Assignment

Code switching: - Definition:
The practice of oscillate between two languages or between two dialects or registers of the same language.
Code switching (CS) occurs far more often in conversation than in writing.

According to Numan and carter the term defined as "a phenomenon of switching from one language to another in the same discourse.

Trudgill,"speakers switch to manipulate or influence or define the situation as they wish and to convey nuances of meaning and personal intention".

Kinds of switching:

1. Situational code-switching: the situation determines the choice of language
2. Conversational code-switching: the topic of the conversation dictates the choice of language.
3. Metaphorical code-switching: the choice of language determines the situation.
Example:
* "Code-switching performs several functions (Zentella, 1985). First, people may use code-switching to hide fluency or memory problems in the second language (but this accounts for about only 10 percent of code switches). Second, code-switching is used to mark switching from informal situations (using native languages) to formal situations (using second language). Third, code-switching is used to exert control, especially between parents and children. Fourth, code-switching is used to align speakers with others in specific situations (e.g., defining oneself as a member of an ethnic group). Code-switching also 'functions to announce specific identities, create certain meanings, and facilitate particular interpersonal relationships' (Johnson, 2000, p. 184)."
(William B. Gudykunst, Bridging Differences: Effective Intergroup Communication, 4th ed. Sage, 2004)

CODE MIXING:-
Code-mixing refers to the mixing of two or more languages or language varieties in speech.
“The process whereby speakers indulge in code-switching between languages of such rapidity and density, even within sentences and phrases, that it is not really possible to say at any given time which language they are speaking."

Numan and Carter define code-mixing as, “a phenomenon of switching from one language to another in the same discourse.”
According to Berthold, Mangubhai and Bartorowiez 1997, code-mixing occurs when speakers shift from one language to the other in the midst of their conversation. Thus this definition accommodates inter-sentential switching and intra-sentential mixing both under the term code switching. Code-mixing is an interesting phenomenon in bilingual societies.
FEATURES OF CODE MIXING:
Code-mixing is a phenomenon of switching one language to another in such communities where people are bilingualism or multilingualism. If we talk about features of code mixing then we come to know that; Sridhar, a linguist, has elaborated the following three features of code mixing through analysis of a text.
These features are an applicable on the everyday language use: * The mixed elements are on every level of grammatical organization such as noun, verbs, attributive and predicative adjectives, and noun phrases etc.

* The mixed elements are not specifically culture oriented or ‘culture bond’. They are mostly from day to day life and every day usage items, which have acceptable equivalent in the language in which they are mixed.

* The mixed elements obey the rules of the original language from which they are taken as far as their grammatical organization is concerned.

TYPES OF CODE MIXING:

* Intra-lexical code mixing: * Involving a change of pronunciation * Intra-sentential switching / code mixing * INTRA-LEXICAL MIXING: * This kind of code mixing which occurs within a word boundary. The insertion of well-defined chunks of language B into a sentence that otherwise belongs to language A. Insertion of words from one language into a structure of another language. * INVOLVING A CHANGE OF PRONUNCIATION: * This kind of code mixing occurs at the phonological level, as when Indonesian people say an English word, but modify it to Indonesian phonological structure. For instance, the word ‘strawberry’ is said to be ‘stroberi’ by Indonesian people. The use of element from either language in a structure that is wholly or partly shared by languages A or B. * INTRA-SENTENTIAL: * The succession of fragments in language A and B in a sentence, which is overall not identifiable as belonging to either A, or B and do come again. `That's all right then, and do come again.
5 REASON OF CODE-MIXING
When code mixing occurs, the motivation or reasons of the speaker is an important consideration in the process. According to Hoffman, there are a number of reasons for bilingual or multilingual person to switch or mix their languages. Those are: * Interjection * Quoting somebody else * Expressing group identity * Because of real lexical need * Talking about a particular topic * Repetition used for clarification * Being emphatic about something * To soften or strengthen request or command * Intention of clarifying the speech content for interlocutor * To exclude other people when a comment is intended for only a limited audience

Examples of “Mixed” Languages
“Mixed” languages are commonly found in
Bilingual communities:
• Franglais – French-English in Quebec
• Fragnol – French-Spanish in Argentina
• Spanglish – Cuban Spanish-English, Florida
• Tex-Mex – English-Mexican Spanish, Texas
(Wardhaugh 1992:108)
• Singlish – Chinese and English, Singapore
• Chinglish – Chinese (Cantonese)-English,
Hong Kong

Thus, code switching and code mixing is practiced by different speakers for different reasons, serves different communicative functions like any other language.

Inflectional morphology:-
Cross-linguistic variation in the forms and categories of inflectional morphology is so great that ‘inflection’ cannot be defined by simply generalizing over attested inflectional systems or paradigms. Rather, we define it as those categories of morphology that are
SENSITIVE TO THE GRAMMATICAL ENVIRONMENT in which they are expressed.
The inflectional morphology of a language is the study of the ways in which bound grammatical morphemes combine with stems to be realized as grammatical words. Inflectional morphology
Nouns
Plural -s the books
Possessive (genitive) -s’ John’s book
Verbs
3rd person singular nonpast -s He reads well.
Progressive -ing He is working.
Past tense -ed He worked.
Past participle -en/-ed He has eaten/studied.
Adjectives
Comparative -er- the smaller one
Superlative -est the smallest one
Inflectional affixes:
2• Form a word whose meaning is the same as that of the root or stem to which they attaches.
Root Root meaning Derived Word Derived word meaning fix ‘the act of repairing something’ fixes ‘the act of repairing something (3rd person present singular)’ learn ‘the act of gaining knowledge learned ‘the act of gaining knowledge (happened at some past time)
’Husand ‘a male spouse’ husband-s ‘male spouses (more than one)’
• Never change the lexical category.
• Have far fewer idiosyncratic lexical restrictions than do derivational affixes.
• Attach outside of/after derivational affixes.
• Are relevant to the syntax. That is, they mark information about the grammatical roles that the stems they attach to play in the sentence as a whole.
(5) a. He reads well.
b. * He read well.
c. * They reads well.
d. They read well.
(6) a. The book is on the table.
b. The books are on the table.
3 Two other ways of marking inflection
3.1 Internal change
Internal change (also known as ablaut) is the replacement of a root internal nonmorphemic sound with a different sound.
(7) a. goose (sing); geese (plural)
b. sing (pres); sang (past)
c. drive (pres); drove (past)
3.2 Suppletion
Suppletion is the replacement of a morpheme with an entirely different morpheme.
(8) a. go (pres); went (past)
b. is (pres); were (past)
The words formed from these processes are often known as irregular forms, since they are not as productive, and not as predictable as are inflected words that result from inflectional affixation.
However, at least in the case of internal change, there is some degree of both. For example, if you know that the plurals of cactus and octopus are cacti and octopi, then you are likely to predict that the plurals of rhinoceros and torus are rhinoceros and tori, and these predictions are correct. Similarly, many speakers use brang rather than brought as the past tense of bring (cf sing:sang, ring:rang, etc.
The full productivity of regular forms:
31. Children in early acquisition overgeneralize the regular form to irregular nouns and verbs, forming plurals such as *childs and *hoofs and past tenses such as fabled, bayed, and sleeped.
2. When an irregular noun is used as part of a proper name, its plural is formed regularly, e.g.
1. maple leaf (sing) maple leaves (pl)
2. Maple Leafs (Toronto’s hockey team)
A noun used as a verb, has the regular past tense ending:
1. ring (verb, present); rang (verb, past)
2. ring (verbalized noun, present); ringed (verbalized noun, past).

derivational morphology:-
Derivational morphology
Derivation is the morphological process which creates a word with a new meaning and/or category. The derivational morphology of a language is a study of the ways in which bound lexical morphemes combine with stems to be realized as lexical words.

One derivational process we have not yet discussed is compounding. A compound is a morphologically complex word that is formed through combination of two or more free morphemes (roots).
(1) a. doghouse
b. fireman
c. blueberry
d. White House
Derivational affixes have the following properties.
Derivational affixes:
• Form a word whose meaning is different from the meaning of the root or stem to which it attaches.
Root Root meaning Derived Word Derived word meaning fix ‘the act of repairing something’ fixable ‘(something that is) able to be repaired’ teach ‘the act of instructing; imparting knowledge’ teacher ‘one who engages regularly in the act of instructing’ husand ‘a male spouse’ ex-husband ‘a former male spouse (of someone)’
Submit ‘to officially give to someone, to hand in’ resubmit ‘to officially hand in again (after having already done so at least once before)
• Can change the lexical category (i.e. change a noun to a verb; change a verb to a noun, etc).
The derivational affixes in the first two examples in the chart above change the category of the root they attach to. Here are a few other examples of category-changing derivational affixes:
Affix Root Root category Derived word Derived word category ous- poison Noun poisonous Adjective ness - happy Adj happiness Noun the relevant property of derivational affixes is that they can change the category, not that they necessarily do so. (The last two examples in the chart above do not.) Therefore, if you find that a morpheme changes the category of the stem, you know that it is a derivational affix, but if you find that it does not change the category, you do not know that it is not a derivational affix. It could still very likely be a derivational affix if it changes the meaning.
A few more examples of derivational affixes that are not category-changing:
1(2) Examples of non-category-changing affixes
a. antib. dec. disd. mis-
• May have idiosyncratic selectional restrictions. That is, a particular derivational affix consistently attaches to a particular category of word, but it does not necessarily attach to every word of that category.
1. whiten but not *desken
2. redden but not *studyen
1. whiten but not *abstracten
2. redden but not *bluen
3. quicken but not *slowen
• In English can attach to almost every lexical category (except adverbs).
(3) a. N → N
b. V → V
c. A → A
d. V → A
e. V → A
f. N → V
g. A → V
h. A → Adv
i. A → N
• Attach inside of/before inflectional affixes.
(4) *dancesing *trieding *hopesful
• Are not relevant to the syntax. In other words: they don’t mark relationships with other parts of the sentence, as, for example, verbs have Inflectional affixes to show agreement with the subject of the sentence in English.

Dialect:- * a form of a language spoken in a particular geographical area or by members of a particular social class or occupational group, distinguished by its vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation. * A regional or social variety of a language distinguished by pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary, especially a variety of speech differing from the standard literary language or speech pattern of the culture in which it exists.
Origin of DIALECT
Middle French dialecte, from Latin dialectus, from Greekdialektos conversation, dialect, from dialegesthai to converse — more at dialogue
First Known Use: 1577
Variety of a language spoken by a group of people and having features of vocabulary, grammar, and/or pronunciation that distinguish it from other varieties of the same language. Dialects usually develop as a result of geographic, social, political, or economic barriers between groups of people who speak the same language. When dialects diverge to the point that they are mutually incomprehensible, they become languages in their own right. This was the case with Latin, various dialects of which evolved into the different languages. kinds of dialect:- The speech of most people from the Southern United States is also distinctive. American English is distinct from Australian English, which is distinct from the British English spoken in England. Such dialects, spoken by people of different places, might be called geographical dialects.
Another type of dialect is the social dialect. Social dialects are spoken by people of different groups.

In many places one dialect has more social standing than the others. Often it becomes the language of government and is taught in the schools. Such a dialect is called a standard dialect.
Differences in speech habits are what make dialects. Speakers pronounce words differently. They use different words for the same thing. And they sometimes put words together in different ways. A dialect is a variety of a language.
The line between languages and dialects is not always clear. Dialects are sometimes called languages, and languages are sometimes called dialects.

isogloss: a graphical representation marking the distributional limits of lexical items or linguistic forms (sometimes the area associated with a linguistic form).
There is no universally accepted criterion for distinguishing a language from a dialect. A number of rough measures exist, sometimes leading to contradictory results. Some linguists do not differentiate between languages and dialects, i.e. languages are dialects and vice versa. The distinction is therefore subjective and depends on the user's frame of reference. However, if language X is referred to as a dialect, this implies the speaker considers X a dialect of some other language Y.
Language varieties are often called dialects rather than languages: * if they have no standard or codified form, * if they are rarely or never used in writing (outside reported speech), * if the speakers of the given language do not have a state of their own, * if they lack prestige with respect to some other, often standardized, variety.
Anthropological linguists define dialect as the specific form of a language used by a speech community.[ From this perspective, everyone speaks a dialect. Those who identify a particular dialect as the "standard" or "proper" version of a language are seeking to make a social distinction. Often the standard language is close to the sociolect of the elite class.
The status of language is not solely determined by linguistic criteria, but it is also the result of a historical and political development.
REGISTER :- | the term register refers to specific lexical and grammatical choices as made by speakers depending on the situational context, the participants of a conversation and the function of the language in the discourse (cf. Halliday 1989, 44).
There are five language registers or styles. Each level has an appropriate use that is determined by differing situations. It would certainly be inappropriate to use language and vocabulary reserve for a private conversation in the classroom. Thus the appropriate language register depends upon the audience (who), the topic (what), purpose (why) and location (where). You must control the use of language registers in order to enjoy success in every aspect and situation you encounter. 1. Static Register
This style of communications RARELY or NEVER changes. It is “frozen” in time and content. e.g. the Lord’s Prayer etc.
2. Formal Register
This language is used in formal settings and is one-way in nature. This use of language usually follows a commonly accepted format. It is usually impersonal and formal. A common format for this register are speeches. e.g. sermons, rhetorical statements and questions, speeches, pronouncements made by judges, announcements. 3. Consultative Register
This is a standard form of communications. Users engage in a mutually accepted structure of communications. It is formal and societal expectations accompany the users of this speech. It is professional discourse. e.g. when strangers meet, communications between a superior and a subordinate, doctor & patient, lawyer & client, lawyer & judge, teacher & student, counselor & client, 4. Casual Register
This is informal language used by peers and friends. Slang, vulgarities and colloquialisms are normal. This is “group” language. One must be member to engage in this register. e.g. buddies, teammates, chats and emails, and blogs, and letters to friends. 5. Intimate Register
This communications is private. It is reserved for close family members or intimate people. e.g. husband & wife, boyfriend & girlfriend, siblings, parent & children. Register is a set of linguistic items were associated with discrete occupational and social groups.
PURE vowels :-(phonetics) a vowel that is pronounced with more or less unvarying quality without any glide; monophthong . a vowel is a sound in spoken language, such as an English ah! [ɑː] or oh! [oʊ], pronounced with an open vocal tract so that there is no build-up of air pressure at any point above the glottis. This contrasts with consonants, such as English sh! [ʃː], where there is a constriction or closure at some point along the vocal tract. A vowel is also understood to be syllabic: an equivalent open but non-syllabic sound is called a semivowel. various orthographic symbols to represent specially the vowels /i/ and /e/ * Forward vowels: [i] beet [ɪ] bit [e] chaotic [ɛ] bet [æ] bat [a] bright ah (mostly used in diphthongs)

Back vowels: [u] boot [ʊ] book [o] obey (pure [o] seldom used) [ɔ] saw [ɑ] father

Central vowels: [ʌ] up (stressed 'uh') [ə] about (unstressed 'uh,' schwa) [ɝ] herd (stressed, r-colored vowel) [ɜ] herd (NOT r-colored) [ɚ] butter (unstressed, r-colored vowel)

Diphthongs: [eɪ] bait
[difθɔŋ] [oʊ] boat [aɪ] bite [aʊ] ouch [ɔɪ] boy [ju] use

A pure vowel sound consists of only one distinct vowel sound; a diphthong is a distinct vowel until made up of two pure vowel sounds. pure vowel diagram tobe drawn from book page no 103
The lax and tense vowels we have looked at so far are monophthongs, sometimes called pure vowels. This is because the tongue and lips are relatively stationary while these vowels are being pronounced - the vowels do not move around in the vowel chart. Diphthongs, on the other hand, move through the chart as they are pronounced: they start at one vowel-position, and move towards another. The worddi-phthong is from Greek: it means "two vowels", and we write them as two vowels.
Diphthongs are tense vowels; they can be unchecked, and are subject to clipping like the "pure" tense vowels - they can be long or short.
It's useful to distinguish between rising and centring diphthongs:
 Rising to : PRICE , FACE , and CHOICE
 Rising to : GOAT and MOUTH
 Centring to : NEAR , SQUARE and CURE
SOME OF THESE PRONUNCIATIONS may not be the ones you're used to. See Notes
CHART POSITIONS OF THE DIPHTHONGS:
RISING TO
RISING TO
CENTRING
Diphthongs are vowels with shifting formant regions produced by a change in the shape of the vocal tract, in contrast to the pure vowels which are produced with a fixed vocal tract shape and tongue position. The five diphthongs in English are: ou | tone | ei | take | ai | might | au | shout | oi | toil | | | thus, pure vowels are those ,which do not change in quality even when they are made long and diphtonongs are vowel sounds in which there is a glide from one vowel quality to another with the same syllable. indianization of indian english
Indian English is the group of English dialects spoken primarily in the Indian subcontinent.[1]
As a result of British colonial rule until Indian independence in 1947, English is an official language of India and is widely used in both spoken and literary contexts. The rapid growth of India's economy towards the end of the 20th century led to large-scale population migration between regions of the Indian subcontinent and the establishment of English as a common lingua francabetween those speaking diverse mother tongues.
With the exception of the relatively small Anglo-Indian community and some families of full Indian ethnicity where English is the primary language spoken in the home, speakers of English in theIndian subcontinent learn it as a second language in school. In cities this is typically at English medium schools, but in smaller towns and villages instruction for most subjects is in the local language, with English language taught as a modular subject. Science and technical education is mostly undertaken in English and, as a result, most university graduates in these sectors are fairly proficient in English.[2]
Idiomatic forms derived from Indian literary and vernacular language have become assimilated into Indian English in differing ways according to the native language of speakers. Nevertheless, there remains general homogeneity in phonetics, vocabulary, and phraseology between variants of the Indian English dialect.
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Grammar
The role of English within the complex multilingual society of India is far from straightforward: it is used across the country, by speakers with various degrees of proficiency; the grammar and phraseology may mimic that of the speaker's first language. While Indian speakers of English use idioms peculiar to their homeland, often literal translations of words and phrases from their native languages, this is far less common in proficient speakers, and the grammar itself tends to be quite close to that of Standard English.
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[edit]Phonology
Indian accents vary greatly. Some Indians speak English with an accent very close to a Standard British (Received Pronunciation) accent (though not the same); others lean toward a more 'vernacular', native-tinted, accent for their English speech.
[edit]Vowels
In general, Indian English has fewer peculiarities in its vowel sounds than the consonants, especially as spoken by native speakers of languages like Hindi, the vowel phoneme system having some similarities with that of English. Among the distinctive features of the vowel-sounds employed by some Indian English speakers:

* English in India
"[I]n India, those who consider their English to be good are outraged at being told that their English is Indian. Indians want to speak and use English like the British, or, more lately, like the Americans. This desire probably also springs from the fact that it is a second language for most Indians and to be able to speak a non-native language like native speakers is a matter of pride--more so in the case of English, given its higher status and the several material advantages it carries.

"In academia, as a result of this anathema towards 'Indian English,' the preferred term has been 'English in India.' Another reason for this preference is also that 'Indian English' denotes linguistic features, whereas academics have been more interested in the historical, literary, and cultural aspects of English in India."
(Pingali Sailaja, Indian English. Edinburgh Univ. Press, 2009)

* Studies of Indian English
"Even though a wide range of studies on individual aspects of Indian English phonology,lexicon and syntax are available by now, this work has so far not culminated in a comprehensive grammar of Indian English. Moreover, the mismatch between the actual size of the Indian English speech community and the scholarly activity directed at the study of IndE is striking . . ..

"Indian English remains quite literally conspicuous by its absence: the most accomplished achievement in the field to date, the massive Handbook of Varieties of English (Kortmann et al. 2004), contain a mere sketch of some IndE syntactic features that does not even follow the general format for the syntactic descriptions of varieties which otherwise appear in theHandbook. What is worse, IndE and IndE features are not included in the Handbook's 'Global Synopsis: morphological and syntactic variation in English' (Kortmann & Szmrecsanyi 2004)."
(Claudia Lange, The Syntax of Spoken Indian English. John Benjamins, 2012) * The reasons for these variations are: * The presence of many vernacular languages * People learn their mother Language first * By the time they start learning English, they find it difficult to follow that pronunciation * They have in them very strongly formed linguistic habits that interface with their learning English * The phonological system of the mother tongue will have an influence on the phonology of their English * Because of these reasons, Indian English has emerged as another variety of English just like the American, South African,etc,with its own distinctive features. SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISTION:- * In second language learning, language plays an institutional and social role in the community. It functions as a recognized means of communication among members who speak some other language as their native tongue.

* In foreign language learning, language plays no major role in the community and is primarily learned in the classroom.

* The distinction between second and foreign language learning * is what is learned and how it is learned. Learners acquire a second language by making use of existing knowledge of the native language, general learning strategies, or universal properties of language to internalize knowledge of the second language. * These processes serve as a means by which the learner constructs an interlanguage (a transitional system reflecting the learner’s current L2 knowledge). * Communication strategies are employed by the learner to make use of existing knowledge to cope with communication difficulties.

Some People learn a new language more quickly and easily than others. This simple fact is known by all who have themselves learned a second language or taught those who are using their second language in school. Clearly, some language learners are successful by virtue of their sheer determination, hard work and persistence. However there are other crucial factors influencing success that are largely beyond the control of the learner. These factors can be broadly categorized as internal and external. It is their complex interplay that determines the speed and facility with which the new language is learned.
Internal factors
Internal factors are those that the individual language learner brings with him or her to the particular learning situation. * Age: Second language acquisition is influenced by the age of the learner. Children, who already have solid literacy skills in their own language, seem to be in the best position to acquire a new language efficiently. Motivated, older learners can be very successful too, but usually struggle to achieve native-speaker-equivalent pronunciation and intonation. * Personality: Introverted or anxious learners usually make slower progress, particularly in the development of oral skills. They are less likely to take advantage of opportunities to speak, or to seek out such opportunities. More outgoing students will not worry about the inevitability of making mistakes. They will take risks, and thus will give themselves much more practice. * Motivation: Intrinsic motivation has been found to correlate strongly with educational achievement. Clearly, students who enjoy language learning and take pride in their progress will do better than those who don't.
Extrinsic motivation is also a significant factor. ESL students, for example, who need to learn English in order to take a place at an American university or to communicate with a new English boy/girlfriend are likely to make greater efforts and thus greater progress. * Experiences: Learners who have acquired general knowledge and experience are in a stronger position to develop a new language than those who haven't. The student, for example, who has already lived in 3 different countries and been exposed to various languages and cultures has a stronger base for learning a further language than the student who hasn't had such experiences. * Cognition: In general, it seems that students with greater cognitive abilities will make the faster progress. Some linguists believe that there is a specific, innate language learning ability that is stronger in some students than in others. * Native language: Students who are learning a second language which is from the same language family as their first language have, in general, a much easier task than those who aren't. So, for example, a Dutch child will learn English more quickly than a Japanese child.
External factors
External factors are those that characterize the particular language learning situation. * Curriculum: For students in particular it is important that the totality of their educational experience is appropriate for their needs. Language learning is less likely to place if students are fully submersed into the mainstream program without any extra assistance or, conversely, not allowed to be part of the mainstream until they have reached a certain level of language proficiency. * Instruction: Clearly, some language teachers are better than others at providing appropriate and effective learning experiences for the students in their classrooms. These students will make faster progress.
The same applies to mainstream teachers in second language situations. The science teacher, for example, who is aware that she too is responsible for the students' English language development, and makes certain accommodations, will contribute to their linguistic development. * Culture and status: There is some evidence that students in situations where their own culture has a lower status than that of the culture in which they are learning the language make slower progress. * Motivation: Students who are given continuing, appropriate encouragment to learn by their teachers and parents will generally fare better than those who aren't. For example, students from families that place little importance on language learning are likely to progress less quickly. * Access to native speakers: The opportunity to interact with native speakers both within and outside of the classroom is a significant advantage. Native speakers are linguistic models and can provide appropriate feedback. Clearly, second-language learners who have no extensive access to native speakers are likely to make slower progress, particularly in the oral/aural aspects of language acquisition. stykistics A branch of applied linguistics concerned with the study of style intexts, especially (but not exclusively) in literary works.
According to Katie Wales in A Dictionary of Stylistics, 2nd ed. (Pearson, 2001), "The goal of most stylistics is not simply to describe the formal features of texts for their own sake, but in order to show their functional significance for the interpretation of the text; or in order to relate literary effects to linguistic 'causes' where these are felt to be relevant."
The Nature of Stylistics
Stylistics is a borderline discipline between language and literature. It focuses on language use in both literary and non-literary texts. In doing this, it uses insights from numerous disciplines such as literature, psychology, sociology, philosophy and so on.
Therefore, while it has its own focus, it is multidisciplinary in nature. Stylistics looks at style in such dimension as:
Style as Choice: This considers style as the characteristic choices that a writer/speaker makes in a text at the various levels of language description.
Style as Deviation: What is deviant i.e. what does not conform to the ‘standard’ is said to be stylistically significant. This can also be at any level of language description.
Style as Situation: The situation is the context in which a text comes to life. This could be physical, socio-cultural, pragmatic, etc.
Style as Temporal Phenomenon: This deals with the time of relevance of style. That is, whether it is still in vogue or not (ancient or modern). A good example is Old English versus Modern English.
Style as the Individual: This focuses on the specific features that are associated with particular individuals i.e. writers’ or speakers’ idiolects.
In summary, stylistics enables us to interact meaningfully well with a text. It opens our minds to the various dimensions of a particular literary or non-literary work. It is a discipline which is relevant to all activities which rely on the use of language. Through our knowledge of stylistics, our knowledge of textual appreciation will increase, just as our knowledge of the workings of language will appreciate. In short, stylistics will make 22 us informed observers and analysts of language use in the process of negotiating meanings. * Dualism: between form and meaning “style as choices of Manner rather than Matter, of Expression rather than Content”; as a “way of writing” or a “mode of expression” originates from Aristotle’s literary theory. * Style as the “dress of thought”, claimed by Renaissance and rationalism, makes it some kind of “adornment” of thought or meaning. The Aesthetics of form (parallelism, alliteration…) tends to attract the reader’s attention more than the meaning does, as seen in poetic lines. * Style as “manner of expression”, “A style is a way of writing” in which “the words on the page might have been different, or differently arranged, with no corresponding difference in substance. * 2).Monism: “It is like body and soul: form and content to me are one” (Flaubert * Dec. 12,1857) originates from Plato’s literary theory. therefore, monism finds its strongest ground in poetry through metaphor, irony ambiguity ,meaning and multi valued and sense loses its primacy.
SCOPE IN SYNTAX