Book Notes and lecture Notes from Chapter 1, Introduction to Psychology, Dennis Coon, Tenth Edition

Karin Bean, Notes Chapter 1

The word Psychology

Comes form the roots psyche (means mind) and logos (means study of or knowledge)

Psychology

Is the science of behavior and mental processes. Psychologists gather scientific data in order to describe, understand, predict, and control behavior.

Is a science and a profession

Uses the scientific method to study behavior

Psychologists

are professionals who create and apply psychological knowledge

can be scientist, teachers, or apply it in education, business, sports, law, and medicine

The Scientific Method

is a powerful way to observe the natural world and draw valid conclusions

Psychological Research

Begins with observations, questions, and hypotheses. Next, researchers gather evidence, test hypotheses, and publish results. scientific debate and theories suggest new hypotheses which lead to further research

Experiments

Are the best way to identify cause-and-effect relationships in psychology

Critical Thinking

is central to the scientific method, to psychology, and to effective behavior in general

Television Magazines And Other Popular Media

Are rife with inaccurate information. It is essential to critically evaluate information from popular sources or from any source for that matter

Psychological Researchers

Make every effort to maintain high ethical standards in their work.

Behavior

Is anything you do eating, sleeping, talking, or sneezing? Dreaming, gambling, watching TV, sports,reading.

Overt Behaviors

Are observable actions and responses

Covert behaviors

Are private internal activities, (responses) such as thinking remembering and other mental events hidden from view

EMPIRICISM-Empirical evidence

Facts or Information gained from direct observation or experience

True scientific observation

Is structured to answer questions about the world

Research method A systematic approach to answering scientific questions

Critical Thinking

An ability to evaluate, compare, analyze , critique e , and synthesize information

Critical thinkers analyze the evidence supporting their beliefs, they question assumptions, and they look for alternative conclusions.

Principles for Critical Thinking

1. Few truth transcends the need for empirical testing. Example religious beliefs and personal values maybe held without supporting evidence. But most other ideas can be evaluated by applying the rules of logic and evidence

2. Judging the quality of evidence is crucial

(most credible facts)

3. Authority or claimed expertise does not automatically make and idea true.

Example: A professor is not automatically a great teacher.

4. Critical thinking requires and open mind.

Balance between open mind and healthy skepticism do not be gullible

NOTE According to scientific research

*People who never dream did dream

*Babies listening to Mozart do not get smarter

*Spanking is a poor way to reinforce learning in children

Research Specializations

Developmental psychologist

Study the course of human growth and development from birth until death

Learning theorists

Interested in variables affecting learning and in theories of learning

Personality theorist

Studies personality traits, dynamics, and theories

Sensation and perception psychologist

Studies the sense organs and the process of perception

Comparative psychologists

Studying and comparing the behavior or different species, especially animals

Bio psychologists

Studies the relationship between behavior and biological processes especially activity in the nervous system

Cognitive psychologists

Study how reasoning, problem solving and other metal processes relate to human behavior

Social psychologists

Explore human social behavior, such as attitudes persuasion rots, conformity, leadership, racism, and friendship.

Evolutionary psychologist

Interested in how human traits and behavior patterns are shaped by evolution

Cultural psychologists

Studies the ways in which culture affects human behavior

Animal and Psychology-Animal models

In research an animal whose behavior is used to derive principles that may apply to human behavior

They have greatly added to our understanding of obesity, memory, stress, learning, psychosis, therapy, aging, and other topics.

Psychology's goals

As a science the goals are :

To describe understand, predict and control behavior. beyond that psychology's ultimate goal is to benefit humanity

Description

The process of naming and classifying. ( detailed record of behavioral observations)

Understanding

Is achieved when the causes of a behavior can be stated (when we can explain an event.

Prediction

An ability to accurately forecast behavior

Is especially important in psychometrics (mental measurement)

Control

Means altering conditions that influence behavior in predictable ways.

Psychological control must be used humanly and wisely

Psychology's goals come form a natural desire to understand behavior which leads us to ask:

1. What is the nature of this behavior? (description)

2. Why does it occur (understanding and explanation)

3. Can we predict when it will occur? (prediction)

4. What conditions affect it? (control)

HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY

1879 Leipzig, Germany, Wilhelm Wundt

(Structuralism)

Father of Psychology

Set up the first lab to study conscious experience.

How we form sensations images, feelings.

Wundt observed and measured stimuli of various kinds. (Lights, sound, and weights.

Then he used introspection "looking inward" and measurement to probe his reactions to various stimuli.

He called his approach experimental self-observation because he used both trained introspection and objective measurement.

Titchener

Titchener brought Wundt's ideas to the USA And called Wundt's ideas structuralism because they dealt with the structure of mental life.

The structuralists hoped to analyze experience into basic elements or building blocks.They used introspection.

Introspection

Proofed to be a poor way to answer many question. Because the structuralists frequently disagreed.

(looking inward is still used in the studies of hypnosis, meditation problem solving, moods and any other topics

William James

(Functionalism)

Believed that ideas should be judged in terms of third practical consequences for human conduct

That consciousness is an ever-changing stream or flow of images and sensations,-not a set of lifeless building blocks as the strucuralists claimed.

Functionalism

The term comes form an interest in how the mind functions to help us survive and adapt

The functionalists

Admired Charles Darwin who deduced that creatures evolve in ways that favor their survival. According to Darwin's principle of natural selection physical features help animals adapt to their environments are retained in evolution.

The functionalists wanted to find out how the mind perception, habits, and emotions aid survival.

It also produced educational psychology and industrial psychology (people at work. Functionalist tried to improve education.

From Chapter Notes

Mesmer

Moved into the unconscious state

He worked with hysterical woman

He thought they would be susceptive to hypnosis

(hysteria)- inversion disorder

John Watson

Behaviorism

Functionalism was soon challenged by behaviorism. Watson objected the study of the mind or conscious experience.

BEHAVIORISM

The study of observable behavior. Observation how stimuli (events in the environment) related to an animal/s responses (any muscular action, glandular activity or other identifiable behavior.)

Why not apply it to Humans?

Watson adapted Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov's concept of conditioning to explain most behavior ( a Conditioned response is a learned reaction to particular stimulus)

Behaviorism helped make psychology a natural science rather than a branch of philosophy.

B.F. Skinner

Best known modern behaviorists

Radical Behaviorism Believed mental events are not needed to explain behavior

Behavior is shaped and maintained by its consequences.

In order to understand human behavior we must take into account what the environment does to an organism before and after it responds

According to Skinner our behavior is controlled by rewards or positive reinforcers.

Cognitive Behaviorism

A view that combines cognition (thinking) and conditioning to explain behavior.

Behaviorism is also the source of behavior modification. In this type of therapy, learning principles are used to change problem behaviors.

GESTALT

Psychology

Gestalt psychologists

Studied thinking, learning, and perception in whole units, not by analyzing experiences into parts.

Slogan: the whole is great than the sum of its parts.

Max Wertheimer

A German psychologist Was the first person to advance the Gestalt viewpoint. He said it is a mistake to analyze psychological events into pieces or elements as the structuralisms did.

Therefore anlysis of perception and personality have been especially influenced by the gestalt viewpoint.

Gestalt psychology also inspired a type of psychotherapy.

Psychoanalytic Psychology

Sigmund Freud-Austrian doctor

Developed his own theories.

He believed that mental life is like an iceberg: Only a small part is exposed to view. He called the area of the mind that lies outside of personal awareness the Unconscious.

According to Freud, our behavior is deeply influenced by unconscious thoughts, impulses, and desires, especially such as sex and aggression.

Freud theorized that many unconscious thoughts are threatening: they are repressed. They are sometimes revealed by dreams, emotions or slips of the tongue

Freud believed that al thoughts, emotions and actions are determined (nothing is an accident) if we probe deep enough we will find a cause for every action.

Freud was among the first to appreciate that childhood affects adult personality.

Freud is known for creating Psychoanalysis the first talking therapy.

Neo Freudians Students began to brake away to promote their won theories.

Neo- Freudians accept the broad features of Freud's theory but revise parts of it.

NEO FREUDIANS

Alfred Adler

Anna Freud-Daughter of Sigmund Freud

Karin Horney

Carl Jung

Otto Rank

Erik Erickson

Only a few strictly Freudian psychologists are left.

However, Freud's legacy is still evident in varied psychodynamic theories which emphasize internal motives, conflicts, and unconscious forces.

WOMAN IN PSYCHOLOGY

Mary Calkins-research memory

Christine Ladd-Franklin-studied color vision

Margaret Washburn-first woman awarded an PH. D. IN PSYCH

HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY

Abraham Maslow fonder

Was interested in studying people of exceptional metal health.

Humanism

Is a view that focuses on understanding subjective human experience

Humanistic psychologists

Are interested in human problems potentials and ideals.

Carl Rogers, Abraham Malow and other humanists rejected the Freudian idea that unconscious forces rule us. They were also uncomfortable with the behaviorist emphasis on conditioning.

Determinism

The Idea that all behavior has prior causes that would completely explain one's choices and actions if all such causes were known

Humanists

Believe that people can freely choose to live more creative meaningful and satisfying lives. Stress free will.

Stimulated interest in psychological needs for love, self-esteem, belonging, self-expression, creativity, and spirituality.

There were less interested in psychology as a science. They stressed more subjective factors, such as ones self-image, self-evaluation, and frame of reference.

Free will

The idea that human beings are capable of freely making choices or decisions

Psychology today-five views of behavior

Functionalism and gestalt psychology

Have blended into newer broader perspectives

structuralism has disappeared entirely

TODAY Many psychologists are electik

Electik

Drawing from many sources and embrace a variety of theories)

Five major perspectives

1. Psychodynamic

Conscious and unconscious

Behavior is directed by forces within one's personality that are often hidden or unconscious.

Emphasizes internal impulses desire, and conflicts -especially those that are unconscious, views behavior as the result of clashing forces within personality, somewhat negative, pessimistic view of human nature.

2. Behavioristic

Behavior is shaped and controlled by one's environment

Emphasizes the study of observable behavior and the effects of learning; stresses the influence on eternal rewards and punishment; neutral, scientific, somewhat mechanistic view of human nature.

3. Humanistic

Behavior is guided by one's self-image, by subjective perceptions of the world and by needs for personal growth. Focuses on subjective conscious experience, human problems, potentials, and ideals; emphasizes self-image and self-actualization to explain behavior; positive, philosophical view of human nature

4. Cognitive psychology

Much human behavior can be understood in terms of the mental processing of information. Concerned with thinking, knowing, perception, understanding, memory, decision-making, and judgment; explains behavior in terms of information processing; neutral, somewhat computer-like view or human nature.

5. Biopsychology

Human and animal behavior is the result of internal physical, chemical, and biological processes.

Seeks to explain behavior through activity of the brain and nervous system, physiology, genetics, the endocrine system biochemistry and evolution; neutral reductionistic, mechanistic view of human nature

Biopsychology

The fasted growing area

Eventually hope to explain all behavior in terms of brain activity, genetics, and other bodily mechanism.

Cognitive science

Is rapidly expanding.

Means thinking or knowing. Studies, thoughts, expectations memory, language, perceptions ,problem solving ,consciousness ,creativity, and other mental processes

POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

The study of human strings, virtues and optimal behavior and effective functioning

Summarizing is helpful to view human behavior from more than one perspective.

Appreciating social and cultural differences

The Impact of Culture

Most of what we think, feel, and do is influenced in one way or another by the social and cultural worlds in which we live

Cultural Relativity

The idea that behavior must e judged relative to the values of the culture in which it occurs can greatly affect the diagnosis of mental disorders

A broader View of Diversity

Age ethnicity gender religion disability, and sexual orientation all affect the social norms that guide behavior

Social norms

Unspoken rules that define acceptable and expected behavior for member of a group

Psychologists

What is the difference between a psychologist and a psychiatrist?

Answer: About

30$ an hour

PSYCHOLOGIST

Is a person highly trained in the methods, factual knowledge, and theories of psychology.

Have usually a master's degree or doctorate.

Require typically form 3-8 years postgraduate training

Note : cannot prescribe drugs

Professions of psychologists

Teaching

Research

Give psychological tests,

Consultants so business

Consultants to industry

Consultants to government

Consultants to military*

Clinical psychologists

Treat psychological problems

Or do research on therapies and mental disorders

Counseling psychologist

Address milder problems such as:

*Poor adjustment at work or school

(Note such differences are fading since as many counseling psychologists now work full-time as therapists.

To enter the profession of psychology It is best to have a doctorate

Such as:

Ph.D., Psy.D or Ed.D)

Most clinical psychologists hold a Ph. D. degree and follow a scientist -practitioner mode, in which they are trained to do either scientific research or therapy.

Many do both.

Psy.D. Other clinician's earn the Psy.D. (doctor of Psychology) degree, which emphasizes therapy skills rather than research

PSYCHIATRIST

Is a medical doctor who treats mental disorders.

Most are talking doctors who primarily do psychotherapy.

They can also prescribe drugs

(except in New Mexico)

PSYCHOANALYST

Must have an MD or a Ph.D. degree plus further specialized training in the theory ad practice of Freudian psychoanalysis.

NOTE: A physician or a psychologist may become an analyst by learning a specific type of psychotherapy.

Counselor

Is an advisor who helps solve problems with marriage, career, school, work, or the like

Typically, requires a master degree plus 1 or 2 years of full-time supervised counseling experience.

They do not treat serious mental disorders. They are trained in practical helping skills.

Psychiatric social workers

Apply social science principles to help patients in clinics and hospitals. Most hold a master of social work degree. They often assist psychologists and psychiatrist as part of a team.

Their typical duties include evaluating patients and families conducting group psychotherapy or visiting a patient's home, school or job to alleviate problems

Psychologist license

Must have a license issued by a state examining board

Beware of people with self-proclaimed titles.

(you can call yourself anything you wish)

Ethics 1. High levels of competence, integrity and responsibility

2. respect for people's rights to privacy, dignity, confidentiality, and personal freedom and above al

3. Protection of the client's welfare.

Psychologists are also expected to use their knowledge to contribute to societies.

Specialties in Psychology

Not all psychologists do therapy and treat abnormal behavior.

Only about 58 percent are clinical and counseling psychologist.

30 percent of all psychologists are employed full-tome at colleges or universities, where they teach and do research, consulting, or therapy.

Some do basic research (Scientific study undertaken without concern for immediate practical application.

The rest are found in other specialties.

Others do applied research to solve immediate practical problems. Such as ways to improve the memory of eyewitnesses to crimes. Some do both types of research.

The APA consists of more than 50 divisions reflecting special skills or areas of interest.

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

Questions

What is psychology

Psychology is the science of behavior and mental processes.

Uses the scientific method to study behavior

What are its goals

to describe, understand, predict and control behavior

What are the major trends and specialties in psychology

How do psychologist collect information

Psychologist gather scientific data

How is an experiment performed

What other research method do psychologist use Begin with observations, questions and hypotheses, Researchers gather evidence test hypotheses, and publish results. Scientific debate and theories suggest new hypotheses, which lead to further research.

How does psychology differ from false explanations of behavior

How dependable is psychological information in the popular media

What ethical questions does psychological research raise