Behaviorism: Developing And Token Economy
This Piece of work will discuss behavioural techniques such as flooding, systematic desensitisation, aversion therapy, behaviour shaping and token economy. Behaviourists believe that behaviour is learnt and therefore can be unlearnt (Gross, 1996). Behaviourism is mainly concerned with observable behaviour, as opposed to inner events like thinking and emotions (Mcleod, 2007). Behavioural therapists focused on using the same learning approaches that led to the development of the undesirable behaviours, as well as new behaviours. The behaviour itself is the problem, and the aim is to teach new behaviours to minimise or eradicate the issue. Old learning led to the development of a problem, and so the idea is that new learning can fix the problem
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(Cherry, 2014). There are two kids of conditioning theories, classic and operant, classic conditioning involves learning a new behaviour through a process of association and operant is a process were the behaviour is learnt through reward or reinforcement (Eysenck, 2001).
Flooding is a technique typical used for fears or phobias, this involves classic condition therapy. This is performed whereby the person with a phobia or fear (stimuli) is associated with the fear (stimulus) the phobia represents is exposed to their stimuli. For example if a person has a fear of clowns, they may be placed in a room full of clowns and the person would become overwhelmed with fear and anxiety. However, after a time the persons fear start to decrease and there is a reduction of fear for the stimuli (Eysenck, 2001). The problem with the flooding technique is that it provokes high intensity anxiety and can therefore have disturbing effects on some (Eysenck, 2001). The effectiveness of this kind of therapy is that a person has no option but to face their fears and confront them (Hill, 1998).
Systematic desensitisation was developed by the South African psychiatrist, Joseph Wolfe, in 1958 (Joseph, 2010). This alternative therapy for phobias is based on the behaviour principle of counterconditioning, assisting the individuals to overcome their fear of phobic stimulus (Psychiatric Nursing, 2013) replacing the fear with learnt relaxation. This technique is a step-by-step application, the client develops a list of their own hierarchy of fears, starting with those which cause the least amount of fear then once the first fear has been overcome through relaxation, the client steadily progressing to the most frightening (Joseph, 2010). This form of therapy is very successful specific phobias and is thought to be beneficial as two emotions such as fear and relaxation cannot coexist (Hill, 1998). It is argued that it is the exposure to the phobia or feared situation that aids people to overcome their issues (Joseph, 2010).
Aversion therapy this technique involves taking an undesirable behaviour and associating it with an unpleasant consequence this could be adverse feelings, pain or discomfort, with the intentioned outcome to be that the undesirable behaviour will be avoided (Hill, 1998).
This therapy is commonly used with people who have alcohol problems, the clients would be asked to smell or sip alcohol and as a result electric shock was administered (Joseph, 2010). Similarly a tablet can be taken and if the client was to drink any alcohol this would make them start violently vomiting. This step is repeated and overtime the association of between drinking and vomiting would eventually deter the client to drink. The same could be carried out for someone who wished to stop smoking. Aversion therapy has been at many ethical objections and the results are not very strong as many relapse and depends on if the client can avoid the stimulus for a period of time also. More controversially, in the 1960 aversion therapy was used to ‘cure’ homosexuality, whereby a specific stimulus was produced and the patient would be electrocuted if they became aroused (Rice, et al., 2000). One instance was a young boy locked in a room containing just a bed, was given piles of erotic photographs of men. He was given a drug with made him violently sick and left for three days where not only was his room full of vomit but faeces and urine and was told how revolting homosexuality is; this young boy said those three …show more content…
days devastated his life (Rice, et al., 2000).
Behaviour shaping/modification is a behavioural therapy, which is based on reinforcement of positive behaviours or shaping the behaviour (Eysenck, 2001). According to Baddeley (1990 cited in Gross, 1996) most behaviour follows patterns which involve a series of steps.
Step 1 – Identify the behaviour that needs to change.
Step 2 – Specify the desired goal.
Step 3 – Observations of how the person normal behaves.
Step 4 – Decide on the reinforced strategy.
Step 5 – Plan treatment and advise everyone that come in contact with the person.
Step 6 – Begin Treatment.
Step 7 – Monitor progress.
Step 8 – Modify if necessary. An early example of this was carried out by Skinner, whereby he placed rats and pigeons in a box and by pressing a lever resulted in food being dispensed (Halo, n.d.). Even when knocking the lever unintentionally, the rats and pigeons quickly learned to intentionally press the lever to acquire food. Skinner was then able to conclude, that to press the lever for food, based on the presentation of different stimuli, the behaviour is shaped by its consequence (Halo, n.d.) . As understood in the study from Skinner, that once the steps where followed and learnt the animal received the reinforcement of the behaviour learnt. This therapy is only successful if say for a child, the parents and anyone in contact with the child needs to follow the programme and support the child. This therapy would not be beneficial to those with certain types of mental illness such as schizophrenia (Hill, 1998).
Token economy is based on positive reinforcement and reward therapy given for good or appropriate behaviour.
A study by Ayllon and Azrin in 1968, observed problems at mealtimes on a chronic psychotic ward (Joseph, 2010). They soon noted that the problem was the reinforcement provided by the staff to those patients’ causing the issues. Those that had problems at mealtimes seemed to gain the attention of the staff. Ayllon and Arizn theorised that those who had gain social attention from the staff maintained their maladaptive behaviour and seen the attention as a reward (Hill, 1998). So Allyon and Azrin introduction a token system, they would be given out to those without problems at mealtimes, thus reinforcing appropriate behaviour. After a few days those with maladaptive disruptive behaviour soon adapted positive and appropriate behaviour. The tokens were soon given out for more socially appropriate behaviours like doing washing and tiding their rooms. The token could be exchanged for positive rewards and privileges such as days out (Joseph, 2010). This therapy was seen to produce a positive outcome when faced with undesirable behaviour within institutions and has been beneficial therapy which is used in the classrooms and many home, such as a reward chart where a child is rewarded for appropriate behaviour. The advantages of token economy are that desirable behaviour can be rewarded immediately which compels the individual to feel a sense of achievement and therefore the
desired behaviour is maintained. The use of tokens or in the case of young children ‘sticker charts’ can however be time consuming and prove costly.
This piece of work has considered certain behavioural therapies which are based on classical conditioning the application methods and the results. To conclude, the behavioural techniques which have been discussed each provide aspects which allow for positive behavioral modification. Behaviorists believe that by changing maladaptive behaviour it will also solve certain psychological issues, as the behaviour is the problem. The therapy of positive and negative reinforcement is used in modern day society, by individuals from all walks of life and is positively beneficial in conditioning a desirable behaviour. Although in some examples it could be argued that certain forms of treatment are controversial and old-fashioned. As behavioural therapy focuses on observing behaviour, many suggest that thoughts and feelings of a person are ignored and by incorporating it with the cognitive approach is seen more beneficial and successful, known as cognitive-behavioural therapy (Joseph, 2010).
References
Cherry, . K., 2014. What Is Behavioral Therapy?. [Online]
Available at: http://psychology.about.com/od/typesofpsychotherapy/a/behavioral-therapy.htm
[Accessed 21 June 2014].
Eysenck, M. W., 2001. Psychology for A2 Level. New York: Taylor & Francis .
Gross, R., 1996. Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behaviour. 3rd ed. London: Hodder & Stoughton.
Halo, n.d. Behaviourist Perspective. [Online]
Available at: http://www.holah.co.uk/page/behaviourist/
[Accessed 21 June 2014].
Hill, G., 1998. Advanced Psychology Through Diagrams. s.l.:Open University Press.
Joseph, S., 2010. Theories of counselling and Psychotherapy: An Intorduction to the Different Approach. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Mcleod, S., 2007. Simply Psychology. [Online]
Available at: http://www.simplypsychology.org
[Accessed 28 April 2014].
Psychiatric Nursing, 2013. Behaviour Therapy Techniques based on classical conditioning. [Online]
Available at: http://nursingplanet.com/pn/behaviour_therapy.html
[Accessed 22 June 2014].
Rice, D. et al., 2000. Pyschology in Focus AS Level. 1st ed. Ormskirk: Causeway Press Ltd.
(Cherry, 2014). There are two kids of conditioning theories, classic and operant, classic conditioning involves learning a new behaviour through a process of association and operant is a process were the behaviour is learnt through reward or reinforcement (Eysenck, 2001).
Flooding is a technique typical used for fears or phobias, this involves classic condition therapy. This is performed whereby the person with a phobia or fear (stimuli) is associated with the fear (stimulus) the phobia represents is exposed to their stimuli. For example if a person has a fear of clowns, they may be placed in a room full of clowns and the person would become overwhelmed with fear and anxiety. However, after a time the persons fear start to decrease and there is a reduction of fear for the stimuli (Eysenck, 2001). The problem with the flooding technique is that it provokes high intensity anxiety and can therefore have disturbing effects on some (Eysenck, 2001). The effectiveness of this kind of therapy is that a person has no option but to face their fears and confront them (Hill, 1998).
Systematic desensitisation was developed by the South African psychiatrist, Joseph Wolfe, in 1958 (Joseph, 2010). This alternative therapy for phobias is based on the behaviour principle of counterconditioning, assisting the individuals to overcome their fear of phobic stimulus (Psychiatric Nursing, 2013) replacing the fear with learnt relaxation. This technique is a step-by-step application, the client develops a list of their own hierarchy of fears, starting with those which cause the least amount of fear then once the first fear has been overcome through relaxation, the client steadily progressing to the most frightening (Joseph, 2010). This form of therapy is very successful specific phobias and is thought to be beneficial as two emotions such as fear and relaxation cannot coexist (Hill, 1998). It is argued that it is the exposure to the phobia or feared situation that aids people to overcome their issues (Joseph, 2010).
Aversion therapy this technique involves taking an undesirable behaviour and associating it with an unpleasant consequence this could be adverse feelings, pain or discomfort, with the intentioned outcome to be that the undesirable behaviour will be avoided (Hill, 1998).
This therapy is commonly used with people who have alcohol problems, the clients would be asked to smell or sip alcohol and as a result electric shock was administered (Joseph, 2010). Similarly a tablet can be taken and if the client was to drink any alcohol this would make them start violently vomiting. This step is repeated and overtime the association of between drinking and vomiting would eventually deter the client to drink. The same could be carried out for someone who wished to stop smoking. Aversion therapy has been at many ethical objections and the results are not very strong as many relapse and depends on if the client can avoid the stimulus for a period of time also. More controversially, in the 1960 aversion therapy was used to ‘cure’ homosexuality, whereby a specific stimulus was produced and the patient would be electrocuted if they became aroused (Rice, et al., 2000). One instance was a young boy locked in a room containing just a bed, was given piles of erotic photographs of men. He was given a drug with made him violently sick and left for three days where not only was his room full of vomit but faeces and urine and was told how revolting homosexuality is; this young boy said those three …show more content…
days devastated his life (Rice, et al., 2000).
Behaviour shaping/modification is a behavioural therapy, which is based on reinforcement of positive behaviours or shaping the behaviour (Eysenck, 2001). According to Baddeley (1990 cited in Gross, 1996) most behaviour follows patterns which involve a series of steps.
Step 1 – Identify the behaviour that needs to change.
Step 2 – Specify the desired goal.
Step 3 – Observations of how the person normal behaves.
Step 4 – Decide on the reinforced strategy.
Step 5 – Plan treatment and advise everyone that come in contact with the person.
Step 6 – Begin Treatment.
Step 7 – Monitor progress.
Step 8 – Modify if necessary. An early example of this was carried out by Skinner, whereby he placed rats and pigeons in a box and by pressing a lever resulted in food being dispensed (Halo, n.d.). Even when knocking the lever unintentionally, the rats and pigeons quickly learned to intentionally press the lever to acquire food. Skinner was then able to conclude, that to press the lever for food, based on the presentation of different stimuli, the behaviour is shaped by its consequence (Halo, n.d.) . As understood in the study from Skinner, that once the steps where followed and learnt the animal received the reinforcement of the behaviour learnt. This therapy is only successful if say for a child, the parents and anyone in contact with the child needs to follow the programme and support the child. This therapy would not be beneficial to those with certain types of mental illness such as schizophrenia (Hill, 1998).
Token economy is based on positive reinforcement and reward therapy given for good or appropriate behaviour.
A study by Ayllon and Azrin in 1968, observed problems at mealtimes on a chronic psychotic ward (Joseph, 2010). They soon noted that the problem was the reinforcement provided by the staff to those patients’ causing the issues. Those that had problems at mealtimes seemed to gain the attention of the staff. Ayllon and Arizn theorised that those who had gain social attention from the staff maintained their maladaptive behaviour and seen the attention as a reward (Hill, 1998). So Allyon and Azrin introduction a token system, they would be given out to those without problems at mealtimes, thus reinforcing appropriate behaviour. After a few days those with maladaptive disruptive behaviour soon adapted positive and appropriate behaviour. The tokens were soon given out for more socially appropriate behaviours like doing washing and tiding their rooms. The token could be exchanged for positive rewards and privileges such as days out (Joseph, 2010). This therapy was seen to produce a positive outcome when faced with undesirable behaviour within institutions and has been beneficial therapy which is used in the classrooms and many home, such as a reward chart where a child is rewarded for appropriate behaviour. The advantages of token economy are that desirable behaviour can be rewarded immediately which compels the individual to feel a sense of achievement and therefore the
desired behaviour is maintained. The use of tokens or in the case of young children ‘sticker charts’ can however be time consuming and prove costly.
This piece of work has considered certain behavioural therapies which are based on classical conditioning the application methods and the results. To conclude, the behavioural techniques which have been discussed each provide aspects which allow for positive behavioral modification. Behaviorists believe that by changing maladaptive behaviour it will also solve certain psychological issues, as the behaviour is the problem. The therapy of positive and negative reinforcement is used in modern day society, by individuals from all walks of life and is positively beneficial in conditioning a desirable behaviour. Although in some examples it could be argued that certain forms of treatment are controversial and old-fashioned. As behavioural therapy focuses on observing behaviour, many suggest that thoughts and feelings of a person are ignored and by incorporating it with the cognitive approach is seen more beneficial and successful, known as cognitive-behavioural therapy (Joseph, 2010).
References
Cherry, . K., 2014. What Is Behavioral Therapy?. [Online]
Available at: http://psychology.about.com/od/typesofpsychotherapy/a/behavioral-therapy.htm
[Accessed 21 June 2014].
Eysenck, M. W., 2001. Psychology for A2 Level. New York: Taylor & Francis .
Gross, R., 1996. Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behaviour. 3rd ed. London: Hodder & Stoughton.
Halo, n.d. Behaviourist Perspective. [Online]
Available at: http://www.holah.co.uk/page/behaviourist/
[Accessed 21 June 2014].
Hill, G., 1998. Advanced Psychology Through Diagrams. s.l.:Open University Press.
Joseph, S., 2010. Theories of counselling and Psychotherapy: An Intorduction to the Different Approach. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Mcleod, S., 2007. Simply Psychology. [Online]
Available at: http://www.simplypsychology.org
[Accessed 28 April 2014].
Psychiatric Nursing, 2013. Behaviour Therapy Techniques based on classical conditioning. [Online]
Available at: http://nursingplanet.com/pn/behaviour_therapy.html
[Accessed 22 June 2014].
Rice, D. et al., 2000. Pyschology in Focus AS Level. 1st ed. Ormskirk: Causeway Press Ltd.