- Providing education opportunities and facilities for students |Practical Research that contributes to Education |
|with special educational needs. |- To undertake advanced and practical research that |
|- Providing relevant education to every student with special |contributes to education |
|educational needs. |Specialized Programs for Teacher Training |
|- Providing opportunity for students with special educational needs |- Provide systematic and special training for the school |
|to develop their talent and potential. |staff who plays the role of leadership in special needs |
|- Providing sufficient and up-to-date teaching and learning |education from local public organization and support them. |
|material. |Training Programs that Respond to New Challenges |
|- Ensuring sufficient trained teachers in special education. |- To implement training program for the major issue of |
| |National Policy and/or urgent issue at educational site |
|- Planning and managing all primary and secondary special schools. |flexibly and promptly. |
|- Planning and coordinating all special schools integration program.|Counseling and Consultation that Provide Activities that |
|- Planning, coordinating and evaluating policies and regulations, to|Supports Local Public Organizations |
|ensure education is well-balanced, to help, service and support |- To conduct consultation and provide the information for |
|students with special educational needs and implement the special |counseling and consultation to the organizations. |
|education vocational policy. |Provide Information for Special Needs Education |
|- Planning curriculum, activities and special education affairs. |-To collect, analyze, arrange and make database of the |
|- Providing special education planning, research and evaluation. |information on special needs education from domestic and |
|- Providing training plan and staff development; and |overseas and provide comprehensive information to teaching |
|- Coordinating Special Remedial Education Program. |site. |
| |Cooperation and Partnership with Universities and |
| |Organizations in Domestic and Overseas. |
| |- to collaborate and cooperate with universities and |
| |organizations locally and abroad through seminars, to |
| |research, analyze and evaluate the issues, and to share our|
| |practical research results in special needs education. |
One difference in their philosophy is that when it comes to learning, the Japanese put value and emphasis in effort over that of natural ability, resulting in primary school students being taught in classes that have not been streamlined into good, average or poor students, whereas stream lining students according to their academic performance is practiced by Malaysia and many other countries. It follows then that, if effort is put into the education of a special-needs child, the child can reach its full potential given all the necessary support. This attitude has given Japan an advantage of having an over 200 year history in educating people with special needs, which began with addressing the visual and hearing impaired. The Japanese School Education Law places special education firmly within the framework of the total education system by emphasizing that it is not separate from ordinary education. Japanese special education now officially recognizes seven categories of disability: the blind and partially sighted, deaf and hard of hearing, mentally retarded, physically disabled, health impaired and physically weak, speech-impaired and emotionally disturbed.
Red Tape
It is in the policies and practices that differences become quite stark and disconcerting. Firstly Japan has given its citizens easy access to support, intervention, services and education for the special child, as the process of getting this support is relatively short and convenient as distance is not problematic and their services are efficient. These services are available throughout Japan be it isolated, rural or urban areas. It involves assessment at the local nearby special education center, and decisions regarding intervention or placement in special education classrooms are made by the parent in conjunction with a committee composed of the local school board members, special education teachers, and or doctors and psychiatrists if necessary. The child's IQ is taken into account, along with birth and growth records. On average, the disabled children could spend 3 to 4 years of experience attending a variety of institutions during their preschool years It therefore doesn’t become an unpleasant or confusing experience for the child and the family to seek for help support and guidance as these special children become integrated into the regular schools and into the community at large.
This contrasts greatly with the process in Malaysia, as obtaining any sort of service for special education is a prolonged and arduous process often ending in being victims of bureaucratic system due to services being concentrated in urban areas and therefore not easily accessible for example to rural or indigenous people. Firstly, medical diagnosis is still currently central to the Malaysian education system as depicted by the procedures for registration and placement of disabled children into special schools, whereby:
‘Children who are not schooling must gain confirmation of their disability from the Department of Social Welfare (DSW) and the Ministry of Health. Children who are already in schools must gain confirmation from the Principal and the Ministry of Health.Children who have been diagnosed by medical practitioners are referred to the Council for Registration and Placement, where individual cases are judged on merit, (SED, 1999b). Besides the medical model, socio-political and educational models should be used to explorethe issue of disability. For example, the socio-political model tends to be based on democratic principles to try to meet the needs of all sections of society and the educational model tends to help fullfill the learning needs of all learners in the education system. If these two models are adopted, perhaps positive changes could happen in the lives of disabled learners.
Furthermore students who wish to enroll in the Special education programme must be of single disability and can manage themselves without the assistance of others. This excludes those who are mentally able, but physically disabled and also the emotionally disturbed Next, students are assessed for reading writing and mathematics skills using the IPP3M (Instrumen Penentu Penguasaan 3M). Cases are deemed unable to enter regular school are referred to the Social Welfare services to be rehabilitated. This is discrimitory and does not reflect ‘In our effort to educate the people of this nation, those who are less able will not be forgotten. The Ministry of Education will continue to upgrade its services to meet the needs of these students at all levels from pre-school to tertiary education’ [Ministry of Education, Malaysia (MoE), 2000], for example, physically disabled children are put into vocational schools even though they have cognitive-academic potential.
Secondly if the child is assessed as fit to attend regular school or special school then they are placed in the nearest school which for many, could be in the next town or state, and or transportation poses to be problematic, and the child is left without support services or intervention in terms of education, though policies such as the Malaysian National Policy on Disabled Children states “ Article 23 of the CRC recognizes the rights of a disabled child to special care, education and training to help him or her enjoy a full life in dignity and achieve the greatest degree of self-reliance and social integration possible.”
Thirdly, the Division on Persons with Disabilities under the Department of Social Welfare is responsible for the database on disabled persons, as well as for setting up community based rehabilitation centres providing diagnosis and rehabilitation services. These Special Education Services Centres, were established in 1999 for the purpose of providing one-stop specialist services to parents and students with special needs. These centres are also in urban areas, limited in number and functions to support agencies involved with special needs. Services provided include: Audiological services, sign language classes, therapy activities, parent counseling, toy library and resource material. The needs of the special child has been under too many ministries and often referrals from one to the other, and going through excessive bureaucratic procedures cause added anxiety and pressure onto the already stressed family. Finally after going through all the red tape, the majority of special–needs children cannot benefit from whatever services available, simply because of they are not easily accessible as mentioned earlier and the services are concentrated in urban areas and limited in number and competition is stiff in getting into Special schools. Only some needs of disabled learners are met at the expense of a majority of other needs.
Structure and Political Will
The Malaysian Department of Special Education, established in 1995, is young compared to that of Japan. It has to go through three tiers of administrative levels before matters reach the Minister of Education, whereas Japan’s NISE has direct accesses as its directly under MEXT. For instance, when research showed that in 1994, 3.0 per cent of elementary students and 2.9 per cent of junior high students had mild learning difficulties and that ‘the most pressing problem confronted by special education in Japan is that many students with mild handicaps or learning difficulties are being placed in regular classes without adequate support’ and thus not doing well ,compared to all their counterparts in special schools, it was immediately discussed at the Diet. Measures were taken to rectify this discovery involving incorporating learning difficulties in teacher training, adopting well-established programmes from abroad, re training and re educating at all levels to all schools nationwide. This resulted in students with mild learning disorders eg, dyslexia regaining their confidence and overall performance increased significantly.
In Malaysia, all administrative procedures regarding the education of disabled learners should be centralised, instead of the multi-agency bureaucracy initiative currently in place. It is hoped that following this, there will be no confusion regarding the definitions of disability and that provisions available will be made clear to all stake-holders. This could lessen the bureaucratic red tape that parents have to go through in their bid to educate their disabled children. Dedication to Research and Academic Excellence
Another difference is that NISE is committed to research locally and is involved in international exchange of ideas and research such as, new discoveries in pedagogy, learning methodology, in administration and etc. NISE ‘collaborates and cooperates with universities and organizations locally and abroad through seminars, to research, analyze and evaluate the issues, and to share our practical research results in special needs education’. NISE has been hosting international seminars for the development and the improvement of the education for individuals with special needs in the Asia and Pacific region since 1981, inviting representatives recommended by the UNESCO National Commission. Japan’s focus is on the abilities of the special children and how to develop their potential, whereas Malaysia is still focusing on the special children’s disabilities and inabilities so that disability is first and foremost on the agenda, whilst education itself is placed second. Malaysia has yet to look into meaningful research in this area and take advantage of the international resources available.
Planning and Teacher-training Curriculum
A further difference lies in teacher training. Teacher-training colleges, universities and institutions need to include children with special needs as part of their general curriculum and then specialize in this area should they so choose, whilst principals and teachers currently in schools need to be updated with regard to special education and the basic tenets in pedagogy. This means that those in managerial positions at schools and departments should have at least the basic knowledge about disabilities and educational consultation. To this end, it is imperative to invest in such persons to receive the necessary and needed training and education.
In Japan, teachers are given on-going training in the latest developments in special education. They are encouraged to further their studies in order to upgrade and update themselves with government support and sponsorship. Special Education teachers are given in-house training twice a year in their schools and colleges whereas, Malaysia needs to seriously look at its training of special education teachers and bring it up to par as an emerging industrialized country.
Funding
The most marked difference between Japan and Malaysia is the allocation of Funding to Education and Special education. In most countries, their educational systems have developed keeping pace with the establishment of nation states' system. Modern educational systems have contributed to support their goals, eg, strengthening solidarity of the nation or military expansion and this is reflected the financial budget of the country but in Malaysia the Malaysia Budget 2009 Highlights, listed the the disabled under the “less fortunate”, the monthly allowance amounted to 150rm for the disabled who were unable to work, monthly allowance for disabled children in special education schools increased form 50rm to 150rm, and teaching assistants in special education schools were provided incentive payments of 200rm a month. This is not to say that financial assistance is of no help but it does not improve basic education services and support. The Budget of Annual Expenditure for 2008 (in:1,000Yen) for NISE,Japan in 2008 was 1,223,198, of which 47,508 alone went to buildings and sites, much of it was for training and administration. The 10th Malaysian plan promises much more allocation to education and hopefully promises can be delivered. Deputy Prime Minister Tan Sri Muhyiddin Yassin said the Education Ministry has proposed to set up 1,153 pre-schools throughout the country at a cost of RM300 million over the next two years under the 10th Malaysia Plan (10MP). He also stated that there were 7,511 pre-school classes under the government, incomparison to 6,412 private pre-schools in the country but have special education issues been side lined?
Practice
The word ‘Practices’ would embrace broadly what happens at the grass roots, what services and support is actually available to the children with special needs and their families, to what extent policies are put into practice.
A stark difference between Japan and Malaysia as mentioned earlier is that special-needs services and classes are available to all children with special needs in elementary and secondary schools throughout Japan irrespective of their rural or urban or isolated location, whereas in Malaysia it is currently available only in certain schools more so in the urban areas. Although pre-school in Japan is not compulsory, it is free, and special education services and support are available there too, in the Malaysian setting, pre-school is not administered solely by the nation by the MOE thus it is not an available option for all children, let alone the child with special needs.
Another difference is that once a disability is discovered in Japan, (slightly more than half are diagnosed in hospitals and the rest in child health clinics or childcare centers and etc) there is the option to attend special mother and child courses so that early intervention, support and training can be administered. It is unfortunate that in Malaysia disabilities are largely the domain of the medical personnel and community health services. Formal Education of the special child does not start till primary school, unless parents are is aware of private early intervention centres run mainly by non-government organizations (NGO) such as Malaysian Care, which pioneered the first Early Intervention Programme in 1988. It is a well established fact that it is advantages for a special child to receive intervention and support as early as possible so that the development, treatment and overall progress of the child is facilitated and expedited.
In Japan, parents can bring their special child to be assessed at the local child-centre, consult the local school to discuss the child’s educational needs and make choices regarding how they wish their child to be educated, whether in a special school or in special classes in regular school and sonforth. The K-form Developmental Scale (Shimazu, Ikusawa, & Nakase, 1983) is a standardized IQ test statidardized based on Binet and Gesell scales, which can measure IQ of children of a wide age range, i.e., from 0 to 12-year-olds. It consist of three subscales; posture-motor, cognitive-adaptive, and verbal and is widely used in Japan. The number of children is kept to a maximum of three per class in Japan for multiple disabilities whilst classes have a maximum of six per class for single disability, whereas in Malaysia it is in practice, up to ten or more in a class due to shortage of teachers and resource.
In Malaysia the current policy and practice does not take into account the personal needs and wants of these special–needs learners and that of their caregivers, because they are seen as deficient/disabled first and as learners/people second, vocational training is still given primacy over cognitive-academic development by the JPK. A further difference is, as mentioned earlier, in major Japanese hospitals, classes are available to children with special needs and should the need arise teachers are sent to the home. A tiny fraction of children in Japan are permitted exemption from, or postponement of school attendance. It is regrettable that this wide range of services is not available or operational in Malaysian yet.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Acceptance, belonging, and providing school settings in which all disadvantaged children can be valued equally and be provided with equal educational opportunities are not fully available in the Malaysian context. The Ministry of Education Malaysia cannot afford to lag behind the current wave of globalization and development in special education. There needs to be a concerted effort in planning services, programmes and so forth so that implementation is not haphazard and sporadic. Its commendable that Malaysia partners with UNICEF together with many Corporate partners who have been working together with Malaysia to address issues such as basic literacy skills and special needs pre school for the unseen peoples in the rural and remote areas especially in East Malaysia. Although on paper philosophy, policies are laudable but they should not remain tokenistic symbols that something is being done for the special needs children when in reality, much more could and should be done; such as using the media promote positive public awareness on disability issues and inspire with empowering articles. Japan is a powerful economic and highly industrialized country that has built itself up from the devastation of WWII and Japan can proudly say it is a disabled-friendly nation in philosophy, policies and practice, and an exemplary role model to the world at large and Malaysia has an inspiring model to emulate. When one thinks of famous people, disabilities might not immediately come to mind as an issue many of them face. But, knowing that these celebrities overcame learning disabilities, physical impairment and special needs to gain international success will hopefully inspire us Malaysians to believe in our special needs students, integrate them inot society, foster their wholesome growth and encourage them to pursue their dreams despite struggles or opposition so that we do not recognize, shelve nor dismiss the potential Phelps, Hawkings, and Wonders of Malaysia. Indeed in the past, if we have done so it would be dreadfully unfortunate, regrettable and a great loss to Malaysia. Let us not lose heart as we treat each special-needs child as though they were a potential Albert Einstien, Lee Kuan Yew, Winston Churchill, Thomas Edison, Leornado da Vinci and many more renowned and prominent personalities who had learning difficulties. MALAYSIA BOLEH.
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AND PRACTICE IN MALAYSIA AND JAPAN.
INTRODUCTION
The focus of this study is to compare the educational philosophies, policies,and practices between Malaysia and Japan, with regard to the education of children with special needs. Malaysia and Japan have some common historical experiences in that both countries were involved in the Second World War, both were colonised and given independence by Anglo-American powers. Geographically they are both in Asia. A significant difference between the two countries is the homogenous nature of Japan’s population and the pluralistic multicultural, multi lingual, multi ethnicity and religions of Malaysia. Japan is a developed and industrialised country whereas Malaysia is developing and targeting to be an industrialised one. Japan’s population of 127 million dwarfs Malaysia’s 29 million. It is needful to examine the set up of other countries, discover the root of the problems and analyse their solutions so as to better understand one’s own education system, avoid mistakes made and adopt suitable models accordingly. Hence, in this comparative study, an Asian country was chosen over an Anglo-American one, because Japan and Malaysia are both culturally group-oriented, power concentrated, inclined to be replicative and relationally holistic. As such it is probably easier to relate to contextually in matters relating to adapting globalised best practices in a culturally sensitive way. This paper seeks to look at the special educational policies and philosophies of both countries, study their practises, identify key issues and challenges faced, and to discover possibilities for mutual exchange, growth and development.
There has always been a personal interest in Special education probably from parental influence and also from exposure to special people at a very young age. The increasing awareness of Special Education in Malaysia can undoubtedly be attributed to regular reporting by the media and the escalating pervasiveness of information technology available to the masses.
In recent years, Special Education has given more attention to a wide range of learning difficulties, including dyslexia, autism, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder [ADHD], Asperger’s syndrome and so on, with focus somewhat moving away from visual, hearing impairment and physical, mental impairments.
This is probably because in most developing and developing countries, visual and hearing impairments have already well-established special educational practices. For example, Special schools where various learning aids, such as sign language, Braille and magnified letters are used to accommodate the students’ teaching and learning needs. Some countries such as Japan and the United States of America (USA), have advanced to providing not only basic education but also pioneering tertiary education for the visually and hearing impaired.
Different forms of learning difficulties have emerged over the past 25 years and are probably still emerging. In the past, these special needs (learning difficulties) were all classified under mental retardation, but as discoveries continue to be made and learning difficulties are classified differently, statistics show that mental retardation worldwide has dropped considerably. As these conditions are discovered and researched, some theories about these conditions change and some evolve due to these theories being challenged or disproved and new theories being proposed. For example there is a wide range of autism, from highly-functioning to deeply autistic. Some children who were diagnosed as autistic ten years ago, are now discovered to have Asperger’s disorder. Disorders along the Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) continuum include autism, pervasive developmental disorder, Rett Syndrome (American Psychiatric Assocciation, 1995) and Asperger’s disorder. Since ASD exists along a spectrum, intervention especially communication intervention must be highly individualized ( Schreibman, koegel, Charlop, & Egel, 1990), thus intervention-wise, a child with Asperger’s Disorder is to be regarded quite differently from an autistic child. The field of special education has seen growth that has been unprecedented and it is likely to continue with more contemporary curricula, programmes, materials and resources evolving at a rapid rate, driven by a developmental theoretical perspective. In response to the increasing number of children diagnosed with special needs and especially that of learning difficulty, it is imperative that policies, philosophies and practice of special education need to be redefined, reviewed and refined to cater for the development and nurture of these children. Common special needs include challenges with learning, communication challenges, emotional and behavioral disorders, physical disabilities, and developmental disorders.
There are many famous personalities who have special needs and disabilities but have excelled in sport, fine arts, physics and in the music and movie arena.Olympic swimmer Michael Phelps made history by breaking records and winning eight gold medals. He also inspired thousands by speaking candidly about having ADHD. His mother has also been very public about telling their story. Professor Stephen Hawking, a renowned Physicist, is a well-known example of a person with multiple neurone disease who has against all odds, succeeded in life. Hawking cannot walk, talk, breathe easy, swallow and has difficulty in holding up his head. He could have well been classified as mentally retarded and severely physically handicapped and discharged to a home of the Spastics, yet he defied his doctor’s prognosis of not surviving more than 21 years. Stevie Wonder was born prematurely and as a result, he was never able to see. Wonder stands out as one of the most celebrated American musicians of all time. To his credit, he has won 26 Grammys and an Academy Award. This has earned him rightful standing in the Rock and Roll and Songwriter's Halls of Fame. Phelps was told that he could never focus on anything, Hawking, that he wasn’t an exceptional student and Wonder, that he could never make it in life. They are an inspiration to one and all, both stakeholders and non-stakeholders alike. On this note let us look at Japan.
JAPAN
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Figure1.1 Map of Japan
For many, the word Japan conjures up mystical Samurais, beautiful, graceful and demure kimono-clad geisha girls, sashimi (Japanese raw fish), beautiful spring apple-blossoms, ancient temples, lightning–fast bullet trains, Toyotas and Hondas, even the Iron Chef competitions and the list goes on; but education is certainly not an image that fills your mind when you hear the word Japan!
Japan is an island country located in the Pacific ocean. It’s an archipelago of over six thousand islands, the largest being Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku accounting for 97% of Japan’s land area. Japan is often referred to as the ‘Land of the Rising Sun’ because the Japanese characters that make up Japan’s name, Nippon-koku or Nihon-koku means ‘sun origin’. Most of Japan’ s islands are mountainous and many are volcanic which is not surprising as Japan sits on the Pacific Ring of Fire. Mount Fuji is the highest mountain in Japan and an active volcano that last erupted in 1707–08.
Japan has a population of 127 million people, ranks the tenth-largest populated country in the world. Tokyo is the capital of Japan with a population of 12 million. It is the Japan’s centre for culture and education and also the nation’s economic and industrial hub. The main language spoken is Japanese and most Japanese are of the Shinto-Buddhism faith. Since 1947, Japan has maintained a unitary constitutional monarchy with an emperor and an elected Prime Minister as head of government, with an elected parliament called the Diet. It is a highly industrialized, developed country and a major world economic power. Japan has the world's second-largest economy and the third largest in purchasing power parity. It is also the world's fourth largest exporter and fifth largest importer. It is the only Asian country in the G8 and a current non-permanent member of the United Nations (UN) security council. According to both the UN and World Health Organization (WHO) estimates, Japan has the highest life expectancy of any country in the world, and the third lowest infant mortality rate.
History of Education
Japan’s education maybe conveniently divided into pre-World War II(WW),post WW II, and modern Japan.
On the whole, pre-WWII education was controlled centrally by the government, the education philosophy was guided by the Imperial Rescript Education (1890), Japanese values and Confucian principles were taught and stressed by society. Primary education was available to all but secondary and tertiary studies were elitist and discriminatory. This old system collapsed at the end of WWII and the United States Education Mission (1946) introduced new ideas and structures into the Japanese system such as extending free but compulsory education from six to nine years, higher education became more non-elitist, social studies was emphasized above moral studies, school boards were locally elected as opposed to being appointed under the old system, and teachers unions were formed. In 1952, Japanese sovereignty was restored and many reforms reverted back to the old system; school boards were by appointment, Japanese ideals moral studies were put back into the curricula but the 6-3-3 structure intended at democratizing education remain until today
The University Control Law (1969) and other reforms emerged in the 70’s.
Education in Contemporary Japan is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (known also as the Monbukagakusho or MEXT). Three tiers of administration attend to the financial and supervisory educational services; namely the national (MEXT0, Prefectural (upper tier) and municipal (lower tier).There are five levels of schooling in Japan: Preschool which is free to all but not compulsory, Primary and Lower Secondary levels which are free and compulsory, and Upper Secondary and Higher Education which are neither free nor compulsory. The Fundamental Law of Education, the School Education Law and the Social Education Law provide the philosophies, policies and practices throughout the nation. The Japanese value educational excellence at all levels and their education system is thought to be extremely prestigious. Japan is consistently ranked at the top internationally in both Maths and science by the TIMSS (Trends in Interntional Maths and Science Study). Japanese education helps build student motivation. Their philosophy emphasizes effort over ability hence in the Japanese classroom, everyone is taught the same concepts and students are engaged in higher-order thinking skills. Correct answers are withheld and students are presented with material such as puzzles and encouraged to think of as many ways as possible to solve the problem. Fast and slow learners are not separated and advanced students help the less able, cooperation, a sense of belonging and oneness are fostered. This attitude is particularly important when it comes to special children.
Special Education in Japan A brief history
In 1878, the first special school for children with visual and hearing impairment was established in Kyoto. The first special class for children with intellectual disabilities was set up in 1890 in Matsumoto City, in Nagano Prefecture. To date Japan has 222 and 210 years of history respectively in the area of Special education, a figure to be proud of indeed. The number of special schools and special classes for children with various kinds of disabilities increased favorably until around 1930, but thereafter the WWII devastated special education. At the end of the WWII, the external number of special schools for children with blindness and deafness was still more than 100, but most schools were burned by air raids. In the case of special classes, all were closed except one in Tokyo, at which the children were also moved to rural areas without schools, let alone special classes.
Special education had to be reconstructed after the WWII based on the philosophy of democratic education, which was introduced by the educational policy the United States who was then the occupation army. In 1947 compulsory education for primary school and lower secondary schools was introduced. Special education was rapidly rebuilt beginning with visual and hearing impairments schools and classes, followed closely by schools for intellectual disability, physical and health impairment. The development of special education since the end of WWII maybe seen as
(1) Development of special schools and special classes. 1947- 1979
(2) Movement of integrated education – 2000
(3) Development of special needs education. – Present day
The motto of the Special Needs Education System of Japan (SNES) - Where children with disabilities learn - is bold and apt. Looking at Figure 1.2, it is clear that special-needs children are given due consideration at all levels from pre-school right up to upper secondary school. Figure 1.3 show that as the degree of disability goes from mild to severe, the children are correspondingly moved from regular classes with team-teaching, achievement-based teaching ,small-group classes, Special Support Service in resource rooms, to special classes and then on to Special Needs Schools. The four categories of special needs, the blind, the deaf, the intellectually disabled, the physically disabled and the health impaired in figure 1.4, show the ratio of children with multiple disabilities in Special Schools in elementary and lower secondary levels. Due to increasing number of students with multiple disabilities, there is a move away from of schools catering only for single disabilities for example the blind or deaf.
Japan has a national curriculum standards for children with disabilities called ‘the Course of Study or Gakushyu-shido-yoryo for schools serving the blind ,the deaf, children with physical and mental disabilities and health impairments. It can be amended when necessary to tailor to specific needs for these children. Parents, school board members and or medical and social personel are consulted in order to determine which curriculum suits the child best, be it one to one teaching, small group teaching, individual teaching plans or inclusive integration onto regular classes.
Even when there is profound disability, the child is eligible for education according to their needs. In some cases teachers visit homes or institutitions to provide home tutoring. In major hospitals classes are available for children necessitating hospital treatment. Only 0.001% of children in Japan are allowed postponement or exemption from school education.
Teachers in Special education are required to have a license for special education in addition to their basic teaching license. The NISE provides highly specialized training courses. Local Special Education Centers in prefectures offer programmes to upgrade or learn new skills. Case conferences and Teacher’s study-meetings are conducted at school level.
The NISE conducts research such as nationwide surveys to assist in making future national policies with regard to special education. At prefecture level, research and development schools and model schools are present throughout the country. Local Special Education Centers, Colleges and Universities conduct ongoing research on teaching methods to enhance Special Support Education.
As part of the 2007 reform, the SNES aims to have schools for Special Needs Education where staff are competent in knowledge and understanding on more than one disability, so that students with multiple disabilties are be accepted and integrated into each local community.By mid 2010, Japan plans to launch their first graduate school for students with visual or aural impairments at the state-run Tsukuba University of Technology, their only University for the deaf. According to the university, it will be the world’s first graduate school for visually- impaired students and the third for hearing-impaired ones, following the footsteps of such schools as Gallaudet University in the United States,
Master’s degrees will be offered: Industrial technology for visually challenged students and health science courses for hearing-impaired students. Academia is possible to all, those with special needs and those without, unless there is brain injury and the cognitive abilities are damaged. As the adage goes “There is no learning disability only teacher inability”.
MALAYSIA
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Map of peninsular Malaysia and East Malaysia (Malaysian Borneo)Fig 1.2
Malaysia, is made up of West Malaysia (peninsular Malaya) and East Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak states) in nothern Bourneo. It is a land of beauty in its diversity, located in the heart of South East Asia, see figure 1.2 which had for centuries attracted merchants and traders plying the ancient, lucrative spice and silk route between India and China. It is therefore no surprise that Chinese, Indian and Malays are the major contributors to Malaysia’s rich and vibrant cultural heritage, together with the indigenous people. Malaysia is a multi-ethnic, multi-cultural, multi lingual and multi-religious society, known for their warm hospitality, interesting and delicious variety of food and a delightful fusion of cultures making Malaysians attractive and unique. Bahasa Malaysia is the official language, but English is taught as a second language and many Malaysians are tri lingual: proficient in their mother tongue, in Malay and in English. Malaysia is well endowed in natural resources such as minerals,[ mainly tin and petroleum] agriculture and forestry. It is one of the world’s top exporters of natural rubber, palm oil, sawn timber, coca and pepper. Malaysia boasts of rich biodiversity and a wide habitat range, in the Gunung Mulu National Park, and in the Mount Kinabalu district of Sabah. Both have been marked as World Heritage Sites. In 2009 two interesting and historical townships, Malacca and Penang were also given World Heritage status. Today Malaysia is an independent nation state with a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Kuala Lumpur is the largest city and the capital of Malaysia. It is also the main financial and commercial centre of the country. Malaysia is recognized as an emerging industrialized country with a GDP per capita PPP ranking at 48th in the world and second in South East Asia. For the past 20 years, Malaysia has been on a fast track development drive with measurable physical and economic success. Unfortunately, services and facilities enabling tangible inclusion of People with Disabilities (PWDs) into their communities were not developed in tandem, resulting in Malaysians with Disabilities excluded from enjoying a barrier-free environment and normal enriching independent lifestyle. There is a pressing need to firstly look at the education commitments of Malaysia to the children with disabilities so that indeed the mission of the Ministry of Education ‘To develop a world-class quality education system which will realise the full potential of the individual and fulfil the aspiration of the Malaysian nation” can achieved, and to reach their objectives stated below: - To produce loyal and united Malaysians. - To produce happy, well mannered individuals who have faith, knowledge and vision. - To prepare the nation´s human resource for its developmental needs. - To provide educational opportunities for all Malaysians.
HISTORY OF EDUCATION
Pre WWII, secular schools were mainly an innovation of the British colonial government, and English-Language schools were considered prestigious at that time. Post WWII, education was mainly aimed to feed the needs of the colonial government though the Malay, Chinese and Indian communities fought hard for their mother tongue to be used as a medium of instruction. Post independence (1957) in accordance to the national language policy, the government began to change English-medium primary and secondary national-type schools into Malay-medium national schools. In 1970, the language change was made gradually starting from the first year in primary school, was completed by the end of 1982.
Malaysia’s belief that (NEP),New Economic Policy 1960-1970, the National Development Policy,1071-1990, The first to ninth Malaysia Plan, 1991-2010, ensure adequate funds to the Education sector for the development of the nation’s human resource and capital. It is through this course of action that the Malaysian Education system succeeds in responding to the issues of access, equity, quality and effectiveness of education for all Malaysians in a 6-3-2 structure.
Education in Malaysia is overseen by two government ministries: the Ministry of Education for matters up to the secondary level, and the Ministry of Higher Education for tertiary education. Each state has an Education Department to help coordinate educational matters in their respective states, although education is the responsibility of the federal government. The Education Act of 1996 is the main legislation governing education which designates six years of primary education as compulsory. Pre-school is optional and most pre-schools are for profit and privately run. Five years of secondary schooling is not compulsory. For their pre-university studies, students have an option of doing two years of Form six or the Matriculation. Free education is provided from Primary one right up to Form six.
A Brief History of Special Education
Jabatan Pendidikan Khas (JPK) or the Department of Special Education, from being just a unit in the Education Department was established as a Department in its own right in 1995. It plays a major role in curricula planning and implementing the quality of special education programmes in both the primary and secondary schools in Malaysia. However the programmes for the deaf have a much longer history, the first residential school for the deaf was established in
1954. Interest towards Special Education in Malaysia began in 1920s among volunteers who were involved in the opening of schools for the hearing and visual impaired. The Cabinet Committee Report that studied the Implementation of Education Policy through the Recommendatory 169 was the beginning of a clearer focus and emphasis on the development of Special Education in Malaysia. The recommendatory says that:
“With the awareness that the government should be responsible towards the education of disabled children, it should then take over all the responsibilities from the organizations handling it currently. Moreover, the involvement of volunteers in developing the education for disabled children is encouraged.”
SPECIAL EDUCATION PHILOSOPHY
The MoE Philosophy for Special Education states that ‘Education is given to develop the students physically, emotionally, spiritually and intellectually so that students can be educated to the highest possible level to enable them to obtain employment and live independently’.
Programmes are based on the following policies: • Education Act 1996, Chapter 8. • Education Act (Amendment) Act 2002. • Education Regulations (Special Education) in 1997. • Policy Committee decision, the Ministry of Education [Education Planning Committee (SRC), Meeting Management Ministry of Education, Centre for Curriculum Committee (DFA) and Department of Management Meeting Special Education]. International Declarations: • United Nations' World Programme of Action concerning Disabled Persons (1983). • The World's Declaration on Education for All (1990). • The United Nations' Standard Rules on the Equalisation of Opportunities for Persons With Disabilities (1993). • The Framework for Action on Special Needs Education (Salamanca Statement) in 1994. • Biwako Millennium Framework for Action Towards an Inclusive Barrier-Free and Rights-Based Society for Persons with Disabilities in Asia and the Pacific (2002).
Three ministries service children with disabilities. They are, the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Women, Family and Community Development (WFCD) and the Ministry of Education, but education for these children are only under the auspices of the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of WFCD.
The Ministry of Education provides educational services for students with special needs who have visual and hearing impairment, learning difficulties, and those needing special remedial help. Learning disorders are categorized as follows:
- Downs Syndrome - Mild autism - Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder - Mild Mental Impairment and - Specific learning disabilities (eg. Dyslexia).
The Ministry of WFCD provides services for children with the following problems: - severe physical disability - moderate and severe mental retardation - various other defects such as ?? and - defects that do not allow the children to learn in schools provided by the Ministry of Education.
Special Education Department’s Vision and Mission
JPK’s vision statement is ‘Quality Education Generates Excellence Among Students with Special Educational Needs in line with the National Education System’, with the mission to develop excellent special needs human capital based on a holistic, relevant and quality education system so that there is - Optimum development the individual’s potential - Ability to compete and be marketable - Moral values as a responsible citizen - Smart partnerships with various parties
The Special Education services provided by the Department of Education are:
• Special schools for pupils with visual and hearing impaired and learning (secondary).
• Special Education Integration Programs for students with special needs and learning disabilities, impaired hearing and sight impaired. The program is available in non-residential, normal primary and secondary schools as well as in Technical/Vocational training (secondary) schools which adopt withdrawal or semi-inclusive approach.
Programmes such as the Special Education Integration Programme and the Special Rehabilitation Programmes are fully administered at state levels by the State Education Department, whereas the Integration of Special Education Programs in Technical and Vocational Education is administered by the Department of Technical Education.
The Malaysian Education for All Mid-Decade Assessment Report 2000-2007 states that one of the strategies is to expand preschool places for children with special needs from 32 integration classes to 100 classrooms in order to integrate children aged 5-6 with single disability, usually the learning disabled. Expansion necessitates therefore training the necessary preschool teachers and teacher assistants and also the proviso to amend the Special Education Regulations Act 1997 to accept students with two disabilities.
UNICEF, working together with the Ministry of Health’s Development Division (MHDD) devised a standardised screening tool in 2006 to improve the early detection of autism amongst toddlers so that early intervention can be instituted. Issues with Sexual and reproductive health for children with special needs are also looked into, in response and recognition of their high risk of sexual abuse and exploitation, because it directly impacts their learning and overall development.
ANALYSIS
Japan as a leading economic power and highly industrialised country and Malaysia as a developing and emerging industrialised one, have commonalities in that were both affected deeply by WWII, and both were dominated by a foreign power, so it is interesting to see each country recovered, rebuilt and developed post-war and how Special education has evolved since then.
Looking at the philosophy with regard to Special Education mentioned earlier on, both Japan and Malaysia are very similar in that both are highly commendable, comprehensive and impressive, subscribing also to many international special-education charters such as The United Nations' Standard Rules on the Equalisation of Opportunities for Persons With Disabilities (1993).
|Mission and Vision of JPK Malaysia |Mission and Vision of the NISEJapan |
| |The mission of our institute as the National Institute of |
|JPK’s vision statement is ‘Quality Education Generates Excellence |Special Needs Education is to contribute to:Improving the |
|Among Students with Special Educational Needs in line with |quality of education for children with disabilities and to |
|the National Education System’, with the mission to develop excellent|make educational provision to meet individual educational |
|special needs human capital based on a holistic, relevant and quality|needs. We aim to do this by working with the national and |
|education system so that there is |government organizations. Our vision is |
|- Optimum development the individual’s potential |Research Activities that contribute to National |
|- Ability to compete and be marketable |Administrative Needs |
|- Moral values as a responsible citizen |-To undertake research that contributes to the formulation |
|- Smart partnerships with various parties |of National Policy for Children. |
|- Providing education opportunities and facilities for students |Practical Research that contributes to Education |
|with special educational needs. |- To undertake advanced and practical research that |
|- Providing relevant education to every student with special |contributes to education |
|educational needs. |Specialized Programs for Teacher Training |
|- Providing opportunity for students with special educational needs |- Provide systematic and special training for the school |
|to develop their talent and potential. |staff who plays the role of leadership in special needs |
|- Providing sufficient and up-to-date teaching and learning |education from local public organization and support them. |
|material. |Training Programs that Respond to New Challenges |
|- Ensuring sufficient trained teachers in special education. |- To implement training program for the major issue of |
| |National Policy and/or urgent issue at educational site |
|- Planning and managing all primary and secondary special schools. |flexibly and promptly. |
|- Planning and coordinating all special schools integration program.|Counseling and Consultation that Provide Activities that |
|- Planning, coordinating and evaluating policies and regulations, to|Supports Local Public Organizations |
|ensure education is well-balanced, to help, service and support |- To conduct consultation and provide the information for |
|students with special educational needs and implement the special |counseling and consultation to the organizations. |
|education vocational policy. |Provide Information for Special Needs Education |
|- Planning curriculum, activities and special education affairs. |-To collect, analyze, arrange and make database of the |
|- Providing special education planning, research and evaluation. |information on special needs education from domestic and |
|- Providing training plan and staff development; and |overseas and provide comprehensive information to teaching |
|- Coordinating Special Remedial Education Program. |site. |
| |Cooperation and Partnership with Universities and |
| |Organizations in Domestic and Overseas. |
| |- to collaborate and cooperate with universities and |
| |organizations locally and abroad through seminars, to |
| |research, analyze and evaluate the issues, and to share our|
| |practical research results in special needs education. |
One difference in their philosophy is that when it comes to learning, the Japanese put value and emphasis in effort over that of natural ability, resulting in primary school students being taught in classes that have not been streamlined into good, average or poor students, whereas stream lining students according to their academic performance is practiced by Malaysia and many other countries. It follows then that, if effort is put into the education of a special-needs child, the child can reach its full potential given all the necessary support. This attitude has given Japan an advantage of having an over 200 year history in educating people with special needs, which began with addressing the visual and hearing impaired. The Japanese School Education Law places special education firmly within the framework of the total education system by emphasizing that it is not separate from ordinary education. Japanese special education now officially recognizes seven categories of disability: the blind and partially sighted, deaf and hard of hearing, mentally retarded, physically disabled, health impaired and physically weak, speech-impaired and emotionally disturbed.
Red Tape
It is in the policies and practices that differences become quite stark and disconcerting. Firstly Japan has given its citizens easy access to support, intervention, services and education for the special child, as the process of getting this support is relatively short and convenient as distance is not problematic and their services are efficient. These services are available throughout Japan be it isolated, rural or urban areas. It involves assessment at the local nearby special education center, and decisions regarding intervention or placement in special education classrooms are made by the parent in conjunction with a committee composed of the local school board members, special education teachers, and or doctors and psychiatrists if necessary. The child's IQ is taken into account, along with birth and growth records. On average, the disabled children could spend 3 to 4 years of experience attending a variety of institutions during their preschool years It therefore doesn’t become an unpleasant or confusing experience for the child and the family to seek for help support and guidance as these special children become integrated into the regular schools and into the community at large.
This contrasts greatly with the process in Malaysia, as obtaining any sort of service for special education is a prolonged and arduous process often ending in being victims of bureaucratic system due to services being concentrated in urban areas and therefore not easily accessible for example to rural or indigenous people. Firstly, medical diagnosis is still currently central to the Malaysian education system as depicted by the procedures for registration and placement of disabled children into special schools, whereby:
‘Children who are not schooling must gain confirmation of their disability from the Department of Social Welfare (DSW) and the Ministry of Health. Children who are already in schools must gain confirmation from the Principal and the Ministry of Health.Children who have been diagnosed by medical practitioners are referred to the Council for Registration and Placement, where individual cases are judged on merit, (SED, 1999b). Besides the medical model, socio-political and educational models should be used to explorethe issue of disability. For example, the socio-political model tends to be based on democratic principles to try to meet the needs of all sections of society and the educational model tends to help fullfill the learning needs of all learners in the education system. If these two models are adopted, perhaps positive changes could happen in the lives of disabled learners.
Furthermore students who wish to enroll in the Special education programme must be of single disability and can manage themselves without the assistance of others. This excludes those who are mentally able, but physically disabled and also the emotionally disturbed Next, students are assessed for reading writing and mathematics skills using the IPP3M (Instrumen Penentu Penguasaan 3M). Cases are deemed unable to enter regular school are referred to the Social Welfare services to be rehabilitated. This is discrimitory and does not reflect ‘In our effort to educate the people of this nation, those who are less able will not be forgotten. The Ministry of Education will continue to upgrade its services to meet the needs of these students at all levels from pre-school to tertiary education’ [Ministry of Education, Malaysia (MoE), 2000], for example, physically disabled children are put into vocational schools even though they have cognitive-academic potential.
Secondly if the child is assessed as fit to attend regular school or special school then they are placed in the nearest school which for many, could be in the next town or state, and or transportation poses to be problematic, and the child is left without support services or intervention in terms of education, though policies such as the Malaysian National Policy on Disabled Children states “ Article 23 of the CRC recognizes the rights of a disabled child to special care, education and training to help him or her enjoy a full life in dignity and achieve the greatest degree of self-reliance and social integration possible.”
Thirdly, the Division on Persons with Disabilities under the Department of Social Welfare is responsible for the database on disabled persons, as well as for setting up community based rehabilitation centres providing diagnosis and rehabilitation services. These Special Education Services Centres, were established in 1999 for the purpose of providing one-stop specialist services to parents and students with special needs. These centres are also in urban areas, limited in number and functions to support agencies involved with special needs. Services provided include: Audiological services, sign language classes, therapy activities, parent counseling, toy library and resource material. The needs of the special child has been under too many ministries and often referrals from one to the other, and going through excessive bureaucratic procedures cause added anxiety and pressure onto the already stressed family. Finally after going through all the red tape, the majority of special–needs children cannot benefit from whatever services available, simply because of they are not easily accessible as mentioned earlier and the services are concentrated in urban areas and limited in number and competition is stiff in getting into Special schools. Only some needs of disabled learners are met at the expense of a majority of other needs.
Structure and Political Will
The Malaysian Department of Special Education, established in 1995, is young compared to that of Japan. It has to go through three tiers of administrative levels before matters reach the Minister of Education, whereas Japan’s NISE has direct accesses as its directly under MEXT. For instance, when research showed that in 1994, 3.0 per cent of elementary students and 2.9 per cent of junior high students had mild learning difficulties and that ‘the most pressing problem confronted by special education in Japan is that many students with mild handicaps or learning difficulties are being placed in regular classes without adequate support’ and thus not doing well ,compared to all their counterparts in special schools, it was immediately discussed at the Diet. Measures were taken to rectify this discovery involving incorporating learning difficulties in teacher training, adopting well-established programmes from abroad, re training and re educating at all levels to all schools nationwide. This resulted in students with mild learning disorders eg, dyslexia regaining their confidence and overall performance increased significantly.
In Malaysia, all administrative procedures regarding the education of disabled learners should be centralised, instead of the multi-agency bureaucracy initiative currently in place. It is hoped that following this, there will be no confusion regarding the definitions of disability and that provisions available will be made clear to all stake-holders. This could lessen the bureaucratic red tape that parents have to go through in their bid to educate their disabled children. Dedication to Research and Academic Excellence
Another difference is that NISE is committed to research locally and is involved in international exchange of ideas and research such as, new discoveries in pedagogy, learning methodology, in administration and etc. NISE ‘collaborates and cooperates with universities and organizations locally and abroad through seminars, to research, analyze and evaluate the issues, and to share our practical research results in special needs education’. NISE has been hosting international seminars for the development and the improvement of the education for individuals with special needs in the Asia and Pacific region since 1981, inviting representatives recommended by the UNESCO National Commission. Japan’s focus is on the abilities of the special children and how to develop their potential, whereas Malaysia is still focusing on the special children’s disabilities and inabilities so that disability is first and foremost on the agenda, whilst education itself is placed second. Malaysia has yet to look into meaningful research in this area and take advantage of the international resources available.
Planning and Teacher-training Curriculum
A further difference lies in teacher training. Teacher-training colleges, universities and institutions need to include children with special needs as part of their general curriculum and then specialize in this area should they so choose, whilst principals and teachers currently in schools need to be updated with regard to special education and the basic tenets in pedagogy. This means that those in managerial positions at schools and departments should have at least the basic knowledge about disabilities and educational consultation. To this end, it is imperative to invest in such persons to receive the necessary and needed training and education.
In Japan, teachers are given on-going training in the latest developments in special education. They are encouraged to further their studies in order to upgrade and update themselves with government support and sponsorship. Special Education teachers are given in-house training twice a year in their schools and colleges whereas, Malaysia needs to seriously look at its training of special education teachers and bring it up to par as an emerging industrialized country.
Funding
The most marked difference between Japan and Malaysia is the allocation of Funding to Education and Special education. In most countries, their educational systems have developed keeping pace with the establishment of nation states' system. Modern educational systems have contributed to support their goals, eg, strengthening solidarity of the nation or military expansion and this is reflected the financial budget of the country but in Malaysia the Malaysia Budget 2009 Highlights, listed the the disabled under the “less fortunate”, the monthly allowance amounted to 150rm for the disabled who were unable to work, monthly allowance for disabled children in special education schools increased form 50rm to 150rm, and teaching assistants in special education schools were provided incentive payments of 200rm a month. This is not to say that financial assistance is of no help but it does not improve basic education services and support. The Budget of Annual Expenditure for 2008 (in:1,000Yen) for NISE,Japan in 2008 was 1,223,198, of which 47,508 alone went to buildings and sites, much of it was for training and administration. The 10th Malaysian plan promises much more allocation to education and hopefully promises can be delivered. Deputy Prime Minister Tan Sri Muhyiddin Yassin said the Education Ministry has proposed to set up 1,153 pre-schools throughout the country at a cost of RM300 million over the next two years under the 10th Malaysia Plan (10MP). He also stated that there were 7,511 pre-school classes under the government, incomparison to 6,412 private pre-schools in the country but have special education issues been side lined?
Practice
The word ‘Practices’ would embrace broadly what happens at the grass roots, what services and support is actually available to the children with special needs and their families, to what extent policies are put into practice.
A stark difference between Japan and Malaysia as mentioned earlier is that special-needs services and classes are available to all children with special needs in elementary and secondary schools throughout Japan irrespective of their rural or urban or isolated location, whereas in Malaysia it is currently available only in certain schools more so in the urban areas. Although pre-school in Japan is not compulsory, it is free, and special education services and support are available there too, in the Malaysian setting, pre-school is not administered solely by the nation by the MOE thus it is not an available option for all children, let alone the child with special needs.
Another difference is that once a disability is discovered in Japan, (slightly more than half are diagnosed in hospitals and the rest in child health clinics or childcare centers and etc) there is the option to attend special mother and child courses so that early intervention, support and training can be administered. It is unfortunate that in Malaysia disabilities are largely the domain of the medical personnel and community health services. Formal Education of the special child does not start till primary school, unless parents are is aware of private early intervention centres run mainly by non-government organizations (NGO) such as Malaysian Care, which pioneered the first Early Intervention Programme in 1988. It is a well established fact that it is advantages for a special child to receive intervention and support as early as possible so that the development, treatment and overall progress of the child is facilitated and expedited.
In Japan, parents can bring their special child to be assessed at the local child-centre, consult the local school to discuss the child’s educational needs and make choices regarding how they wish their child to be educated, whether in a special school or in special classes in regular school and sonforth. The K-form Developmental Scale (Shimazu, Ikusawa, & Nakase, 1983) is a standardized IQ test statidardized based on Binet and Gesell scales, which can measure IQ of children of a wide age range, i.e., from 0 to 12-year-olds. It consist of three subscales; posture-motor, cognitive-adaptive, and verbal and is widely used in Japan. The number of children is kept to a maximum of three per class in Japan for multiple disabilities whilst classes have a maximum of six per class for single disability, whereas in Malaysia it is in practice, up to ten or more in a class due to shortage of teachers and resource.
In Malaysia the current policy and practice does not take into account the personal needs and wants of these special–needs learners and that of their caregivers, because they are seen as deficient/disabled first and as learners/people second, vocational training is still given primacy over cognitive-academic development by the JPK. A further difference is, as mentioned earlier, in major Japanese hospitals, classes are available to children with special needs and should the need arise teachers are sent to the home. A tiny fraction of children in Japan are permitted exemption from, or postponement of school attendance. It is regrettable that this wide range of services is not available or operational in Malaysian yet.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Acceptance, belonging, and providing school settings in which all disadvantaged children can be valued equally and be provided with equal educational opportunities are not fully available in the Malaysian context. The Ministry of Education Malaysia cannot afford to lag behind the current wave of globalization and development in special education. There needs to be a concerted effort in planning services, programmes and so forth so that implementation is not haphazard and sporadic. Its commendable that Malaysia partners with UNICEF together with many Corporate partners who have been working together with Malaysia to address issues such as basic literacy skills and special needs pre school for the unseen peoples in the rural and remote areas especially in East Malaysia. Although on paper philosophy, policies are laudable but they should not remain tokenistic symbols that something is being done for the special needs children when in reality, much more could and should be done; such as using the media promote positive public awareness on disability issues and inspire with empowering articles. Japan is a powerful economic and highly industrialized country that has built itself up from the devastation of WWII and Japan can proudly say it is a disabled-friendly nation in philosophy, policies and practice, and an exemplary role model to the world at large and Malaysia has an inspiring model to emulate. When one thinks of famous people, disabilities might not immediately come to mind as an issue many of them face. But, knowing that these celebrities overcame learning disabilities, physical impairment and special needs to gain international success will hopefully inspire us Malaysians to believe in our special needs students, integrate them inot society, foster their wholesome growth and encourage them to pursue their dreams despite struggles or opposition so that we do not recognize, shelve nor dismiss the potential Phelps, Hawkings, and Wonders of Malaysia. Indeed in the past, if we have done so it would be dreadfully unfortunate, regrettable and a great loss to Malaysia. Let us not lose heart as we treat each special-needs child as though they were a potential Albert Einstien, Lee Kuan Yew, Winston Churchill, Thomas Edison, Leornado da Vinci and many more renowned and prominent personalities who had learning difficulties. MALAYSIA BOLEH.
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