American Apartheid: Housing Discrimination In The 19th Century

In the American Apartheid, Massey and Denton argue that discrimination in employment in the early 19th century confined low-wage blacks to particular neighborhood areas, and that in the 1960s, discrimination in housing specifically caused this segregation to continue. Unlike other formally marginalized groups, like immigrants, whose enclaves collapsed as they assimilated into new communities, blacks were held apart by means of violence, gentrification, restrictive covenants (contracts stating that a house could not be sold to people of or outside a particular race, outlawed in Shelley v. Kraemer (1948)), lack of access to housing subsidies due to redlining, and well-cloaked urban