Sociology notes
Sociological Theory of Functionalism
Durkheim
Sociology is a study of social facts (money, law or language) which are objective, external and constraining. Society cannot be reduced to the motives of individuals.
Social facts explain how an action can be shaped by patterns of integration and regulation. Focused on how society hangs together through a collective conscience.
Parson
Society is a functional unit e.g. acts as a biological organism (regulates inter-related parts that fit together). For the social system to function and survive it must fulfil specific needs- functional pre-requisites. E.g. personality system- connected to the social system through the social role.
Social roles are learned expectations of how to behave in a given situation and over time these roles become institutionalised in the social system, passed on through socialisation (internalising norms) and social control (conform= rewards, deviate= punished). Collective conscience= social order. Social order is only possible if they agree on a value consensus (acts as a glue to hold society together). He links the social structure to social action and suggests that people can choose their own course of action. Pattern variables- represent range of dilemmas people encounter in social action (differences may occur according to the type of society e.g. traditional vs modern).
Differences between the norms of traditional + modern societies
Traditional societies (pattern variable A)
Modern societies (pattern variable B)
Ascription – status is based on fixed characteristics such as gender
Achievment – status is based on performance such as effort in education
Diffuseness – Relationships are broad with a range of purposes
Specificy – Relationships are narrow and limited to specific purposes
Particularism – Norms emphasise treating different people differently
Universalism – Norms emphasise everyone being treated the same
Affectivity – Immediate gratification of desires
Affective neutrality – Deferred gratification
Collective Orientation- Putting the groups intrests first
Self orientation – individualism , pursuing ones own self – interests
GAIL Model Systems needs:
Goal attainment - goals are set and resources are allocated to achieve them; political sub-system e.g. parliament Adaptation - meet material needs; economic sub-system
Integration - different parts of society must be integrated to pursue shared goals; sub-system of religion, education and medi Latency - maintain society overtime; kinship sub-system via pattern maintenance- socialises individuals to perform roles that society requires, tension management- place release stress after work
GA= instrumental problems- setting and achieving social goals for survival of basic needs
IL= expressive problems- maintaining efficient cooperation and social stability to manage conflicts and tensions between individuals.
Social change
Structural differentiation- change of societies as simple structures evolve into highly complex structures.
- E.g. in traditional society the kinship system performs many functions-political leadership (G), production and consumption (A), performs religious functions (I) and socialises members (L). Moving equilibrium- change in one part causes a knock-on effect to other parts.
Merton:
Reveals hidden connections between social phenomena= Hopi Indians performed a rain dance at times of drought-> manifest function (intended) but is unlikely to achieve intended goal.
Yet the ritual may have a latent function (unintended) e.g. producing sense of solidarity
Evaluation:
Choice through pattern variables but expected social roles determine how we should act.
Giddens- deterministic as it explains how society reproduces itself through socialisation into roles but fails to explain how individuals produce roles and sees people passively acquire roles and behave in line with cultural expectations- ignores we may creatively bend roles.
Parson’s work doesn’t offer empirical research to his classification system at the expense of unpacking the subtle detail of everyday social interaction.
Merton-Parsons assumes everything in society is functionally indispensable in its existing form; untested assumption and Merton points out functional alternatives, also complex societies have many parts which are distantly related (functional autonomy). Also assumes everything in society performs positive functions yet some may be function for some but dysfunctional for others e.g. conflicts of interests for some groups.
External critiques of functionalism:
Logical: Unscientific as they see deviance as dysfunctional and functional
Conflict Perspectives: Inability to explain conflict and change. Marxists- society is based on exploitation and divided into classes with conflicting interests and unequal power, stability is the result of ideologies produced by the dominant class. Functionalism in a conservative ideology by legitimating the status quo.
Action Perspectives: Wrong: over socialised and deterministic- individuals have no free will or choice (puppets whose strings are pulled by the social system). Also reifies society- treats it as a distinct thing over and above individuals with its own needs.
Postmodernists: Assumes society is stable and orderly; doesn’t account for diversity and instability in this postmodern society. Functionalism is a meta-narrative that attempts to create a model of workings of society as a whole.
Sociological Theory of Marxism
Historical Materialism:
Forces of production meet our material needs (food, shelter, clothing etc). Before these forces were unaided human labour but now people develop tools, machines etc to assist in production.
To meet these needs humans cooperate with one another and enter social relations of productions (ways of organising production). Division of labour occurs between the owners of means of production and a class of labourers. Marx refers to the forces and production together as the mode of production. E.g. the mode of production creates an economic base of society which shapes other features e.g. law, education, the state etc.
Class society and exploitation Before there were no classes, no exploitation or private ownership; primitive communism. But as the forces of production grow, class society occurs.
One class owns the means of production which enables them to exploit the labour for their own benefit.
They also control the society’s surplus product- difference between what the labourers produce and what is needed to keep them working. 3 successive class societies: - Ancient society- based on exploitation of slaves legally tied to their owners - Feudal society- based on the exploitation of serfs legally tied to the land - Capitalist society- based on the exploitation of free wage labourers.
Capitalism:
Proletariat: free/separated from the means of production as they don’t own it but sell their labour power to bourgeoisie in return of wages to survive; isn’t equal exchange (proletariat don’t receive any value of the goods just cost of subsistence).
Surplus value- profits that capitalist makes by selling the products which the proletariat make. Competition it drives small independent producers till the majority are proletarianised. Competition= capitalists pay lowest wages possible= immiseration. Capitalism expands the forces of production in its pursuit of profit. Ownership and deskilling of the proletariat produce class polarisation; society divides into two.
Alienation:
Labourers separated from/have no control over the forces of production. The division of labour; worker is reduced to an unskilled labourer mindlessly repeating a meaningless task.
The state, revolution and communism
State exists to protect the interests of owners who control WC; they become the ruling class. They use it as a weapon to protect property, suppress opposition and prevent revolution. Marx- ultimate victory= proletarian revolution and establishment of communist society on a world scale. Revolution expected to occur in advanced capitalist societies.
Criticisms: Simplistic, one-dimensional view of inequality Weber- status and power can also be sources of inequality
Feminists- gender inequality.
Class polarisation hasn’t occurred- middle class has grown and WC has shrunk.
Economic determinism: fails to recognise we have free will and create social change through conscious actions.
Revolution hasn’t occurred in the most advanced capitalist countries (Western Europe).
Two Marxisms:
Explains why capitalism has persisted and how it might be overthrown-
Humanistic/Critical Marxism
Scientific/Structuralist Marxism
Example- Gramsci
Example- Althusser
Focuses on alienation and subjective experiences of the world
Focuses on laws of capitalist developing working with iron necessity towards inevitable results
Marxism is a political critique (alienating and inhuman= overthrow it)
Marxism is a science, it discovers the laws that govern the workings of capitalism
Voluntarism- have free will, active agents of our own history and have conscious ideas
Determinism- structural factors determine the course of history, we are passive puppets/victims of ideology
Socialism will occur when people become conscious of the need to overthrow capitalism and encourages political action
Socialism will occur when the contradictions of capitalism shows the system’s inevitable collapse and discourages political action
Gramsci Proletariat must develop counter-hegemony to win the leadership of society. Ruling class maintains its dominance over society - Coercion - uses army, police, prisons etc of the capitalist state to force other classes to accept its rule - Consent - it uses ideas and values to persuade the subordinate classes that its rule is legitimate
If society accepts ruling-class hegemony there won’t be a revolution, but ruling class is a minority - need a ‘power bloc’- making alliances with other groups; make compromises via interests of their allies The proletariat have dual consciousness - ideas are influenced by bourgeois ideology and material conditions- can see through dominant ideology Ruling-class hegemony may be undermined, especially at times of economic crisis. Only lead to revolution if the proletariat construct a counter-hegemonic bloc- offer moral and ideological leadership.
If they produce their own ‘organic intellectuals’ (workers organised into a revolutionary political party) which formulate an alternative way to how society should be run
Evaluation
Over-emphases the role of ideas and under-emphases the role of state coercion and economic factors.
Stresses the role of ideas and consciousness as the basis of resisting domination and changing society. E.g. Willis- WC lads he studied were ‘partially penetrating’ bourgeois ideology- saw through schools ideology (meritocracy is a myth).
Althusser:
Capitalist society has 3 levels: - Economic level - compromising activities that involve producing something to satisfy a need - Political level - compromising all forms of organisation - Ideological level - ways that people see themselves and their world In this model the political and ideological levels have relative autonomy/partial independence from the economic level. The political and ideological levels affect what happens to the economy - two-way causality Also the state performs political and ideological functions that ensure the reproduction of capitalism- repressive state apparatus - army, police etc force WC to comply with the will of the bourgeoisie Ideological state apparatus - media, education system etc manipulate the WC into accepting capitalism as legitimate Humanists believe people use their creativity/free will to change society e.g. revolution will come as a result of the WC developing class consciousness. Althusser- we are not free agents; our belief possesses free will/choice that is a false consciousness produced by ISA.
Socialism will occur over the crisis of capitalism (over-determination) - contradictions of the 3 structures that occur= collapse of the system as a whole.
Evaluation
Gouldner- this ‘scientific’ approach discourages political activism as it stresses the role of structural factors that individuals can do little to affect.
Thompson- ignores active struggles of the WC to change society- elitism (belief that Communist Party knows what is best for workers and should blindly follow their lead). Structuralist Marxism has influences postmodernism- reject scientific knowledge can be used to improve society.
Sociological Theory of Feminism
Liberal/Reformist feminists:
Generate equality between men and women, ending discrimination by transformations of attitudes and laws: Equal Pay Act (1971), Sex Discrimination Act (1975).
Also cultural changes- traditional prejudices and stereotypes about gender differences are a barrier to equality. E.g. beliefs that women are less rational exclude them from decision making and confinement to childrearing and housework. Oakley- sex= biological differences (fixed), gender= culturally constructed differences (vary between cultures/overtime). See sexist attitudes and stereotypes about gender is culturally constructed and transmitted by socialisation. Seek gradual change within society at the expense of fully overcoming patriarchy. Promote appropriate role models and political action is steadily bringing about progress to a fairer society.
Disagree with the functionalists- instrumental and expressive roles- women are equally capable of performing both.
Evaluation
Over-optimism- see obstacles to liberation are prejudices of individuals or irrational laws.
Ignore the possibility that there are deep-seated structures causing women’s oppression. Walby- no explanation for the overall structure of gender inequality.
Radical feminists See patriarchy as universal- Firestone- origins of patriarchy lie in women’s biological capacity to bear and care for infants= dependent on men. Patriarchy is the primary and fundamental form of social inequality. Patriarchal oppression occurs in public sphere of work, politics and private sphere of family/domestic labour/sexual relationships. Malestream sociology: sexuality as a natural biological urge, patriarchy constructs sexuality to satisfy men’s desires. Gender inequality can only be overcome through radical transformation of society- via: separatism- living apart from men and creating female independence.
Greer- ‘matrilocal’ households is the alternative to heterosexual families.
Consciousness-raising- sharing experiences with other women= collective action.
Political lesbianism- heterosexual relationships= inevitably oppressive as it involves ‘sleeping with the enemy’ and lesbianism is the only non-oppressive form of sexuality.
Evaluation
Offers no explanation of why female subordination takes different forms in different societies and assumes all women are in the same position - ignores class/ethnic differences Pollert- concept of patriarchy is of little value in explaining women’s position; involves a circular argument- male violence=patriarchy, patriarchy= male violence= patriarchy is maintaining itself?
Somerville- heterosexual attraction makes it unlikely that the nuclear family will be replaced
Marxist feminists
Women are subordinate in capitalist society as their primary role is an unpaid homemaker; dependent on men for money. Women are a source of cheap, exploitable labour for employers (paid less), reserve army of labour, marginal workers, reproduce the labour force by their unpaid domestic labour- nurturing and socialising children=next generation of workers, absorb anger that is directed at capitalism.
Ansley- wives are ‘takers of shit’ who soak up the frustration their husbands feel due to alienation and exploitation they suffer from at work. Barrett- should be more emphasis to women’s consciousness and role of ideology in maintaining their oppression. He sees women continue to be in this situation due to the ideology of ‘familism’- presents nuclear family and sexual division of labour as natural and normal
Evaluation:
Ignores women’s subordination in non-capitalist societies, but they are only seeking to explain the position of women in contemporary capitalist society. Hartmann- ‘sex blind’; unpaid domestic labour may be beneficial to capitalism but doesn’t explain why women perform it.
Dual system feminism Combine Marxist and radical ideas (economic system-capitalism; sex/gender system-patriarchy).
Hartmann- capitalism and patriarchy are intertwined systems= ‘patriarchal capitalism’. Domestic work limits women’s availability for paid work- but the lack of work opportunities drives women into marriage and economic dependence on a man- reinforces each other.
Walby- exploitation of female labour- capitalism demands cheap labour and patriarchy resists this (keeps them subordinate to men). But capitalism is powerful so patriarchy adopts a strategy of segregation (women are allowed into paid work but on low status jobs).
Criticism:
Pollert- patriarchy is not a system like capitalism
Poststructuralist feminists: Concerned with discourses (ways of seeing/thinking/speaking about something) and power/knowledge. There is no fixed essence of what it is to be women as our identities are constituted via discourses. Butler- enables feminists to analyse different discourses to reveal how they subordinate women. Each discourse provides its own distinct form of resistance and struggle with its own aims and demands.
Evaluation:
Walby- there are important similarities among women- face low pay, domestic violence etc. Celebrating difference may have the effect of dividing women into an infinite number of sub-groups=weakening feminism.
Segal- abandons any notion of real, objective social structures. Oppression isn’t just the result of discourses it’s about real inequality. Feminists should focus on the struggle of wealth and income.
Black feminists Earlier versions of feminism generalised patriarchy from white middle-class women to all women. They ignore patriarchy for particular ethnic groups.
This approach uses histories of particular groups to understand the position of women in contemporary society. It also integrated racism and class into an explanation of black women’s place in society.
Difference feminists:
Don’t see women as a single homogeneous group. Argue the feminist theory claims a ‘false universality’- it’s about the experiences of white, western, heterosexual, middle-class women.
This presents a problem about essentialism (idea that women share the same experiences of oppression). They argue liberal, Marxist and radical feminists are essentialists as they see women as the same.
Action Theories
Reject assumptions from functionalists and Marxists (see behaviour constrained/predictable), instead see people having a proactive role in shaping human life. Looks at how society affects the individual. Brown- people engage in voluntary behaviour- not puppets of society. Attitudes and actions of others influence the way people think and behave and society is the product of interacting in social groups and trying to make sense of their own and each others behaviour.
Weber’s Social Action Theory:
Structural factors can shape our behaviour, but individuals do attach meaning to their actions. Four types of actions: - Rational (instrumental): actor calculates efficient means of achieving a given goal. This goal isn’t about if the goal itself is desirable but the most efficient way of reaching a goal - Value-rational: action towards a goal that the actor regards as desirable for its own sake. There is no way of calculating if the means of achieving the goal is efficient - Traditional: involves customary, routine or habitual actions; isn’t rational as nothought or choice has gone through it. The actor does it because they always have. - Affectual: action that expresses emotion. E.g. crying/laughing in response to events
Weber sees we should observe individuals/small groups using the concept of verstehen – (seeing things through the eyes of the person under study- empathetic understanding).
Criticisms
Verstehen can’t be truly achieved as we can’t see things ‘through their eyes’. Also Weber’s typology is confusing as some aspects overlap. E.g. among the Trobriand Islanders, individual exchanged gifts with neighbouring islands- could be seen as tradition action (practised for generations) or instrumentally rational action (good way to trade links). Schutz- criticise his emphasis on the individual at the expense of shared meaning.
Symbolic Interactionism:
Interaction via the use of symbols. Looks at the meanings we attach to symbols.
Mead: Humans interact through the use of visual signs (red traffic light- stop), visual gestures (waving-hello), expressions (frowning-upset), verbal (screaming-fear), sounds (siren-emergency).
Shared understanding of symbols/how we respond forms the basis of communication. We are conscious individuals but how we choose to behave is influenced by social contexts.
Blumer: our actions are based on the meanings we give to situations. The meanings we give to situations are the result of the interpretive procedures we use.
Although our actions are partly predictable as we internalise the expectations of others, it isn’t completely fixed. There’s negotiation and choice in how we perform our roles
Labelling Theory Those with the power to label someone and make others accept it leads to the self-fulfilling prophecy. If label is damaging it can become a master status - core social identity- shapes behaviour and influences roles e.g. job
Goffman’s Dramaturgical Model Life is like a play- we take on a character for ourselves in each social situation. Roles are to carry out a convincing performance on stage that is our life. Two dramaturgical concepts: - Presentation of the self- we control how we put ourselves across. - Impression management- we see how the audience is responding and adjust our behaviour accordingly.
This analogy describes the different setting of interactions- stage: act out roles, backstage: act as ourselves (role distance-gap between our self and our roles).
Role distance suggests we don’t always believe in the roles we play and that our role may be cynical; actor may resemble confidence and trick their audience but conceal their true self and real motives.
Criticisms
Over emphasises the significance of the individual- little conception of social structures.
Focuses of face-to-face interactions and cannot explain power relationships.
Believes everything is socially constructed, useless?
Fails to explain social order/social change. Goffman’s analogy is weak as we can be actors and audience members at the same time and fails to explain how actors create meanings. But avoids determination- recognises people create society through their choices.
Phenomenology:
Describes things as they appear to our senses.
Husserl- the world only makes sense as we impose meaning on it. The world and the things in it are products of our mind.
Shultz: Make sense of the world by shared typifications. These prevent confusion as the meanings given to acts can vary from situation to situation; allows us to achieve goals and communicate- without it social order would be impossible.
They are learnt and passed on via language= common sense. Recipe knowledge- build up of shared typifications.
Criticisms
Shultz based his ideas on speculation- didn’t do research. Structuralists argue social facts do exist- external to individuals and act on them. Sharing typifications suggests there is a social reality with social order.
Berger and Luckmann- reject Schutz view that society is an inter-subjective reality. Although reality is socially constructed, it takes on a life of its own and becomes an external reality that reacts back on us.
Ethnomethodology
Garfinkel- we construct order from common sense knowledge. As SI is interested in the effects of attaching meanings to things, EM is interested in how we produce meanings.
Indexicality- meanings are not always clear e.g. social order is a myth; we pretend there is order and meaning to life because we can’t cope with uncertainty. Documentary method is used to convince us it exists; finding a pattern in a situation and using it to help in future situations. He used students to be strangers in their home, caused bewilderment and anxiety to parents- pattern was disrupted.
Method is used by coroners to aid suicide verdicts.
Criticisms:
Craib- EM is trivial; states the obvious. Social class, age, ethnicity and gender can have real affects of people- naïve to assume these things are meaningless. Marxists see common sense knowledge is ruling-class ideology- serves to maintain capitalism.
EM says we create order by identifying patters and some are fictions. Structuralists argue norms, values etc are social facts not fictions and exert influences on us.
Gidden’s Structuration: He combines structural (deterministic, objective, external) and action (voluntarisitc, internal, subjective) theories together. Social structures can influence our actions, our actions can influence social structures. E.g. language- structure made of rules that can be used to express meanings; exists independently and constrains behaviour. But structure depends on action- language wouldn’t exist if no one used it. It is produced and reproduced overtime through its actions of individuals speaking and writing.
Structure has two elements
Rules (laws and guidelines) and resources (allocative- goods, technology, land; authoritative- power over others). They can be reproduced or changed through human action. Actions generally reproduce them- rules contain knowledge about how to live our lives. We reproduce existing structures through actions as we have a need for ontological security (need to feel the world how it appears to be). Individuals have the power to change and affect these structures. But often we reproduce them via socialisation and routine (become traditional). We can make changes as we ‘reflexively monitor’ our own actions e.g. in late modernity we become more reflexive as tradition no longer dictates action- increasing change. Actions may have unintended consequences e.g. Calvinists and the protestant work ethic caused capitalism (Weber) but their intention was to glorify God.
Criticisms
Archer- he has underestimated the power of structures to resist change e.g. slaves want to abolish slavery but don’t have the power to.
Craib- doesn’t explain what happens in society to large scale structures like the state/economy. It’s a thoroughgoing action theory- reduces the idea of structure to the rules governing routine everyday actions.
Sociological Theory of Modernity and Globalisation
Features of modernity
Industrialisation (18th century) and the manufacture of standardised goods for a mass market. Work and social class= division and social identity. Independent nation states/national economies.
One-way mass media reflecting social reality. Belief in rational thought and science as a means of improving the world.
A view that sociological theory and research can provide an insight into explanations of the world and could be used to prove it.
Individualism- tradition/religion less influential; freedom to define our own identity.
Globalisation
Increasing interconnectedness of people across national boundaries- live in one interdependent global village where our lives are shaped by a global framework. –
Technological changes: satellite communications, internet, global television etc have helped create time-space compression, closing distances between people. Technology brings risks on a global scale- greenhouse gases= climate change= sea level rising= flooding. Beck- now live in a ‘risk society’ where threats come from human-made technology than natural disasters
Economic changes: Electronic economy- music, tv shows, data processing (used to by physical goods). Global 24-hour financial transactions permit transfer of funds around the world in pursuit of profit. Risk society= world financial crisis 2008 brought the economy of Iceland what was dependent on banking
Political changes: Ohmae- now live in a ‘borderless world’ in which transnational companies and consumers have more economic power than national governments. Lash and Urry- disorganised capitalism
Changes in culture and identity: live in a global culture- western-owned media companies spread western culture to the rest of the world. E.g. Nike sells goods in many countries= deliver similar tastes. Increased amount of tourists, migrants, refugees, asylum seekers help create a globalised culture.
Postmodernism:
unstable, fragmented (breakdown of norms and values), media-saturated global village where social structures (nation-state, family, social class) are breaking down.
Knowledge: Anti-foundationalism (no objective criteria to falsify theories)= Enlightenment project (society can progress with human reason)cannot be used to improve society. Lyotard- postmodernism reject meta-narratives. Society is changing constantly and rapidly meta-narratives can’t be understood. Marxism/functionalism that seek to explain society as a whole no longer apply; society has become fragmented into so many groups, interests and lifestyles
Simulacra: Baudrillard- life in postmodern era is dominated by media imagery that has become media saturated. He suggests the media present simulacra images that appear to reflect events in the real word, but have no basis in reality= hyperreality (distorted view of the world)
Identities: instead of fixed identity ascribed by our class, we can construct our own from images and lifestyles presented by the media. By changing our consumption patterns (pick and mix cultural goods/media produced images) define ourselves
Evaluation Philo and Miller- ignores power and inequality, overlooks poverty when ‘freely constructing our identities’, wrong to claim people cannot distinguish between reality and media.
Best and Kellner- weak theory as fails to explain features.
Late modernity Key features of modernity were present but now have intensified e.g. social change was always present but now has gone into overdrive.
Giddens- features of modernity: disembedding - don’t need face-to-face contact for interaction; breaks down geographical barriers so interaction is impersonal-drives globalisation
Reflexivity – tradition no longer tells us how to act; reflect and modify our actions (continually re-evaluating ideas/theories- nothing is fixed). In late modernity we face high risk consequences- major threats to human society that are manufactured e.g. nuclear war, global warming, increased surveillance. Beck: risk society faces dangers of inability to control nature (drought, famine, disease) and dangers of manufactured risks (pollution).
Risk consciousness- aware of perceived risks and seek to avoid them. Beck believes in the Enlightenment project as were able to evaluate risks rationally and take political action e.g. environmentalism to challenge industrial development.
Evaluation
Rustin- capitalism is a source of risk not technology.
Hirst- rejects Beck’s view that movements like environmentalism will bring change; too fragmented.
Marxists theories of postmodernity Postmodernity is a product of the recent stage of capitalism.
Harvey- capitalism is a dynamic system of developing new technologies and organising production to make profits. Postmodernity arose from the capitalist crisis in 1970.
Flexible accumulation- new way of achieving profitability. Involves the use of ICT, finance sector, job insecurity and workers to be flexible to fit employer’s needs.
Permits production of standardised products for niche markets to switch producing one product to another (promoting cultural diversity and constant shifts of fashion). Flexible accumulation is created by changes in consumption (leisure, culture and identities and commodities).
Jameson- postmodernity= developed capitalism as commodities are all aspects of life. Political changes: weakened the WC and socialist movements; oppositional movements have emerged. This could produce a rainbow alliance to bring about change.
Sociological Theory of Objectivity and Values
Positivists Believe sociology should only study observable phenomena, measuring the relationship between social facts and variables. Sociological inquiry should be no different from natural scientific inquiry.
Quantitative research methods can be used to obtain objective data about society. The validity and reliability of this can be checked and the research can be scrutinised by others. Sociology= value-free as facts can be separated from values.
Comte and Durkheim: Positivists saw scientific sociology would reveal a correct society by discovering the truth about how society works and uncovering laws that govern its functioning.
Marx
Sociology reveals the truth of the development of a class-based society. Argues scientific approach would show us how to reach communism; science helps deliver the good society.
Weber:
Sees an essential role for values in sociological research, divided into four stages of the research process:
Value as a guide to research- due to ‘meaningless infinity’ of facts (impossible to study all) researcher needs to select facts to study based on their own values (value relevance)- values are essential in enabling us to select which aspects of reality to study and developing concepts to understand these aspects. E.g. feminists value gender equality= study women’s oppression and develop concept of patriarchy to study it.
Data collection and hypothesis testing- must be objective and unbiased when collecting facts (keeping values and prejudices out) e.g. not asking leading questions so the research finds answers they want to hear. Once facts are gathered we can use them to test a hypothesis (must stand on whether it fits observed facts).
Values in the interpretation of data- facts need to be set in a theoretical framework so we can understand their significance and draw conclusions from it. Framework is influenced by our values- need to be explicit so others can see if unconscious bias is present when interpreting data. Values and the sociologist as a citizen- sociologist should take moral and political responsibility of their work may raise instead of hiding behind ‘objectivity’ and ‘value freedom’.
Value freedom and commitment Our values are irrelevant to research- science is concerned with facts- sociologists job is to find truth about people’s behaviour= desire to make sociology respectable. Science has high prestige so mimicking its ways would praise it’s status and earn respectability.
Gouldner- sociologists used to be a critical discipline challenging accepted authority; ‘problem makers’ but now are ‘problem takers’ hired by organisations to solve their problems for them. Leaving their own values behind they make a ‘gentleman’s promise’ that they wont question their paymasters; their values are irrelevant. Myrdal- sociologists should take sides by promoting values and interests of particular individuals or groups.
Committed sociologists- not possible or desirable to keep values out of research Gouldner- impossible as sociologists or paymasters values are bound to reflect in their work, undesirable as without values to guide research sociologists would put their services at the disposal of the highest bidder.
Taking sides As sociology is influenced by values- sociologist must inevitably take sides (usually powerful against less powerful). Becker- traditionally sociologists favoured viewpoint of powerful like police, psychiatrists etc. Sociologists should adopt a compassionate stance; examine perspectives of the underdog allowing new questions and answers to emerge e.g. Goffman’s study of Asylums.
Gouldner- Becker takes a romantic approach to disadvantaged groups. Only concerned with those ‘on their backs’- negatively labelled, exotic specimens of deviant behaviour. Sociologist should take the side of those who are ‘fighting back’- political radicals struggling to change society.
Funding and careers Sources of funding- governments, businesses, organisations that pay for the research thus controlling direction. They should consider sociologist’s personal values.
Also may want to further their career influencing choice of topic, research questions and how their interpret data. Some may censor themselves from fear of being outspoken harming their career prospects.
Relativism:
Argues different groups, cultures and individuals have different views to what is true- they have their own perspectives, concepts, values and interests and no there is no independent way to judge if their view is truer than any other. There is no objective truth- just truth plurals. Postmodernists take a relativist view- reject anyone accounts for social world is superior and perspectives are meta-narratives. –
However, relativism is self-defeating as it states we shouldn’t believe postmodernism either.
Sociological Theory of Science
Positivism
Philosophy of science/theory of methodology stating human behaviour should be researched through principles of natural science. Objective facts and theories are produced on the basis of empirical research. Discovering laws that determine how society works (inductive reasoning).
Verificationism- inductive reasoning claims to verify a theory. Emphasis on research methods produced quantitative data (believe in empiricism- testing of statements).
Theories and laws are tested through replication become accepted as scientific knowledge.
Objectivity- free from prejudice and bias. Durkheim- adopted positivist methodology in his study of ‘Le Suicide’-sociology can be as objective as natural sciences if we study social facts as things.
Criticisms
Reductionist and deterministic with simplistic conclusions e.g. poverty causes crime.
Critical theory: emphasis on facts fails to explain why correlations exist between variables (poverty may correlate with crime but why?). Feminism- uses universal research methods without tailoring the method to understand unique experiences of women.
Interpretivism
Argue society cannot be studied like objects; people reflect and engage in meaningful interaction- concept of verstehen to understand social behaviour.
This approach generates rich and insightful data that reveals the experiences and motives of people.
Grounded theory- rather than entering research with a fixed hypothesis; ideas emerge from observations we make which can then be used to stage hypotheses. Phenomenologist/EM- anti-structuralist view- social reality is a shared meaning of its members and people’s actions are not governed by external causes this no cause-and-effect relationships can be found.
Douglas- individuals have free will and choice when committing suicide.
Criticisms
Verstehen explanations are subjective and lack reliability. Different researchers may interpret same events in different ways
Popper
Rejects positivist view of inductive reasoning and verificationism due to the fallacy of induction. He observed swans that were white-making the generalisation ‘all swans are white’- easy to make further observations to verify this doesn’t prove; seeing black swan would destroy the theory. He sees scientific statements are capable of being falsified by evidence. This is what enables scientific understanding of the world grow as it is cumulative- builds on the achievements of previous scientists to develop a greater understanding. For a theory to be falsifiable it must be open to criticism from other scientists. Science is an ‘open’ belief system as scientists theories can be criticised and tested by others.
Sociology is unscientific as theories cannot be put to test e.g. Marxism predicts there will be a revolution but nothing has happened yet- prediction cant be falsified.
Sociology can be scientific as it’s capable of producing hypotheses that can be falsified.
Kuhn
Science is based on a set of shared assumptions- paradigms. A paradigm tells a scientist what problems to study, what methods/equipment to use etc.
A scientist who challenges the fundamental assumptions of the paradigm could be ridiculed out of a job (Velikovsky). Science cannot exist without a shared paradigm as there would only be rival schools of thought not a science. Paradigm defines questions and answers so the scientists are left to fill in the detail of the nearest solution (puzzle work). Not all puzzle solving is successful- scientists obtain findings contrary to those the paradigm led them to expect; anomalies mount up and confidence in the paradigm decreased. Science has entered a new period of crisis- scientists become demoralised and begin to lose their sense of purpose.
Scientists formulate rival paradigms= scientific revolution. The two competing paradigms cannot be judged by the same standards to decide which is best. Eventually one paradigm wins and becomes accepted in the scientific community.Kuhn sees in scientific community progress only occurs by challenging accepted idea.
Interpretivist sociologists - scientific knowledge is socially constructed; rather being objective it is created by social groups using the resources available to them. So what scientists believe to be true is a product of shared theories/paradigms that tell them what they expect to occur. Postmodernists- paradigm is a meta-narrative dominant view of what reality it like.
Realism
Keat and Urry- closed systems- researcher can control and measure relevant variables making precise predictions. Open systems- researcher cannot control and measure all relevant variables so cannot make precise predictions Realists- sociology study open systems where the processes are too complex to make exact predictions e.g. cannot predict crime rate precisely as there are too many variables involved that cannot be controlled, measured or identified. Reject positivist view science is concerned with observable phenomena e.g. Keat and Urry- science often assumes existence of unobservable structures (physicists cannot study the black hole). Interpretivists are wrong to assume sociology cannot be scientific. Underlying structures causing events are unobservable but we can work out they exist by observing their effects e.g. cannot directly see social class but see its effects of life chances. See Marxism scientific as underlying structures (capitalism) produces effects (poverty). Also interpreting behaviour in terms of actors’ internal meanings even though they are not observable.
Sociological Theory of Social Policy
Social policies governs many areas of social life like education and health as they address social problems (social behaviour that causes public friction/private misery and calls for collective action to solve it). Sociological problem- pattern of relationship that calls for explanation.
Role of sociology on policies Giddens- sociology can inform policymakers of cultural differences (seeing society from different perspectives develops informed awareness of sensitivity to life, needs and problems of others), sociological research helps assess results of the policy initiatives (see if polices have worked, achieved that they intended), and sociology generates greater self-understanding (encouraging people to form support groups who face similar problems). –
Economic and Social Research Council funded by Middleton et al did pilot studies to increase participation rates in post-16 education and reduce number of youngers not in education, employment or training. Educational Maintenance Allowances increased participation rates by 6% suggesting paying money to them than parents encouraged higher levels of participation; was set as a national policy in 2004.
Positivism and Functionalism
Sociologist’s role is to provide state with objective/scientific info. Investigating social problems and causes provide them with this info which state bases its policies. They see implementing rational social policies help run society more smoothly and efficiently e.g. educational polices= equal opportunity and social integration. Favour social policies as they tackle one specific issue at a time.
Social democratic
Favour major redistribution of wealth and income from the rich to the poor. Townsend- should be involved in researching social problems and making social policy recommendations to eradicate them. He conducted research on poverty and made recommendations for policies like more on public spending on health, education, welfare.
Marxists reject the idea that policies are not enough to solve the problem. Capitalism is responsible for these inequalities; capitalism needs to be abolished to get rid of the problems.
Postmodernists- impossible to discover objective truth all knowledge produced by research is uncertain so sociological findings cannot provide a satisfactory basis for policy-making.
Marxism
Social polices serve the interests of capitalism not those of society as a whole- provides ideological function -maintains labour force for further exploitation (e.g. NHS serves capitalism by keeping works fit enough to work), means of preventing revolution (when class conflict increases threatening stability of capitalism).
Benefits of social policy are threatened with reversal of capitalism’s tendency to go into periodic crises of profitability leading to cuts in state spending on welfare. Research reveals unpleasant truth about social problems capitalism creates won’t be used to formulate policies to solve the problems. Only solution to social problems is a revolution to overthrow capitalism to create a classless society. Sociologist’s role should be to criticise capitalist social policy not serve capitalist state.
Critics say this view is impractical and unrealistic. Social democrats- reject idea sociological research can bring progressive policies in existing capitalism system e.g. poverty researchers had positive impacts on policy
Feminism
State perpetuates women’s subordination though social policies. E.g. family policies may be based on the assumption that the ‘normal’ family is a convectional nuclear family with a heterosexual married couple and their children; offers benefits for this family but not cohabiting ones.
Policies produce self-fulfilling prophecy- encouraging this time of family making it difficult for people to live in other kinds of family. Liberal feminist research as impacted social policies e.g. learning materials- promoting positive images of females, teacher training- sensitise teachers to the need to avoid gender bias and promote inclusiveness to both sexes.
Radial feminists-establishment for women’s refuges escaping domestic violence. E.g. Women’s Aid Federation supports a national network of 500 services with funding from local and central government. But far-reaching changes are still needed to overcome problems that the state cannot deliver.
New Right
Opposed to using state provision of welfare to deal with social problems. State intervention in areas like family life, income support, education and healthcare robs people of their freedom/responsibility= greater social problems.
Murray- generous welfare benefits and council housing for lone parents weakens family’s self-reliance and encourages growth of a dependency culture. He favours a reduction in state spending on welfare. Role of sociologists is to propose alternative policies to present ones that aim to restore individual’s responsibility for own their families’ welfare. This type of thinking has attracted Conservative Party and New Labour (regard married couple as the best place to bring up children). New Right support a ‘law and order’ policy (research done by Wilson and Kelling’s broken windows= zero tolerance).
Durkheim
Sociology is a study of social facts (money, law or language) which are objective, external and constraining. Society cannot be reduced to the motives of individuals.
Social facts explain how an action can be shaped by patterns of integration and regulation. Focused on how society hangs together through a collective conscience.
Parson
Society is a functional unit e.g. acts as a biological organism (regulates inter-related parts that fit together). For the social system to function and survive it must fulfil specific needs- functional pre-requisites. E.g. personality system- connected to the social system through the social role.
Social roles are learned expectations of how to behave in a given situation and over time these roles become institutionalised in the social system, passed on through socialisation (internalising norms) and social control (conform= rewards, deviate= punished). Collective conscience= social order. Social order is only possible if they agree on a value consensus (acts as a glue to hold society together). He links the social structure to social action and suggests that people can choose their own course of action. Pattern variables- represent range of dilemmas people encounter in social action (differences may occur according to the type of society e.g. traditional vs modern).
Differences between the norms of traditional + modern societies
Traditional societies (pattern variable A)
Modern societies (pattern variable B)
Ascription – status is based on fixed characteristics such as gender
Achievment – status is based on performance such as effort in education
Diffuseness – Relationships are broad with a range of purposes
Specificy – Relationships are narrow and limited to specific purposes
Particularism – Norms emphasise treating different people differently
Universalism – Norms emphasise everyone being treated the same
Affectivity – Immediate gratification of desires
Affective neutrality – Deferred gratification
Collective Orientation- Putting the groups intrests first
Self orientation – individualism , pursuing ones own self – interests
GAIL Model Systems needs:
Goal attainment - goals are set and resources are allocated to achieve them; political sub-system e.g. parliament Adaptation - meet material needs; economic sub-system
Integration - different parts of society must be integrated to pursue shared goals; sub-system of religion, education and medi Latency - maintain society overtime; kinship sub-system via pattern maintenance- socialises individuals to perform roles that society requires, tension management- place release stress after work
GA= instrumental problems- setting and achieving social goals for survival of basic needs
IL= expressive problems- maintaining efficient cooperation and social stability to manage conflicts and tensions between individuals.
Social change
Structural differentiation- change of societies as simple structures evolve into highly complex structures.
- E.g. in traditional society the kinship system performs many functions-political leadership (G), production and consumption (A), performs religious functions (I) and socialises members (L). Moving equilibrium- change in one part causes a knock-on effect to other parts.
Merton:
Reveals hidden connections between social phenomena= Hopi Indians performed a rain dance at times of drought-> manifest function (intended) but is unlikely to achieve intended goal.
Yet the ritual may have a latent function (unintended) e.g. producing sense of solidarity
Evaluation:
Choice through pattern variables but expected social roles determine how we should act.
Giddens- deterministic as it explains how society reproduces itself through socialisation into roles but fails to explain how individuals produce roles and sees people passively acquire roles and behave in line with cultural expectations- ignores we may creatively bend roles.
Parson’s work doesn’t offer empirical research to his classification system at the expense of unpacking the subtle detail of everyday social interaction.
Merton-Parsons assumes everything in society is functionally indispensable in its existing form; untested assumption and Merton points out functional alternatives, also complex societies have many parts which are distantly related (functional autonomy). Also assumes everything in society performs positive functions yet some may be function for some but dysfunctional for others e.g. conflicts of interests for some groups.
External critiques of functionalism:
Logical: Unscientific as they see deviance as dysfunctional and functional
Conflict Perspectives: Inability to explain conflict and change. Marxists- society is based on exploitation and divided into classes with conflicting interests and unequal power, stability is the result of ideologies produced by the dominant class. Functionalism in a conservative ideology by legitimating the status quo.
Action Perspectives: Wrong: over socialised and deterministic- individuals have no free will or choice (puppets whose strings are pulled by the social system). Also reifies society- treats it as a distinct thing over and above individuals with its own needs.
Postmodernists: Assumes society is stable and orderly; doesn’t account for diversity and instability in this postmodern society. Functionalism is a meta-narrative that attempts to create a model of workings of society as a whole.
Sociological Theory of Marxism
Historical Materialism:
Forces of production meet our material needs (food, shelter, clothing etc). Before these forces were unaided human labour but now people develop tools, machines etc to assist in production.
To meet these needs humans cooperate with one another and enter social relations of productions (ways of organising production). Division of labour occurs between the owners of means of production and a class of labourers. Marx refers to the forces and production together as the mode of production. E.g. the mode of production creates an economic base of society which shapes other features e.g. law, education, the state etc.
Class society and exploitation Before there were no classes, no exploitation or private ownership; primitive communism. But as the forces of production grow, class society occurs.
One class owns the means of production which enables them to exploit the labour for their own benefit.
They also control the society’s surplus product- difference between what the labourers produce and what is needed to keep them working. 3 successive class societies: - Ancient society- based on exploitation of slaves legally tied to their owners - Feudal society- based on the exploitation of serfs legally tied to the land - Capitalist society- based on the exploitation of free wage labourers.
Capitalism:
Proletariat: free/separated from the means of production as they don’t own it but sell their labour power to bourgeoisie in return of wages to survive; isn’t equal exchange (proletariat don’t receive any value of the goods just cost of subsistence).
Surplus value- profits that capitalist makes by selling the products which the proletariat make. Competition it drives small independent producers till the majority are proletarianised. Competition= capitalists pay lowest wages possible= immiseration. Capitalism expands the forces of production in its pursuit of profit. Ownership and deskilling of the proletariat produce class polarisation; society divides into two.
Alienation:
Labourers separated from/have no control over the forces of production. The division of labour; worker is reduced to an unskilled labourer mindlessly repeating a meaningless task.
The state, revolution and communism
State exists to protect the interests of owners who control WC; they become the ruling class. They use it as a weapon to protect property, suppress opposition and prevent revolution. Marx- ultimate victory= proletarian revolution and establishment of communist society on a world scale. Revolution expected to occur in advanced capitalist societies.
Criticisms: Simplistic, one-dimensional view of inequality Weber- status and power can also be sources of inequality
Feminists- gender inequality.
Class polarisation hasn’t occurred- middle class has grown and WC has shrunk.
Economic determinism: fails to recognise we have free will and create social change through conscious actions.
Revolution hasn’t occurred in the most advanced capitalist countries (Western Europe).
Two Marxisms:
Explains why capitalism has persisted and how it might be overthrown-
Humanistic/Critical Marxism
Scientific/Structuralist Marxism
Example- Gramsci
Example- Althusser
Focuses on alienation and subjective experiences of the world
Focuses on laws of capitalist developing working with iron necessity towards inevitable results
Marxism is a political critique (alienating and inhuman= overthrow it)
Marxism is a science, it discovers the laws that govern the workings of capitalism
Voluntarism- have free will, active agents of our own history and have conscious ideas
Determinism- structural factors determine the course of history, we are passive puppets/victims of ideology
Socialism will occur when people become conscious of the need to overthrow capitalism and encourages political action
Socialism will occur when the contradictions of capitalism shows the system’s inevitable collapse and discourages political action
Gramsci Proletariat must develop counter-hegemony to win the leadership of society. Ruling class maintains its dominance over society - Coercion - uses army, police, prisons etc of the capitalist state to force other classes to accept its rule - Consent - it uses ideas and values to persuade the subordinate classes that its rule is legitimate
If society accepts ruling-class hegemony there won’t be a revolution, but ruling class is a minority - need a ‘power bloc’- making alliances with other groups; make compromises via interests of their allies The proletariat have dual consciousness - ideas are influenced by bourgeois ideology and material conditions- can see through dominant ideology Ruling-class hegemony may be undermined, especially at times of economic crisis. Only lead to revolution if the proletariat construct a counter-hegemonic bloc- offer moral and ideological leadership.
If they produce their own ‘organic intellectuals’ (workers organised into a revolutionary political party) which formulate an alternative way to how society should be run
Evaluation
Over-emphases the role of ideas and under-emphases the role of state coercion and economic factors.
Stresses the role of ideas and consciousness as the basis of resisting domination and changing society. E.g. Willis- WC lads he studied were ‘partially penetrating’ bourgeois ideology- saw through schools ideology (meritocracy is a myth).
Althusser:
Capitalist society has 3 levels: - Economic level - compromising activities that involve producing something to satisfy a need - Political level - compromising all forms of organisation - Ideological level - ways that people see themselves and their world In this model the political and ideological levels have relative autonomy/partial independence from the economic level. The political and ideological levels affect what happens to the economy - two-way causality Also the state performs political and ideological functions that ensure the reproduction of capitalism- repressive state apparatus - army, police etc force WC to comply with the will of the bourgeoisie Ideological state apparatus - media, education system etc manipulate the WC into accepting capitalism as legitimate Humanists believe people use their creativity/free will to change society e.g. revolution will come as a result of the WC developing class consciousness. Althusser- we are not free agents; our belief possesses free will/choice that is a false consciousness produced by ISA.
Socialism will occur over the crisis of capitalism (over-determination) - contradictions of the 3 structures that occur= collapse of the system as a whole.
Evaluation
Gouldner- this ‘scientific’ approach discourages political activism as it stresses the role of structural factors that individuals can do little to affect.
Thompson- ignores active struggles of the WC to change society- elitism (belief that Communist Party knows what is best for workers and should blindly follow their lead). Structuralist Marxism has influences postmodernism- reject scientific knowledge can be used to improve society.
Sociological Theory of Feminism
Liberal/Reformist feminists:
Generate equality between men and women, ending discrimination by transformations of attitudes and laws: Equal Pay Act (1971), Sex Discrimination Act (1975).
Also cultural changes- traditional prejudices and stereotypes about gender differences are a barrier to equality. E.g. beliefs that women are less rational exclude them from decision making and confinement to childrearing and housework. Oakley- sex= biological differences (fixed), gender= culturally constructed differences (vary between cultures/overtime). See sexist attitudes and stereotypes about gender is culturally constructed and transmitted by socialisation. Seek gradual change within society at the expense of fully overcoming patriarchy. Promote appropriate role models and political action is steadily bringing about progress to a fairer society.
Disagree with the functionalists- instrumental and expressive roles- women are equally capable of performing both.
Evaluation
Over-optimism- see obstacles to liberation are prejudices of individuals or irrational laws.
Ignore the possibility that there are deep-seated structures causing women’s oppression. Walby- no explanation for the overall structure of gender inequality.
Radical feminists See patriarchy as universal- Firestone- origins of patriarchy lie in women’s biological capacity to bear and care for infants= dependent on men. Patriarchy is the primary and fundamental form of social inequality. Patriarchal oppression occurs in public sphere of work, politics and private sphere of family/domestic labour/sexual relationships. Malestream sociology: sexuality as a natural biological urge, patriarchy constructs sexuality to satisfy men’s desires. Gender inequality can only be overcome through radical transformation of society- via: separatism- living apart from men and creating female independence.
Greer- ‘matrilocal’ households is the alternative to heterosexual families.
Consciousness-raising- sharing experiences with other women= collective action.
Political lesbianism- heterosexual relationships= inevitably oppressive as it involves ‘sleeping with the enemy’ and lesbianism is the only non-oppressive form of sexuality.
Evaluation
Offers no explanation of why female subordination takes different forms in different societies and assumes all women are in the same position - ignores class/ethnic differences Pollert- concept of patriarchy is of little value in explaining women’s position; involves a circular argument- male violence=patriarchy, patriarchy= male violence= patriarchy is maintaining itself?
Somerville- heterosexual attraction makes it unlikely that the nuclear family will be replaced
Marxist feminists
Women are subordinate in capitalist society as their primary role is an unpaid homemaker; dependent on men for money. Women are a source of cheap, exploitable labour for employers (paid less), reserve army of labour, marginal workers, reproduce the labour force by their unpaid domestic labour- nurturing and socialising children=next generation of workers, absorb anger that is directed at capitalism.
Ansley- wives are ‘takers of shit’ who soak up the frustration their husbands feel due to alienation and exploitation they suffer from at work. Barrett- should be more emphasis to women’s consciousness and role of ideology in maintaining their oppression. He sees women continue to be in this situation due to the ideology of ‘familism’- presents nuclear family and sexual division of labour as natural and normal
Evaluation:
Ignores women’s subordination in non-capitalist societies, but they are only seeking to explain the position of women in contemporary capitalist society. Hartmann- ‘sex blind’; unpaid domestic labour may be beneficial to capitalism but doesn’t explain why women perform it.
Dual system feminism Combine Marxist and radical ideas (economic system-capitalism; sex/gender system-patriarchy).
Hartmann- capitalism and patriarchy are intertwined systems= ‘patriarchal capitalism’. Domestic work limits women’s availability for paid work- but the lack of work opportunities drives women into marriage and economic dependence on a man- reinforces each other.
Walby- exploitation of female labour- capitalism demands cheap labour and patriarchy resists this (keeps them subordinate to men). But capitalism is powerful so patriarchy adopts a strategy of segregation (women are allowed into paid work but on low status jobs).
Criticism:
Pollert- patriarchy is not a system like capitalism
Poststructuralist feminists: Concerned with discourses (ways of seeing/thinking/speaking about something) and power/knowledge. There is no fixed essence of what it is to be women as our identities are constituted via discourses. Butler- enables feminists to analyse different discourses to reveal how they subordinate women. Each discourse provides its own distinct form of resistance and struggle with its own aims and demands.
Evaluation:
Walby- there are important similarities among women- face low pay, domestic violence etc. Celebrating difference may have the effect of dividing women into an infinite number of sub-groups=weakening feminism.
Segal- abandons any notion of real, objective social structures. Oppression isn’t just the result of discourses it’s about real inequality. Feminists should focus on the struggle of wealth and income.
Black feminists Earlier versions of feminism generalised patriarchy from white middle-class women to all women. They ignore patriarchy for particular ethnic groups.
This approach uses histories of particular groups to understand the position of women in contemporary society. It also integrated racism and class into an explanation of black women’s place in society.
Difference feminists:
Don’t see women as a single homogeneous group. Argue the feminist theory claims a ‘false universality’- it’s about the experiences of white, western, heterosexual, middle-class women.
This presents a problem about essentialism (idea that women share the same experiences of oppression). They argue liberal, Marxist and radical feminists are essentialists as they see women as the same.
Action Theories
Reject assumptions from functionalists and Marxists (see behaviour constrained/predictable), instead see people having a proactive role in shaping human life. Looks at how society affects the individual. Brown- people engage in voluntary behaviour- not puppets of society. Attitudes and actions of others influence the way people think and behave and society is the product of interacting in social groups and trying to make sense of their own and each others behaviour.
Weber’s Social Action Theory:
Structural factors can shape our behaviour, but individuals do attach meaning to their actions. Four types of actions: - Rational (instrumental): actor calculates efficient means of achieving a given goal. This goal isn’t about if the goal itself is desirable but the most efficient way of reaching a goal - Value-rational: action towards a goal that the actor regards as desirable for its own sake. There is no way of calculating if the means of achieving the goal is efficient - Traditional: involves customary, routine or habitual actions; isn’t rational as nothought or choice has gone through it. The actor does it because they always have. - Affectual: action that expresses emotion. E.g. crying/laughing in response to events
Weber sees we should observe individuals/small groups using the concept of verstehen – (seeing things through the eyes of the person under study- empathetic understanding).
Criticisms
Verstehen can’t be truly achieved as we can’t see things ‘through their eyes’. Also Weber’s typology is confusing as some aspects overlap. E.g. among the Trobriand Islanders, individual exchanged gifts with neighbouring islands- could be seen as tradition action (practised for generations) or instrumentally rational action (good way to trade links). Schutz- criticise his emphasis on the individual at the expense of shared meaning.
Symbolic Interactionism:
Interaction via the use of symbols. Looks at the meanings we attach to symbols.
Mead: Humans interact through the use of visual signs (red traffic light- stop), visual gestures (waving-hello), expressions (frowning-upset), verbal (screaming-fear), sounds (siren-emergency).
Shared understanding of symbols/how we respond forms the basis of communication. We are conscious individuals but how we choose to behave is influenced by social contexts.
Blumer: our actions are based on the meanings we give to situations. The meanings we give to situations are the result of the interpretive procedures we use.
Although our actions are partly predictable as we internalise the expectations of others, it isn’t completely fixed. There’s negotiation and choice in how we perform our roles
Labelling Theory Those with the power to label someone and make others accept it leads to the self-fulfilling prophecy. If label is damaging it can become a master status - core social identity- shapes behaviour and influences roles e.g. job
Goffman’s Dramaturgical Model Life is like a play- we take on a character for ourselves in each social situation. Roles are to carry out a convincing performance on stage that is our life. Two dramaturgical concepts: - Presentation of the self- we control how we put ourselves across. - Impression management- we see how the audience is responding and adjust our behaviour accordingly.
This analogy describes the different setting of interactions- stage: act out roles, backstage: act as ourselves (role distance-gap between our self and our roles).
Role distance suggests we don’t always believe in the roles we play and that our role may be cynical; actor may resemble confidence and trick their audience but conceal their true self and real motives.
Criticisms
Over emphasises the significance of the individual- little conception of social structures.
Focuses of face-to-face interactions and cannot explain power relationships.
Believes everything is socially constructed, useless?
Fails to explain social order/social change. Goffman’s analogy is weak as we can be actors and audience members at the same time and fails to explain how actors create meanings. But avoids determination- recognises people create society through their choices.
Phenomenology:
Describes things as they appear to our senses.
Husserl- the world only makes sense as we impose meaning on it. The world and the things in it are products of our mind.
Shultz: Make sense of the world by shared typifications. These prevent confusion as the meanings given to acts can vary from situation to situation; allows us to achieve goals and communicate- without it social order would be impossible.
They are learnt and passed on via language= common sense. Recipe knowledge- build up of shared typifications.
Criticisms
Shultz based his ideas on speculation- didn’t do research. Structuralists argue social facts do exist- external to individuals and act on them. Sharing typifications suggests there is a social reality with social order.
Berger and Luckmann- reject Schutz view that society is an inter-subjective reality. Although reality is socially constructed, it takes on a life of its own and becomes an external reality that reacts back on us.
Ethnomethodology
Garfinkel- we construct order from common sense knowledge. As SI is interested in the effects of attaching meanings to things, EM is interested in how we produce meanings.
Indexicality- meanings are not always clear e.g. social order is a myth; we pretend there is order and meaning to life because we can’t cope with uncertainty. Documentary method is used to convince us it exists; finding a pattern in a situation and using it to help in future situations. He used students to be strangers in their home, caused bewilderment and anxiety to parents- pattern was disrupted.
Method is used by coroners to aid suicide verdicts.
Criticisms:
Craib- EM is trivial; states the obvious. Social class, age, ethnicity and gender can have real affects of people- naïve to assume these things are meaningless. Marxists see common sense knowledge is ruling-class ideology- serves to maintain capitalism.
EM says we create order by identifying patters and some are fictions. Structuralists argue norms, values etc are social facts not fictions and exert influences on us.
Gidden’s Structuration: He combines structural (deterministic, objective, external) and action (voluntarisitc, internal, subjective) theories together. Social structures can influence our actions, our actions can influence social structures. E.g. language- structure made of rules that can be used to express meanings; exists independently and constrains behaviour. But structure depends on action- language wouldn’t exist if no one used it. It is produced and reproduced overtime through its actions of individuals speaking and writing.
Structure has two elements
Rules (laws and guidelines) and resources (allocative- goods, technology, land; authoritative- power over others). They can be reproduced or changed through human action. Actions generally reproduce them- rules contain knowledge about how to live our lives. We reproduce existing structures through actions as we have a need for ontological security (need to feel the world how it appears to be). Individuals have the power to change and affect these structures. But often we reproduce them via socialisation and routine (become traditional). We can make changes as we ‘reflexively monitor’ our own actions e.g. in late modernity we become more reflexive as tradition no longer dictates action- increasing change. Actions may have unintended consequences e.g. Calvinists and the protestant work ethic caused capitalism (Weber) but their intention was to glorify God.
Criticisms
Archer- he has underestimated the power of structures to resist change e.g. slaves want to abolish slavery but don’t have the power to.
Craib- doesn’t explain what happens in society to large scale structures like the state/economy. It’s a thoroughgoing action theory- reduces the idea of structure to the rules governing routine everyday actions.
Sociological Theory of Modernity and Globalisation
Features of modernity
Industrialisation (18th century) and the manufacture of standardised goods for a mass market. Work and social class= division and social identity. Independent nation states/national economies.
One-way mass media reflecting social reality. Belief in rational thought and science as a means of improving the world.
A view that sociological theory and research can provide an insight into explanations of the world and could be used to prove it.
Individualism- tradition/religion less influential; freedom to define our own identity.
Globalisation
Increasing interconnectedness of people across national boundaries- live in one interdependent global village where our lives are shaped by a global framework. –
Technological changes: satellite communications, internet, global television etc have helped create time-space compression, closing distances between people. Technology brings risks on a global scale- greenhouse gases= climate change= sea level rising= flooding. Beck- now live in a ‘risk society’ where threats come from human-made technology than natural disasters
Economic changes: Electronic economy- music, tv shows, data processing (used to by physical goods). Global 24-hour financial transactions permit transfer of funds around the world in pursuit of profit. Risk society= world financial crisis 2008 brought the economy of Iceland what was dependent on banking
Political changes: Ohmae- now live in a ‘borderless world’ in which transnational companies and consumers have more economic power than national governments. Lash and Urry- disorganised capitalism
Changes in culture and identity: live in a global culture- western-owned media companies spread western culture to the rest of the world. E.g. Nike sells goods in many countries= deliver similar tastes. Increased amount of tourists, migrants, refugees, asylum seekers help create a globalised culture.
Postmodernism:
unstable, fragmented (breakdown of norms and values), media-saturated global village where social structures (nation-state, family, social class) are breaking down.
Knowledge: Anti-foundationalism (no objective criteria to falsify theories)= Enlightenment project (society can progress with human reason)cannot be used to improve society. Lyotard- postmodernism reject meta-narratives. Society is changing constantly and rapidly meta-narratives can’t be understood. Marxism/functionalism that seek to explain society as a whole no longer apply; society has become fragmented into so many groups, interests and lifestyles
Simulacra: Baudrillard- life in postmodern era is dominated by media imagery that has become media saturated. He suggests the media present simulacra images that appear to reflect events in the real word, but have no basis in reality= hyperreality (distorted view of the world)
Identities: instead of fixed identity ascribed by our class, we can construct our own from images and lifestyles presented by the media. By changing our consumption patterns (pick and mix cultural goods/media produced images) define ourselves
Evaluation Philo and Miller- ignores power and inequality, overlooks poverty when ‘freely constructing our identities’, wrong to claim people cannot distinguish between reality and media.
Best and Kellner- weak theory as fails to explain features.
Late modernity Key features of modernity were present but now have intensified e.g. social change was always present but now has gone into overdrive.
Giddens- features of modernity: disembedding - don’t need face-to-face contact for interaction; breaks down geographical barriers so interaction is impersonal-drives globalisation
Reflexivity – tradition no longer tells us how to act; reflect and modify our actions (continually re-evaluating ideas/theories- nothing is fixed). In late modernity we face high risk consequences- major threats to human society that are manufactured e.g. nuclear war, global warming, increased surveillance. Beck: risk society faces dangers of inability to control nature (drought, famine, disease) and dangers of manufactured risks (pollution).
Risk consciousness- aware of perceived risks and seek to avoid them. Beck believes in the Enlightenment project as were able to evaluate risks rationally and take political action e.g. environmentalism to challenge industrial development.
Evaluation
Rustin- capitalism is a source of risk not technology.
Hirst- rejects Beck’s view that movements like environmentalism will bring change; too fragmented.
Marxists theories of postmodernity Postmodernity is a product of the recent stage of capitalism.
Harvey- capitalism is a dynamic system of developing new technologies and organising production to make profits. Postmodernity arose from the capitalist crisis in 1970.
Flexible accumulation- new way of achieving profitability. Involves the use of ICT, finance sector, job insecurity and workers to be flexible to fit employer’s needs.
Permits production of standardised products for niche markets to switch producing one product to another (promoting cultural diversity and constant shifts of fashion). Flexible accumulation is created by changes in consumption (leisure, culture and identities and commodities).
Jameson- postmodernity= developed capitalism as commodities are all aspects of life. Political changes: weakened the WC and socialist movements; oppositional movements have emerged. This could produce a rainbow alliance to bring about change.
Sociological Theory of Objectivity and Values
Positivists Believe sociology should only study observable phenomena, measuring the relationship between social facts and variables. Sociological inquiry should be no different from natural scientific inquiry.
Quantitative research methods can be used to obtain objective data about society. The validity and reliability of this can be checked and the research can be scrutinised by others. Sociology= value-free as facts can be separated from values.
Comte and Durkheim: Positivists saw scientific sociology would reveal a correct society by discovering the truth about how society works and uncovering laws that govern its functioning.
Marx
Sociology reveals the truth of the development of a class-based society. Argues scientific approach would show us how to reach communism; science helps deliver the good society.
Weber:
Sees an essential role for values in sociological research, divided into four stages of the research process:
Value as a guide to research- due to ‘meaningless infinity’ of facts (impossible to study all) researcher needs to select facts to study based on their own values (value relevance)- values are essential in enabling us to select which aspects of reality to study and developing concepts to understand these aspects. E.g. feminists value gender equality= study women’s oppression and develop concept of patriarchy to study it.
Data collection and hypothesis testing- must be objective and unbiased when collecting facts (keeping values and prejudices out) e.g. not asking leading questions so the research finds answers they want to hear. Once facts are gathered we can use them to test a hypothesis (must stand on whether it fits observed facts).
Values in the interpretation of data- facts need to be set in a theoretical framework so we can understand their significance and draw conclusions from it. Framework is influenced by our values- need to be explicit so others can see if unconscious bias is present when interpreting data. Values and the sociologist as a citizen- sociologist should take moral and political responsibility of their work may raise instead of hiding behind ‘objectivity’ and ‘value freedom’.
Value freedom and commitment Our values are irrelevant to research- science is concerned with facts- sociologists job is to find truth about people’s behaviour= desire to make sociology respectable. Science has high prestige so mimicking its ways would praise it’s status and earn respectability.
Gouldner- sociologists used to be a critical discipline challenging accepted authority; ‘problem makers’ but now are ‘problem takers’ hired by organisations to solve their problems for them. Leaving their own values behind they make a ‘gentleman’s promise’ that they wont question their paymasters; their values are irrelevant. Myrdal- sociologists should take sides by promoting values and interests of particular individuals or groups.
Committed sociologists- not possible or desirable to keep values out of research Gouldner- impossible as sociologists or paymasters values are bound to reflect in their work, undesirable as without values to guide research sociologists would put their services at the disposal of the highest bidder.
Taking sides As sociology is influenced by values- sociologist must inevitably take sides (usually powerful against less powerful). Becker- traditionally sociologists favoured viewpoint of powerful like police, psychiatrists etc. Sociologists should adopt a compassionate stance; examine perspectives of the underdog allowing new questions and answers to emerge e.g. Goffman’s study of Asylums.
Gouldner- Becker takes a romantic approach to disadvantaged groups. Only concerned with those ‘on their backs’- negatively labelled, exotic specimens of deviant behaviour. Sociologist should take the side of those who are ‘fighting back’- political radicals struggling to change society.
Funding and careers Sources of funding- governments, businesses, organisations that pay for the research thus controlling direction. They should consider sociologist’s personal values.
Also may want to further their career influencing choice of topic, research questions and how their interpret data. Some may censor themselves from fear of being outspoken harming their career prospects.
Relativism:
Argues different groups, cultures and individuals have different views to what is true- they have their own perspectives, concepts, values and interests and no there is no independent way to judge if their view is truer than any other. There is no objective truth- just truth plurals. Postmodernists take a relativist view- reject anyone accounts for social world is superior and perspectives are meta-narratives. –
However, relativism is self-defeating as it states we shouldn’t believe postmodernism either.
Sociological Theory of Science
Positivism
Philosophy of science/theory of methodology stating human behaviour should be researched through principles of natural science. Objective facts and theories are produced on the basis of empirical research. Discovering laws that determine how society works (inductive reasoning).
Verificationism- inductive reasoning claims to verify a theory. Emphasis on research methods produced quantitative data (believe in empiricism- testing of statements).
Theories and laws are tested through replication become accepted as scientific knowledge.
Objectivity- free from prejudice and bias. Durkheim- adopted positivist methodology in his study of ‘Le Suicide’-sociology can be as objective as natural sciences if we study social facts as things.
Criticisms
Reductionist and deterministic with simplistic conclusions e.g. poverty causes crime.
Critical theory: emphasis on facts fails to explain why correlations exist between variables (poverty may correlate with crime but why?). Feminism- uses universal research methods without tailoring the method to understand unique experiences of women.
Interpretivism
Argue society cannot be studied like objects; people reflect and engage in meaningful interaction- concept of verstehen to understand social behaviour.
This approach generates rich and insightful data that reveals the experiences and motives of people.
Grounded theory- rather than entering research with a fixed hypothesis; ideas emerge from observations we make which can then be used to stage hypotheses. Phenomenologist/EM- anti-structuralist view- social reality is a shared meaning of its members and people’s actions are not governed by external causes this no cause-and-effect relationships can be found.
Douglas- individuals have free will and choice when committing suicide.
Criticisms
Verstehen explanations are subjective and lack reliability. Different researchers may interpret same events in different ways
Popper
Rejects positivist view of inductive reasoning and verificationism due to the fallacy of induction. He observed swans that were white-making the generalisation ‘all swans are white’- easy to make further observations to verify this doesn’t prove; seeing black swan would destroy the theory. He sees scientific statements are capable of being falsified by evidence. This is what enables scientific understanding of the world grow as it is cumulative- builds on the achievements of previous scientists to develop a greater understanding. For a theory to be falsifiable it must be open to criticism from other scientists. Science is an ‘open’ belief system as scientists theories can be criticised and tested by others.
Sociology is unscientific as theories cannot be put to test e.g. Marxism predicts there will be a revolution but nothing has happened yet- prediction cant be falsified.
Sociology can be scientific as it’s capable of producing hypotheses that can be falsified.
Kuhn
Science is based on a set of shared assumptions- paradigms. A paradigm tells a scientist what problems to study, what methods/equipment to use etc.
A scientist who challenges the fundamental assumptions of the paradigm could be ridiculed out of a job (Velikovsky). Science cannot exist without a shared paradigm as there would only be rival schools of thought not a science. Paradigm defines questions and answers so the scientists are left to fill in the detail of the nearest solution (puzzle work). Not all puzzle solving is successful- scientists obtain findings contrary to those the paradigm led them to expect; anomalies mount up and confidence in the paradigm decreased. Science has entered a new period of crisis- scientists become demoralised and begin to lose their sense of purpose.
Scientists formulate rival paradigms= scientific revolution. The two competing paradigms cannot be judged by the same standards to decide which is best. Eventually one paradigm wins and becomes accepted in the scientific community.Kuhn sees in scientific community progress only occurs by challenging accepted idea.
Interpretivist sociologists - scientific knowledge is socially constructed; rather being objective it is created by social groups using the resources available to them. So what scientists believe to be true is a product of shared theories/paradigms that tell them what they expect to occur. Postmodernists- paradigm is a meta-narrative dominant view of what reality it like.
Realism
Keat and Urry- closed systems- researcher can control and measure relevant variables making precise predictions. Open systems- researcher cannot control and measure all relevant variables so cannot make precise predictions Realists- sociology study open systems where the processes are too complex to make exact predictions e.g. cannot predict crime rate precisely as there are too many variables involved that cannot be controlled, measured or identified. Reject positivist view science is concerned with observable phenomena e.g. Keat and Urry- science often assumes existence of unobservable structures (physicists cannot study the black hole). Interpretivists are wrong to assume sociology cannot be scientific. Underlying structures causing events are unobservable but we can work out they exist by observing their effects e.g. cannot directly see social class but see its effects of life chances. See Marxism scientific as underlying structures (capitalism) produces effects (poverty). Also interpreting behaviour in terms of actors’ internal meanings even though they are not observable.
Sociological Theory of Social Policy
Social policies governs many areas of social life like education and health as they address social problems (social behaviour that causes public friction/private misery and calls for collective action to solve it). Sociological problem- pattern of relationship that calls for explanation.
Role of sociology on policies Giddens- sociology can inform policymakers of cultural differences (seeing society from different perspectives develops informed awareness of sensitivity to life, needs and problems of others), sociological research helps assess results of the policy initiatives (see if polices have worked, achieved that they intended), and sociology generates greater self-understanding (encouraging people to form support groups who face similar problems). –
Economic and Social Research Council funded by Middleton et al did pilot studies to increase participation rates in post-16 education and reduce number of youngers not in education, employment or training. Educational Maintenance Allowances increased participation rates by 6% suggesting paying money to them than parents encouraged higher levels of participation; was set as a national policy in 2004.
Positivism and Functionalism
Sociologist’s role is to provide state with objective/scientific info. Investigating social problems and causes provide them with this info which state bases its policies. They see implementing rational social policies help run society more smoothly and efficiently e.g. educational polices= equal opportunity and social integration. Favour social policies as they tackle one specific issue at a time.
Social democratic
Favour major redistribution of wealth and income from the rich to the poor. Townsend- should be involved in researching social problems and making social policy recommendations to eradicate them. He conducted research on poverty and made recommendations for policies like more on public spending on health, education, welfare.
Marxists reject the idea that policies are not enough to solve the problem. Capitalism is responsible for these inequalities; capitalism needs to be abolished to get rid of the problems.
Postmodernists- impossible to discover objective truth all knowledge produced by research is uncertain so sociological findings cannot provide a satisfactory basis for policy-making.
Marxism
Social polices serve the interests of capitalism not those of society as a whole- provides ideological function -maintains labour force for further exploitation (e.g. NHS serves capitalism by keeping works fit enough to work), means of preventing revolution (when class conflict increases threatening stability of capitalism).
Benefits of social policy are threatened with reversal of capitalism’s tendency to go into periodic crises of profitability leading to cuts in state spending on welfare. Research reveals unpleasant truth about social problems capitalism creates won’t be used to formulate policies to solve the problems. Only solution to social problems is a revolution to overthrow capitalism to create a classless society. Sociologist’s role should be to criticise capitalist social policy not serve capitalist state.
Critics say this view is impractical and unrealistic. Social democrats- reject idea sociological research can bring progressive policies in existing capitalism system e.g. poverty researchers had positive impacts on policy
Feminism
State perpetuates women’s subordination though social policies. E.g. family policies may be based on the assumption that the ‘normal’ family is a convectional nuclear family with a heterosexual married couple and their children; offers benefits for this family but not cohabiting ones.
Policies produce self-fulfilling prophecy- encouraging this time of family making it difficult for people to live in other kinds of family. Liberal feminist research as impacted social policies e.g. learning materials- promoting positive images of females, teacher training- sensitise teachers to the need to avoid gender bias and promote inclusiveness to both sexes.
Radial feminists-establishment for women’s refuges escaping domestic violence. E.g. Women’s Aid Federation supports a national network of 500 services with funding from local and central government. But far-reaching changes are still needed to overcome problems that the state cannot deliver.
New Right
Opposed to using state provision of welfare to deal with social problems. State intervention in areas like family life, income support, education and healthcare robs people of their freedom/responsibility= greater social problems.
Murray- generous welfare benefits and council housing for lone parents weakens family’s self-reliance and encourages growth of a dependency culture. He favours a reduction in state spending on welfare. Role of sociologists is to propose alternative policies to present ones that aim to restore individual’s responsibility for own their families’ welfare. This type of thinking has attracted Conservative Party and New Labour (regard married couple as the best place to bring up children). New Right support a ‘law and order’ policy (research done by Wilson and Kelling’s broken windows= zero tolerance).
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