Bunker Hill Research Paper
UNSUNG HEROES:
[pic]
THE BLACK SOLDIERS OF THE
AMERICAN REVOLUTION
By
Leanne Fleming
HIS 266–800 America’s history has been shaped by her people – ALL of her people. Until recently, the history books have managed to present a very one–sided view which conveys the impression that the deeds and actions which formed this great country were almost exclusively carried out by America’s white population. History books have made it believable because they have sprinkled in small doses of other nationalities and races. The worst part is that the vast majority of the people of the United States of America have bought it hook, line and sinker. The majority will continue to believe that history until the day they die because that is …show more content…
what they were taught in school and I feel sad for them. Those Americans are missing out on an added depth and richness in our history because they cannot or will not accept that this country was shaped by more than the occasional exceptional black person they studied in school like Harriet Tubman, Sojourner Truth, George Washington Carver and Frederick Douglass. They refuse to see that acknowledging the efforts and sacrifices made by those who were not white only makes us stronger as a nation and our heritage even more glorious. Admittedly, I was one of those unenlightened ones until very recently. At the risk of sounding cliché, I have seen the light. I got my wake–up call when my African–American History instructor made a statement to this effect, “African–Americans played a part throughout American History, not just at specific points like slavery, the Civil War and the Civil Rights movement. They helped shape this nation every step of the way.” It makes sense when you think about it because African–Americans have been here from the beginning – how can they not have played a part in shaping this country and making it what is today? I have never considered myself to be racist but after taking this class, I realize that in some ways I have been – not actively or viciously, but mostly by just accepting as gospel what I was taught in school and not asking more questions. I am learning things that make me want to dig deeper and question more and that can only be a good thing. One of the things that fascinated me the most was the role of African–Americans, in the American Revolution. I do not remember any being praised for their heroic actions in my long ago history classes. (Maybe part of the reason for that is that I went to grade school in the early 1960s.) But seriously, why would anyone want to fight a war for freedom and equal representation when they themselves had not representation and were not free? I believe the question answers itself; they fought because it gave them a shot at gaining their liberty and a chance to regain their sense of self and dignity. It also explains why African–Americans fought on both sides; since their ultimate goal was their own freedom, they fought for the side they believed gave them the best chance of getting it (class notes). Dunmore’s Proclamation promising freedom to slaves that fought for the British combined with George Washington’s declaration early in the war that no blacks would be permitted to serve in the Continental Army pretty much guaranteed that slaves would flock to fight for Great Britain. An estimated 10,000 to 20,000 African–Americans served in the British Army, largely because the British offered them their freedom in return for their service. The most famous of these were the Ethiopian Regiment Colonel Tye. Only about 1,000 are know to have actually taken up arms while the rest served the British by performing the everyday mundane tasks like cooking, laundry and laborers (Elizabeth Goodridge, Paul Rastatter, Continental Army website (CA), National Park Service website (NPS), class notes). According to the National Park Service, a total of 231,771 soldiers who fought for the colonies’ freedom in state and local militias and the Continental Army during the American Revolution and at least 5,000 of those were African–Americans. Some of the standouts being Salem Poor, James Forten, James Armistead, and the 1st Rhode Island Regiment. According to Joseph W. Dooley, chairman of the Sons of the American Revolution (SAR) membership committee, the numbers could be higher because enlistment papers did not ask for race at that time. Therefore, African–Americans are only able to be tracked and counted from the government’s military pension records. This means there is a portion that will go unrecorded if they were killed in action or never applied for the pension because they were returned to slavery or fled the country after the war. Dooley claims that as much as ten percent of the revolutionary troops were black and acknowledges that their actions were indispensible to the war effort (Project to ID). In addition, an article by Elizabeth Goodridge in US News & World Report suggests that the count of 5,000 is only the ones who took up arms and does not include the countless others who worked as manual laborers.
History tells us that the first to fall in the American Revolution was Crispus Attucks who was among five patriots who were killed in the Boston Massacre. Attucks was an escaped slave turned seaman and his death made him a symbol of courage and sacrifice for liberty (Catherine Clinton, Rastatter, Catherine Reef). What is not widely known is that free black militiamen fought in the battles at Concord and Lexington and Bunker Hill. In fact, African–Americans accounted for about thirty percent of the Continental soldiers from the New England states. It is documented that they received the same pay as whites and served in integrated units. However, there is no record of an African–American being promoted to a rank higher than corporal. (NPS) African–Americans also made up five percent of the troops at Bunker Hill.
Salem Poor was part of that five percent. Poor was born a slave but managed to purchase his freedom in 1769. It is interesting to note that of the 2,400 to 4,000 colonial troops known to have fought at Bunker Hill only Poor was singled in a petition to the Massachusetts General Court praising him as a “brave and gallant soldier.” The petition was signed by fourteen officers present at that battle. Details of Poor’s actions at Bunker Hill are not known because the document simply states that "to set forth the particulars of his conduct would be tedious." We can only assume that he performed numerous heroic actions during that battle. Poor did not receive the recognition that the officers petitioned for but he did continue to serve the cause of freedom and is know to have fought at Charlestown, Valley Forge and White Plains …show more content…
(NPS). Despite the obvious bravery of African–Americans like Salem Poor, when George Washington took over as head of the Continental Army in June of 1775, he declared that no blacks would be eligible to serve. When troop numbers steadily declined, and the British receiving an influx of manpower via escaped slaves, the Continental Congress pressured Washington to rethink that decision. Ironically, both sides were hesitant to fully arm blacks regardless of their status as free or slave. This resulted in many serving as laborers, cooks, drummers and fifers (CA, NPS, PBS). On the other hand, the Continental Navy was desperate for experienced seaman and never excluded African–Americans. Blacks performed various duties but were especially valued as pilots. Some state navies even purchased slaves specifically for wartime service (Robert Selig, PBS). James Forten was one of these African–American seamen. Forten was born a free black man and went to sea on a privately owned vessel at the age of fifteen as a powder boy. Forten was captured during a sea battle and made a prisoner of war and feared the standard fate of blacks captured which was to be sold into slavery. He was spared that fate when he was singled out to care for the capturing captain’s son. Forten eventually gained his freedom and after the war he worked for a sail–maker in Philadelphia. He became foreman and before the owner died he helped Forten get financing to start his own business which grew and prospered. Forten helped to found the Mother Bethel AME Church and was active in the abolitionist movement and the underground railroad (Rastatter, PBS). Another African–American worthy of recognition is James Armistead who is considered to be the most important spy of the Revolution and the first African–America’s first double–agent.
Armistead was a slave but in 1781, his master gave him permission to serve the cause. He was assigned to the Marquis de Lafayette who was trying to combat the confusion and upset caused by the defection of Benedict Arnold to the British. He went to Arnold’s camp posing as an escaped slave and served as a guide. He was also put to work as a British spy which enabled him to pass freely between sides. The information he fed the British was false but his status put him in a position to learn information on British troop movements which was extremely helpful to the Continental Army. Information from Armistead about British plans for Yorktown is credited for bringing about the end of the Revolutionary War (James
Armistead). In addition to the efforts of individual African–Americans there were several black units in the Revolutionary War. In 1780, Connecticut formed the 2nd Company of the 4th Connecticut Regiment which consisted of forty–eight black private and non–commissioned officers with four white officers. Massachusetts formed the Bucks of America commanded by Samuel Middleton who was the only commissioned black officer in the Continental Army (Selig). Probably the most well known unit was the 1st Rhode Island Regiment which was formed in July of 1778 and one hundred ninety seven black enlisted men with white commanding officers. This unit’s first foray into battle was the battle of Rhode Island at Newport where they succeeded in repelling three assaults by veteran Hessian troops. There was also a black unit from Haiti that fought with French and Colonial troops at the Battle of Savannah in 1779 (NPS). There were also several black women who made vital contributions to the Patriots’ cause. An article from the Philadelphia Daily News tells the story of re–enactors at the Valley Forge National Park who bring some black patriots to life. One of these is Hannah Till who was a slave. Till cooked for Washington and his troops at Valley Forge and spent seven years working with the army before gaining her freedom. She died in Philadelphia at the age of 102. An article found in the Temple University Libraries describes how the young African–American daughter of Samuel Fraunces foiled a plot to poison George Washington by warning him that the peas being served with his meal were poisoned. While neither of these women did anything especially heroic, they did have an effect on the war effort. Image the troops not being fed or the Continental Army without the leader they so loyally served under severely adverse conditions. The British also made use of African–Americans’ great desire for freedom. The Ethiopian Regiment was formed soon after Dunmore’s Proclamation. They were given crash courses in musket shooting and formation marching. Special uniforms were made for them. Dunmore hoped that by offering freedom to slaves, he would undermine the Patriots but his action actually had the opposite effect and caused southern plantation owners to rally to the Patriot side (Lord Dunmore, class notes). Colonel Tye was originally a member of the Ethiopian Regiment. Tye was a slave who had escaped a cruel master. He became adept at raids to secure much needed livestock and supplies as well as people. He was much feared as a guerrilla commander and fighter. The title of Colonel was bestowed upon him as a sign of respect (PBS, class notes). There is no doubt in my mind that African–Americans played a vital role during the American Revolution. Their bravery is undeniable and their ability to gather information as spies was phenomenal. It makes me wonder how the Revolutionary War would have been different if Washington had allowed African–Americans to fight all along and offered them freedom for their service or if Lord Dunmore had not made his proclamation. Would the war have been won or lost sooner? Conversely, would we still be flying a British flag if Washington and the Continental Congress had not relented and allowed African –Americans to serve?
PICTORIAL REFERENCES
Cover: Proposed Washington, D.C., memorial to African-Americans who fought in the Revolutionary War. Taken from Gonsalves, Sean. "African-American Soldiers Revolutionary War Heroes." Cape Cod Times. Dow Jones Local Media Group, Inc., 3 July 2011. Web. 23 Nov. 2011. .
Page 3. The Fall of Crispus Attucks. Image taken from "Crispus Attucks." Africans in America. Public Broadcasting Service. Web. 23 Nov. 2011. . Page 4. "Salem Poor "A Brave and Gallant Soldier"" The American Revolution: Lighting Freedom 's Flame. National Park Service, United Stated Department of the Interior, 4 Dec. 2008. Web. 23 Nov. 2011. .
Page 4. Drummer. Image taken from "Selig, Robert A. "The Revolution 's Black Soldiers." American Revolution.org. Member of History Channel Network. Web. 24 Nov. 2011. .
Page 5. James Armistead. Image taken from "James Armistead." Black History in America. Black History in America, 2001-2011. Web. 30 Nov. 2011. .
Page 6. 1st Rhode Island Regiment. Image taken from "The 1st Rhode Island Regiment of the Continental Line." American Revolution.org. Member of History Channel Network. Web. 24 Nov. 2011. < http://www.americanrevolution.org/firstri.html>.
Page 7. "Lord Dunmore 's Ethiopian Regiment." Black Past.org. Web. 24 Nov. 2011. .
REFERENCES
"African–Americans During the American Revolution – Teacher Reference Sheet." The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, 2006. Web. 6 Dec. 2011. "Black Loyalists." Africans in America. Public Broadcasting Service. Web. 24 Nov. 2011. .
"Black Revolutionary Seaman." Africans in America. Public Broadcasting Service. Web. 24 Nov. 2011. .
Blockson, Charles L. "Black Samuel Fraunces." Temple University Libraries. Web. 24 Nov. 2011. .
Clinton, Catherine. "Chapter 3: Struggles for Independence 1770 - 1789." The Black Soldier 1492 to the Present. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2000. 8–13. Print.
"Continental Army." American Military and Naval History. 2 Feb. 2010. Web. 6 Dec. 2011. .
Gonsalves, Sean. "African-American Soldiers Revolutionary War Heroes." Cape Cod Times. Dow Jones Local Media Group, Inc., 3 July 2011. Web. 23 Nov. 2011. .
Goodridge, Elizabeth. "For Blacks, There Was No Clear Choice." US News and World Report. 27 June 2008. Web. 3 Dec. 2011. .
"James Armistead." Black History in America. Black History in America, 2001-2011. Web. 30 Nov. 2011. .
"Lord Dunmore 's Ethiopian Regiment." Black Past.org. Web. 24 Nov. 2011. .
Poirier, Noel B. "Brave and Gallant Soldiers: African Americans in the Colonial Army." The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, Winter 2001-2002. Web. 2 Dec. 2011. .
"Project to ID Black Soldiers in Revolutionary War." Star Tribune. Star Tribune Media Company, 20 July 2006. Web. 4 Oct. 2011. .
Rastatter, Paul. "Black Soldiers and Sailors During the Revolution." Archiving Early America. 1996-2011. Web. 2 Dec. 2011. . Reef, Catherine. “Introduction and Chapter 1: The Revolutionary War.” Black Fighting Men: A Proud History. New York: Twenty–First Century Books, 1996. 4–10. Print.
"Re-enactors Portray Black Patriots of the Revolutionary War." The Daily News. Web. 24 Nov. 2011. .
"Salem Poor "A Brave and Gallant Soldier"" The American Revolution: Lighting Freedom 's Flame. National Park Service, United Stated Department of the Interior, 4 Dec. 2008. Web. 23 Nov. 2011. .
Selig, Robert A. "The Revolution 's Black Soldiers." American Revolution.org. Member of History Channel Network. Web. 24 Nov. 2011. .
-----------------------
[pic]
[pic]
James Armistead
[pic]
The fall of Crispus Attucks
[pic]
Salem Poor
[pic]
[pic]
1st Rhode Island Regiment
[pic]
Ethiopian Regimental
Soldier
[pic]
THE BLACK SOLDIERS OF THE
AMERICAN REVOLUTION
By
Leanne Fleming
HIS 266–800 America’s history has been shaped by her people – ALL of her people. Until recently, the history books have managed to present a very one–sided view which conveys the impression that the deeds and actions which formed this great country were almost exclusively carried out by America’s white population. History books have made it believable because they have sprinkled in small doses of other nationalities and races. The worst part is that the vast majority of the people of the United States of America have bought it hook, line and sinker. The majority will continue to believe that history until the day they die because that is …show more content…
what they were taught in school and I feel sad for them. Those Americans are missing out on an added depth and richness in our history because they cannot or will not accept that this country was shaped by more than the occasional exceptional black person they studied in school like Harriet Tubman, Sojourner Truth, George Washington Carver and Frederick Douglass. They refuse to see that acknowledging the efforts and sacrifices made by those who were not white only makes us stronger as a nation and our heritage even more glorious. Admittedly, I was one of those unenlightened ones until very recently. At the risk of sounding cliché, I have seen the light. I got my wake–up call when my African–American History instructor made a statement to this effect, “African–Americans played a part throughout American History, not just at specific points like slavery, the Civil War and the Civil Rights movement. They helped shape this nation every step of the way.” It makes sense when you think about it because African–Americans have been here from the beginning – how can they not have played a part in shaping this country and making it what is today? I have never considered myself to be racist but after taking this class, I realize that in some ways I have been – not actively or viciously, but mostly by just accepting as gospel what I was taught in school and not asking more questions. I am learning things that make me want to dig deeper and question more and that can only be a good thing. One of the things that fascinated me the most was the role of African–Americans, in the American Revolution. I do not remember any being praised for their heroic actions in my long ago history classes. (Maybe part of the reason for that is that I went to grade school in the early 1960s.) But seriously, why would anyone want to fight a war for freedom and equal representation when they themselves had not representation and were not free? I believe the question answers itself; they fought because it gave them a shot at gaining their liberty and a chance to regain their sense of self and dignity. It also explains why African–Americans fought on both sides; since their ultimate goal was their own freedom, they fought for the side they believed gave them the best chance of getting it (class notes). Dunmore’s Proclamation promising freedom to slaves that fought for the British combined with George Washington’s declaration early in the war that no blacks would be permitted to serve in the Continental Army pretty much guaranteed that slaves would flock to fight for Great Britain. An estimated 10,000 to 20,000 African–Americans served in the British Army, largely because the British offered them their freedom in return for their service. The most famous of these were the Ethiopian Regiment Colonel Tye. Only about 1,000 are know to have actually taken up arms while the rest served the British by performing the everyday mundane tasks like cooking, laundry and laborers (Elizabeth Goodridge, Paul Rastatter, Continental Army website (CA), National Park Service website (NPS), class notes). According to the National Park Service, a total of 231,771 soldiers who fought for the colonies’ freedom in state and local militias and the Continental Army during the American Revolution and at least 5,000 of those were African–Americans. Some of the standouts being Salem Poor, James Forten, James Armistead, and the 1st Rhode Island Regiment. According to Joseph W. Dooley, chairman of the Sons of the American Revolution (SAR) membership committee, the numbers could be higher because enlistment papers did not ask for race at that time. Therefore, African–Americans are only able to be tracked and counted from the government’s military pension records. This means there is a portion that will go unrecorded if they were killed in action or never applied for the pension because they were returned to slavery or fled the country after the war. Dooley claims that as much as ten percent of the revolutionary troops were black and acknowledges that their actions were indispensible to the war effort (Project to ID). In addition, an article by Elizabeth Goodridge in US News & World Report suggests that the count of 5,000 is only the ones who took up arms and does not include the countless others who worked as manual laborers.
History tells us that the first to fall in the American Revolution was Crispus Attucks who was among five patriots who were killed in the Boston Massacre. Attucks was an escaped slave turned seaman and his death made him a symbol of courage and sacrifice for liberty (Catherine Clinton, Rastatter, Catherine Reef). What is not widely known is that free black militiamen fought in the battles at Concord and Lexington and Bunker Hill. In fact, African–Americans accounted for about thirty percent of the Continental soldiers from the New England states. It is documented that they received the same pay as whites and served in integrated units. However, there is no record of an African–American being promoted to a rank higher than corporal. (NPS) African–Americans also made up five percent of the troops at Bunker Hill.
Salem Poor was part of that five percent. Poor was born a slave but managed to purchase his freedom in 1769. It is interesting to note that of the 2,400 to 4,000 colonial troops known to have fought at Bunker Hill only Poor was singled in a petition to the Massachusetts General Court praising him as a “brave and gallant soldier.” The petition was signed by fourteen officers present at that battle. Details of Poor’s actions at Bunker Hill are not known because the document simply states that "to set forth the particulars of his conduct would be tedious." We can only assume that he performed numerous heroic actions during that battle. Poor did not receive the recognition that the officers petitioned for but he did continue to serve the cause of freedom and is know to have fought at Charlestown, Valley Forge and White Plains …show more content…
(NPS). Despite the obvious bravery of African–Americans like Salem Poor, when George Washington took over as head of the Continental Army in June of 1775, he declared that no blacks would be eligible to serve. When troop numbers steadily declined, and the British receiving an influx of manpower via escaped slaves, the Continental Congress pressured Washington to rethink that decision. Ironically, both sides were hesitant to fully arm blacks regardless of their status as free or slave. This resulted in many serving as laborers, cooks, drummers and fifers (CA, NPS, PBS). On the other hand, the Continental Navy was desperate for experienced seaman and never excluded African–Americans. Blacks performed various duties but were especially valued as pilots. Some state navies even purchased slaves specifically for wartime service (Robert Selig, PBS). James Forten was one of these African–American seamen. Forten was born a free black man and went to sea on a privately owned vessel at the age of fifteen as a powder boy. Forten was captured during a sea battle and made a prisoner of war and feared the standard fate of blacks captured which was to be sold into slavery. He was spared that fate when he was singled out to care for the capturing captain’s son. Forten eventually gained his freedom and after the war he worked for a sail–maker in Philadelphia. He became foreman and before the owner died he helped Forten get financing to start his own business which grew and prospered. Forten helped to found the Mother Bethel AME Church and was active in the abolitionist movement and the underground railroad (Rastatter, PBS). Another African–American worthy of recognition is James Armistead who is considered to be the most important spy of the Revolution and the first African–America’s first double–agent.
Armistead was a slave but in 1781, his master gave him permission to serve the cause. He was assigned to the Marquis de Lafayette who was trying to combat the confusion and upset caused by the defection of Benedict Arnold to the British. He went to Arnold’s camp posing as an escaped slave and served as a guide. He was also put to work as a British spy which enabled him to pass freely between sides. The information he fed the British was false but his status put him in a position to learn information on British troop movements which was extremely helpful to the Continental Army. Information from Armistead about British plans for Yorktown is credited for bringing about the end of the Revolutionary War (James
Armistead). In addition to the efforts of individual African–Americans there were several black units in the Revolutionary War. In 1780, Connecticut formed the 2nd Company of the 4th Connecticut Regiment which consisted of forty–eight black private and non–commissioned officers with four white officers. Massachusetts formed the Bucks of America commanded by Samuel Middleton who was the only commissioned black officer in the Continental Army (Selig). Probably the most well known unit was the 1st Rhode Island Regiment which was formed in July of 1778 and one hundred ninety seven black enlisted men with white commanding officers. This unit’s first foray into battle was the battle of Rhode Island at Newport where they succeeded in repelling three assaults by veteran Hessian troops. There was also a black unit from Haiti that fought with French and Colonial troops at the Battle of Savannah in 1779 (NPS). There were also several black women who made vital contributions to the Patriots’ cause. An article from the Philadelphia Daily News tells the story of re–enactors at the Valley Forge National Park who bring some black patriots to life. One of these is Hannah Till who was a slave. Till cooked for Washington and his troops at Valley Forge and spent seven years working with the army before gaining her freedom. She died in Philadelphia at the age of 102. An article found in the Temple University Libraries describes how the young African–American daughter of Samuel Fraunces foiled a plot to poison George Washington by warning him that the peas being served with his meal were poisoned. While neither of these women did anything especially heroic, they did have an effect on the war effort. Image the troops not being fed or the Continental Army without the leader they so loyally served under severely adverse conditions. The British also made use of African–Americans’ great desire for freedom. The Ethiopian Regiment was formed soon after Dunmore’s Proclamation. They were given crash courses in musket shooting and formation marching. Special uniforms were made for them. Dunmore hoped that by offering freedom to slaves, he would undermine the Patriots but his action actually had the opposite effect and caused southern plantation owners to rally to the Patriot side (Lord Dunmore, class notes). Colonel Tye was originally a member of the Ethiopian Regiment. Tye was a slave who had escaped a cruel master. He became adept at raids to secure much needed livestock and supplies as well as people. He was much feared as a guerrilla commander and fighter. The title of Colonel was bestowed upon him as a sign of respect (PBS, class notes). There is no doubt in my mind that African–Americans played a vital role during the American Revolution. Their bravery is undeniable and their ability to gather information as spies was phenomenal. It makes me wonder how the Revolutionary War would have been different if Washington had allowed African–Americans to fight all along and offered them freedom for their service or if Lord Dunmore had not made his proclamation. Would the war have been won or lost sooner? Conversely, would we still be flying a British flag if Washington and the Continental Congress had not relented and allowed African –Americans to serve?
PICTORIAL REFERENCES
Cover: Proposed Washington, D.C., memorial to African-Americans who fought in the Revolutionary War. Taken from Gonsalves, Sean. "African-American Soldiers Revolutionary War Heroes." Cape Cod Times. Dow Jones Local Media Group, Inc., 3 July 2011. Web. 23 Nov. 2011. .
Page 3. The Fall of Crispus Attucks. Image taken from "Crispus Attucks." Africans in America. Public Broadcasting Service. Web. 23 Nov. 2011. . Page 4. "Salem Poor "A Brave and Gallant Soldier"" The American Revolution: Lighting Freedom 's Flame. National Park Service, United Stated Department of the Interior, 4 Dec. 2008. Web. 23 Nov. 2011. .
Page 4. Drummer. Image taken from "Selig, Robert A. "The Revolution 's Black Soldiers." American Revolution.org. Member of History Channel Network. Web. 24 Nov. 2011. .
Page 5. James Armistead. Image taken from "James Armistead." Black History in America. Black History in America, 2001-2011. Web. 30 Nov. 2011. .
Page 6. 1st Rhode Island Regiment. Image taken from "The 1st Rhode Island Regiment of the Continental Line." American Revolution.org. Member of History Channel Network. Web. 24 Nov. 2011. < http://www.americanrevolution.org/firstri.html>.
Page 7. "Lord Dunmore 's Ethiopian Regiment." Black Past.org. Web. 24 Nov. 2011. .
REFERENCES
"African–Americans During the American Revolution – Teacher Reference Sheet." The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, 2006. Web. 6 Dec. 2011. "Black Loyalists." Africans in America. Public Broadcasting Service. Web. 24 Nov. 2011. .
"Black Revolutionary Seaman." Africans in America. Public Broadcasting Service. Web. 24 Nov. 2011. .
Blockson, Charles L. "Black Samuel Fraunces." Temple University Libraries. Web. 24 Nov. 2011. .
Clinton, Catherine. "Chapter 3: Struggles for Independence 1770 - 1789." The Black Soldier 1492 to the Present. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2000. 8–13. Print.
"Continental Army." American Military and Naval History. 2 Feb. 2010. Web. 6 Dec. 2011. .
Gonsalves, Sean. "African-American Soldiers Revolutionary War Heroes." Cape Cod Times. Dow Jones Local Media Group, Inc., 3 July 2011. Web. 23 Nov. 2011. .
Goodridge, Elizabeth. "For Blacks, There Was No Clear Choice." US News and World Report. 27 June 2008. Web. 3 Dec. 2011. .
"James Armistead." Black History in America. Black History in America, 2001-2011. Web. 30 Nov. 2011. .
"Lord Dunmore 's Ethiopian Regiment." Black Past.org. Web. 24 Nov. 2011. .
Poirier, Noel B. "Brave and Gallant Soldiers: African Americans in the Colonial Army." The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, Winter 2001-2002. Web. 2 Dec. 2011. .
"Project to ID Black Soldiers in Revolutionary War." Star Tribune. Star Tribune Media Company, 20 July 2006. Web. 4 Oct. 2011. .
Rastatter, Paul. "Black Soldiers and Sailors During the Revolution." Archiving Early America. 1996-2011. Web. 2 Dec. 2011. . Reef, Catherine. “Introduction and Chapter 1: The Revolutionary War.” Black Fighting Men: A Proud History. New York: Twenty–First Century Books, 1996. 4–10. Print.
"Re-enactors Portray Black Patriots of the Revolutionary War." The Daily News. Web. 24 Nov. 2011. .
"Salem Poor "A Brave and Gallant Soldier"" The American Revolution: Lighting Freedom 's Flame. National Park Service, United Stated Department of the Interior, 4 Dec. 2008. Web. 23 Nov. 2011. .
Selig, Robert A. "The Revolution 's Black Soldiers." American Revolution.org. Member of History Channel Network. Web. 24 Nov. 2011. .
-----------------------
[pic]
[pic]
James Armistead
[pic]
The fall of Crispus Attucks
[pic]
Salem Poor
[pic]
[pic]
1st Rhode Island Regiment
[pic]
Ethiopian Regimental
Soldier