Soc 324 Study Guide Exam 1

SOC 324 Exam 1 Review Guide

Note: This guide is not meant to be an exhaustive list of everything that is on the exam. It is meant to point you in the right direction. However, anything covered in class or in the readings is fair game for the test. Chapter 1 White collar crime -­‐ Illegal acts that capitalize on a person’s status in the marketplace. White-­‐collar crimes may include theft, embezzlement, fraud, market manipulation, restraint of trade, and false advertising. Penology involves the correction and sentencing of known criminal offenders. Victimology Studying the nature and cause of victimization. Aiding crime victims; understanding the nature and extent of victimization; developing theories of victimization risk. Anomie-­‐ A lack of norms or clear social standards. Because of rapidly shifting moral values, the individual has few guides to what is socially acceptable. Social structure theory -­‐ The view that disadvantaged economic class position is a primary cause of crime. Social process theorists -­‐ The view that criminality is a function of people’s interactions with various organizations, institutions, and processes in society. Critical criminologists-­‐ believe that crime is related to the inherently unfair economic structure of the United States and other advanced capitalist countries. Consensus view-­‐ crimes are behaviors that all elements of society consider repugnant. The rich and powerful as well as the poor and indigent are believed to agree on which behaviors are so repugnant that they should be outlawed and crimi-­‐nalized. T Conflict view -­‐ view depicts society as a collection of diverse groups—such as owners, workers, professionals, and students—who are in constant and continuing conflict. Groups able to assert their political power use the law and the criminal justice system to advance their economic and social position. Interactionist view -­‐ the definition of crime reflects the preferences and opinions of people who hold social power in a particular legal jurisdiction. These people use their influence to impose their definition of right and wrong on the rest of the population. Common law -­‐ Crimes such as murder, burglary, arson, and rape are common-­‐law crimes whose elements were initially defined by judges. They are referred to as mala in se, or inherently evil and depraved. Early English law, developed by judges, which became the standardized law of the land in England and eventually formed the basis of the criminal law in the United States.

Felony – serious offense Misdemeanor -­‐ minor Precedent – precedent A rule derived from previous judicial decisions and applied to future cases; the basis of common law. Statutory crimes -­‐ Crimes defined by Parliament, which reflected existing social conditions, were referred to as mala prohibitum, or statutory crimes. Chapter 2 UCR -­‐ The UCR includes crimes reported to local law enforcement depart-­‐ments and the number of arrests made by police agencies. 2 Part I and Part II -­‐ are murder and nonnegligent manslaughter, forcible rape, robbery, aggravated assault, burglary, larceny, motor vehicle theft, and arson. This latter group includes such criminal acts as sex crimes, drug trafficking, and vandalism. Cleared crimes -­‐ Crimes are considered cleared when at least one person is arrested, charged, and turned over to the court for prosecution or when some element beyond police control (such as the offender having left the country) precludes the physical arrest of an offender. NIBRS -­‐ National Incident-­‐Based Reporting System (NIBRS), a program that collects data on each reported crime incident. Instead of submitting statements of the kinds of crime that individual citizens report to the police and summary statements of resulting arrests, the new program requires local police agencies to provide at least a brief account of each incident and arrest, including the incident, victim, and offender information. NCVS -­‐ National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), a comprehensive, nationwide survey of victimization in the United States conducted annually by the U.S. Census Bureau for the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS). Self-­‐report surveys-­‐ self-­‐report survey that asks people to describe, in detail, their re-­‐cent and lifetime participation in criminal activity. Instrumental crimes -­‐ Offenses designed to improve the financial or social position of the criminal. Expressive crimes -­‐ Offenses committed not for profit or gain but to vent rage, anger, or frustration. Age and crime – young commit more crime Three strikes -­‐ which require people convicted of a third felony offense to serve a mandatory life sentence; and “truth in sentencing” poli-­‐cies, which require that convicted felons spend a significant portion of their sentence behind bars. Chapter 4

Rational choice theory -­‐ The view that crime is a function of a decision-­‐making process in which the potential offender weighs the potential costs and benefits of an illegal act. Classical criminology -­‐ A theory of crime suggesting that criminal behavior is a matter of personal choice, made after the individual considers its costs and benefits, and that the criminal behavior reflects the needs of the offender. Offense-­‐specific crime-­‐ A crime in which the offender reacts selectively to the characteristics of a particular criminal act. Offender-­‐specific crime -­‐ A crime in which offenders evaluate their skills, motives, needs, and fears before deciding to commit the criminal act. Is theft/drug use/violence rational? Seductions of crime -­‐ The situational inducements or immediate benefits that draw offenders into law violations. Diffusion -­‐ An effect that occurs when efforts to prevent one crime unintentionally prevent another. Discouragement -­‐ An effect that occurs when crime control efforts targeting a particular locale help reduce crime in surrounding areas and populations. Displacement -­‐ An effect that occurs when crime control efforts simply move, or redirect, offenders to less heavily guarded alternative targets. Extinction -­‐ An effect that occurs when crime reduction programs produce a short-­‐term positive effect, but benefits dissipate as criminals adjust to new conditions. Replacement -­‐ An effect that occurs when criminals try new offenses they had previously avoided because situational crime prevention programs neutralized their crime of choice. General deterrence -­‐ A crime control policy that depends on the fear of criminal penalties, convincing the potential law violator that the pains associated with crime outweigh its benefits. Certain, swift, and severe punishments Specific deterrence -­‐ holds that criminal sanctions should be so powerful that known criminals will never re-­‐peat their criminal acts. According to this view, the drunk driver whose sentence is a substantial fine and a week in the county jail should be convinced that the price to be paid for drinking and driving is too great to consider future violations. Incapacitation effect -­‐ The view that placing offenders behind bars during their prime crime years reduces their opportunity to commit crime and helps lower the crime rate.

Chapter 5

Sociobiology -­‐ The view that human behavior is motivated by inborn biological urges to survive and preserve the species. Hypoglycemia -­‐ When blood glucose (sugar) falls below levels necessary for normal and efficient brain functioning, a condition called Arousal theory -­‐ for a variety of genetic and environ-­‐ mental reasons, people’s brains function differently in response to environmental stimuli. arousal theoryThe view that people seek to maintain a preferred level of arousal but vary in how they process sensory input. A need for high levels of environmental stimulation may lead to aggressive, violent behavior patterns. Behavior theory -­‐ theory maintains that human actions are developed through learning ex-­‐ periences Social learning theory -­‐ theorists argue that people are not born with the ability to act violently; rather, they learn to be aggressive through their life experiences. Behavior modeling -­‐ theorists view violence as something learned through a process called behavior modeling. Cognitive theory -­‐ theorists view violence as something learned through a process called behavior modeling. Information processing theory -­‐ focuses on how people process, store, encode, retrieve, and manipulate information to make decisions and solve problems. Mood disorder -­‐ A condition in which the prevailing emotional mood is distorted or inappropriate to the circumstances. Oppositional defiant disorder -­‐ A condition in which the prevailing emotional mood isdistorted or inappropriate to thecircumstances. Bipolar disorder -­‐ An emotional disturbance in which moods alternate between periods of wild elation and deep depression. Primary prevention programs -­‐ Programs, such as substance abuse clinics and mental health associations, that seek to treat personal problems before they manifest themselves as crime. Chapter 6 Stratified society -­‐ People grouped according to economic or social class; characterized by the unequal distribution of wealth, power, and prestige. Culture of poverty -­‐ culture of poverty A separate lower-­‐class culture, characterized by apathy, cynicism, helplessness, and mistrust of social institutions such as schools, government agencies, and the police, that is passed from one generation to the next.

Underclass -­‐ The lowest social stratum in any country, whose members lack the education and skills needed to function successfully in modern society. Social structure theory -­‐ the root cause of crime can be traced directly to the socioeconomic disadvantages that have become embedded in American society. Social disorganization theory -­‐ Branch of social structure theory that focuses on the breakdown in inner-­‐city neighborhoods of institutions such as the family, school, and employment. Strain theory -­‐ Branch of social structure theory that sees crime as a function of the conflict between people’s goals and the means available to obtain them. Cultural deviance theory -­‐ Branch of social structure theory that sees strain and social disorganization together resulting in a unique lower-­‐class culture that conflicts with conventional social norms. Subculture -­‐ A set of values, beliefs, and traditions unique to a particular social class or group within a larger society. Cultural transmission -­‐ Process whereby values, beliefs, and traditions are handed down from one generation to the next. Transitional neighborhood -­‐ suffered high rates of population turnover and were incapable of inducing residents to remain and defend the neighborhoods against criminal groups. Concentration effect -­‐ As working-­‐ and middle-­‐class families flee inner-­‐city poverty-­‐ridden areas, the most disadvantaged population is consolidated in urban ghettos. Collective efficacy -­‐ Social control exerted by cohesive communities and based on mutual trust, including intervention in the supervision of children and maintenance of public order. Theory of Anomie -­‐ The view that anomie results when socially defined goals (such as wealth and power) are universally mandated but access to legitimate means (such as education and job opportunities) is stratified by class and status. Conformity -­‐ When individuals embrace conventional social goals and also have the means to attain them, they can choose to conform. They remain law-­‐abiding. Innovation -­‐ When individuals accept the goals of society but are unable or unwill-­‐ ng to attain them through legitimate means, the resulting conflict forces them

to adopt innovative solutions to their dilemma: They steal, sell drugs, or extort money. Of the five adaptations, innovation is most closely associated with criminal behavior.

Ritualism -­‐ Ritualists gain pleasure from practicing traditional ceremonies, regard-­‐less of whether they have a real purpose or goal. The strict customs in religious orders, feudal societies, clubs, and college fraternities encourage and appeal to ritualists. Retreatism -­‐ Retreatists reject both the goals and the means of society. They attempt to escape their lack of success by withdrawing, either mentally or physically, through taking drugs or becoming drifters. Institutional Anomie Theory -­‐ The view that anomie pervades U.S. culture because the drive for material wealth dominates and undermines social and community values. Relative deprivation -­‐ Envy, mistrust, and aggression resulting from perceptions of economic and social inequality. Theory of differential opportunity -­‐ The view that lower-­‐class youths, whose legitimate opportunities are limited, join gangs and pursue criminal careers as alternative means to achieve universal success goals. Chapter 7 Social learning theory -­‐ Social learning theorists believe that crime is a product of learning the norms, values, and behaviors associated with criminal activity. Social learning can involve the actual techniques of crime (how to hot-­‐wire a car or roll a joint), as well as the psychological aspect Differential association theory -­‐ The view that people commit crime when their social learning leads them to perceive more definitions favoring crime than favoring conventional behavior. Culture conflict -­‐ Result of exposure to opposing norms, attitudes, and definitions of right and wrong, moral and immoral. Neutralization theory -­‐ The view that law violators learn to neutralize conventional values and attitudes, enabling them to drift back and forth between criminal and conventional behavior. Hirschi’s social control theory -­‐ Hirschi links the onset of criminality to weakening of the ties that bind people to society. He assumes that all individuals are potential law violators, but most are kept under control because they fear that illegal behavior will damage their relationships with friends, family, neighbors, teachers, and employers. Without these social bonds, or ties, a person is free to commit criminal acts. Primary and secondary deviance – criminal acts, criminal careers Differential enforcement – people treated differently when in trouble

Chapter 9

Life course theories -­‐ Theories reflecting the view that criminality is a dynamic process, influenced by many characteristics, traits, and experiences, and that behavior hanges accordingly, for better or worse, over the life course. Problem behavior syndrome -­‐ A cluster of antisocial behaviors that may include family dysfunction, substance abuse, smoking, precocious sexuality and early pregnancy, educational underachievement, suicide attempts, sensation seeking, and unemployment, as well as crime. Pathways to crime Authority conflict pathway -­‐ Path to a criminal career that begins with early stubborn behavior and defiance of parents. Covert pathway -­‐ begins with minor, underhanded behavior (lying, shoplift-­‐ing) that leads to property damage (setting nuisance fires, damaging property). Overt pathway -­‐ escalates to aggressive acts, beginning with aggression (an-­‐noying others, bullying), leading to physical (and gang) fighting and then to vio-­‐lence (attacking someone, forced theft). Adolescent limiteds -­‐ One who follows the most common criminal trajectory, in which antisocial behavior peaks in adolescence and then diminishes. Life course persisters -­‐ One of the small group of offenders whose criminal careers continue well into adulthood. Late bloomers -­‐ These persisters actu-­‐ally stay out of trouble in adolescence until late in their teenage years and then be-­‐come violent chronic persisters. Social capital -­‐ Positive, life-­‐sustaining relations with individuals and institutions. Trajectories, transitions, turning points -­‐ turning pointsAccording to Laub and Sampson, the life events that alter the development of a criminal career. Age-­‐graded theory -­‐ discrete factors influence people at different stages of their development, so the propensity to commit crimes is neither stable nor unyielding. The likelihood of committing crime is linked to the accumulation (or absence) of social capital, social control, and human decision making. General theory of crime -­‐ In their important work A General Theory of Crime, Michael Gottfredson and Travis Hirschi link the propensity to commit crime to two latent traits: an i mpulsive personality and a lack of self-­‐control.7 0 Gottfredson and Hirschi’s

developmental theory, which

modifies social control theory

by integrating concepts from

biosocial, psychological, routine

activities, and rational choice

theories.