Business Teacher

`Social group
Individuals in groups are connected to each other by social relationships
In the social sciences a social group has been defined as two or more humans who interact with one another, share similar characteristics and collectively have a sense of unity. Other theorists, however, are a wary of definitions which stress the importance of interdependence or objective similarity. Instead, for researchers in the social identity tradition "a group is defined in terms of those who identify themselves as members of the group". Regardless, social groups come in a myriad of sizes and varieties. For example, a society can be viewed as a large social group. * |
Primary and Secondary Groups * Groups• Group: two or more people who have one or more goals in common and share common ways of thinking and behaving• Features: They are in regular contact with one another They share some ways of thinking, behaving and feeling They take one another’s behaviour into account They have one or more interests or goal in common * Groups• Groups play an important part in people’s lives• Groups range in size and formality• Groups draw lines around themselves creating insiders and outsiders (boundaries) These boundaries can change over time * Social Categories and Aggregates• Groups are sometimes mistaken with social categories and social aggregates.• Social Categories: people who share a social characteristics Example: high school seniors, women• Social Aggregate: people who happen to be at the same place at the same time Example: people waiting in line at the airport * Primary Groups• What is a primary group? A primary group is made up of people who are emotionally close, know each other well and seek each other’s company People in these groups have primary relationships (relationships that are intimate, caring and fulfilling) Primary groups are important in socialization People participate in primary groups throughout their life * How do they develop? There are several factors that are preferable for the development of primary groups Small Size: It is hard to develop close personal relationships in large groups. Small groups are needed to get to know people well Face to Face Contact: F to F contact allows people to communicate with nonverbal Continuous Contact: People need to meet on a regular basis to develop a primary relationship Proper Social Environment: The environment where the interaction takes place needs to be suitable to the relationship. * What are their Functions?• There are 3 important functions of Primary Groups Emotional Support: Strong support ties keep you going in difficult times Socialization: Teaches children and later adults how to participate in social life as well as norms and values Encourage Conformity: Apply pressure to conform to their norms and values * Secondary Groups• Secondary Group: people who share only part of their lives while focusing on a goal or task• These impersonal relationships exist only to accomplish a specific purpose• Members of these groups interact involving only parts of their personality Secondary Relationships: impersonal relationship involving only parts of the personality Examples: Employers/Workers, Clerks/Customers * What are they like?• Members of these groups may be friends but the relationship exists to accomplish a task. It doesn’t look to create a friendship• If a friendship becomes more important than the task then the group becomes ineffective• There are some cases where there is a crossover between primary and secondary Friends who work at the same place
Definition
The social cohesion approach
A social group exhibits some degree of social cohesion and is more than a simple collection or aggregate of individuals, such as people waiting at a bus stop, or people waiting in a line. Characteristics shared by members of a group may include interests, values, representations, ethnic or social background, and kinship ties. Kinship ties being a social bond based on common ancestry, marriage, or adoption. In a similar vein, some researchers consider the defining characteristic of a group as social interaction.
Types of groups
Primary groups a primary group is a small social group whose members share personal and lasting relationships. People joined in primary relationships spend a great deal of time together, engage in a wide range of activities, and feel that they know one another well. In short, they show real concern for one another. In every society, the family is the most important primary group. Groups based on lasting friendships are also primary groups.
Secondary groups, in contrast to primary groups, are large groups involving formal and institutional relationships. Secondary relationships involve weak emotional ties and little personal knowledge of one another. Most secondary groups are short term, beginning and ending without particular significance. They may last for years or may disband after a short time. The formation of primary groups happens within secondary groups.
Primary groups can be present in secondary settings. For example, attending a university exemplifies membership of a secondary group, while the friendships that are made there would be considered a primary group that you belong to. Likewise, some businesses care deeply about the well being of one another, while some immediate families have hostile relations within it.
Individuals almost universally have a bond toward what sociologists call reference groups. A reference group is a social group that serves as a point of reference in making evaluations and decisions.
Some examples of types of groups include the following:

Peer group
A peer group is a group with members of approximately the same age, social status, and interests. Generally, people are relatively equal in terms of power when they interact with peers.
Primary group and secondary group differ from each other in certain respects.
(1) Difference in size:
The size of the primary group is small as it consists of few members. Small size of the primary group helps its members to develop personal relations among themselves. On the other hand, secondary group is large in size. It consists of large number of people who are scattered all over the country. Due to its large size the members don't have personal relations among themselves.
(2) Difference in physical proximity:
Physical proximity refers to physical closeness or physical nearness. Members of a primary group are physically close to each other and personally known to each other. There exists a face-to-face contact among the members of a primary group. But in a secondary group the face-to-face contact is not found among the members. Physical distance is a characteristic feature of secondary group.
(3) Difference in relationship:
The relationship of the members of a primary group are direct, personal, cordial, close, intimate, face-to-face and informal in nature. For example, family, play group, neighbourhood etc. But, on the other hand, the relationship of the members of a secondary group is secondary relationship which are indirect, impersonal, formal, lacks face-to-face, lacks cordiality and less intimate. For example, political parties’ voluntary organisations, trade union etc.
(4) Difference in nature of control:
Primary group controls the behaviour of its members through informal means such as customs, traditions, folkways, mores, norms, beliefs, suggestions etc. Secondary groups control the behaviour of its members by formal means such as law, police, court, jail, army etc.

(5) Difference in goals:
The goals or the aims and objectives of the members of a primary group is same and the persons take other's interest as their own. The main purpose of a primary group is to fulfil all the needs of the members. But in secondary groups the aims or goal are not same. Every one ties to fulfil his self-interest. Secondary groups satisfy the specific need or interest of the members.
(6) Difference in means and ends:
Primary group is characterized by the primary relationship and this is not as a means to an end, but an end in itself. This relationship is spontaneous. On the other hand, the secondary relationship is considered not as an end in itself but as a means to an end.
(7) Difference in structure:
The structure of primary group is rigid and guided by some rigid informal means of customs, traditions, folkways, mores and norms. But the structure of secondary group is very flexible and regulated by a set of formal rules.
(8) Difference in membership:
The membership of a primary group is permanent and compulsory because man lives, grows and dies within it. But the membership of the secondary group is temporary and voluntary. People may join secondary groups according to their will, and also withdraw their membership at anytime without any reason. That is why secondary groups are known as 'Special Interest Groups'.
(9) Difference in type of co-operations:
In the primary groups the co-operation among the members is always direct and intimate. So the primary relations are inclusive. But in secondary groups there is only indirect type or co-operation among the members because the functions are based on division of labor and specialization of work.
(10) Difference in position:
In primary groups, the position or status of a person is fixed according to his birth, age and sex. For example, in family the position of father is based upon his birth, and age. But in secondary groups, the position of a person is determined by his roles. For example, in a trade union the position of the president depends upon the roles he plays in the union.

Group process /social dynamics
If one brings a small collection of strangers together in a restricted space and environment, provides a common goal and maybe a few ground rules, then a highly probable course of events will follow. Interaction between individuals is the basic requirement. At first, individuals will differentially interact in sets of twos or threes while seeking to interact with those with whom they share something in common: i.e., interests, skills, and cultural background. Relationships will develop some stability in these small sets, in that individuals may temporarily change from one set to another, but will return to the same pairs or trios rather consistently and resist change. Particular twosomes and threesomes will stake out their special spots within the overall space.
Again depending on the common goal, eventually twosomes and threesomes will integrate into larger sets of six or eight, with corresponding revisions of territory, dominance-ranking, and further differentiation of roles. All of this seldom takes place without some conflict or disagreement: for example, fighting over the distribution of resources, the choices of means and different sub goals, the development of what are appropriate norms, rewards and punishments. Some of these conflicts will be territorial in nature: i.e., jealousy over roles, or locations, or favored relationships. But most will be involved with struggles for status, ranging from mild protests to serious verbal conflicts and even dangerous violence.
Dispersal and transformation of groups
Two or more people in interacting situations will over time develop stable territorial relationships. As described above, these may or may not develop into groups. But stable groups can also break up in to several sets of territorial relationships. There are numerous reasons for stable groups to "malfunction" or to disperse, but essentially this is because of loss of compliance with one or more elements. The two most common causes of a malfunctioning group are the addition of too many individuals, and the failure of the leader to enforce a common purpose, though malfunctions may occur due to a failure of any of the other elements (i.e., confusions status or of norms).
In a society, there is an obvious need for more people to participate in cooperative endeavors than can be accommodated by a few separate groups. The military has been the best example as to how this is done in its hierarchical array of squads, platoons, companies, battalions, regiments, and divisions. Private companies, corporations, government agencies, clubs, and so on have all developed comparable (if less formal and standardized) systems when the number of members or employees exceeds the number that can be accommodated in an effective group. Not all larger social structures require the cohesion that may be found in the small group. Consider the neighbourhood.
For a functioning group to attempt to add new members in a casual way is a certain prescription for failure, loss of efficiency, or disorganization. The number of functioning members in a group can be reasonably flexible between five and ten, and a long-standing cohesive group may be able to tolerate a few hangers on. The key concept is that the value and success of a group is obtained by each member maintaining a distinct, functioning identity in the minds of each of the members. The cognitive limit to this span of attention in individuals is often set at seven. Rapid shifting of attention can push the limit to about ten. After ten, subgroups will inevitably start to form with the attendant loss of purpose, dominance-order, and individuality, with confusion of roles and rules. The standard classroom with twenty to forty pupils and one teacher offers a rueful example of one supposed leader juggling a number of subgroups.
Weakening of the common purpose once a group is well established can be attributed to: adding new members; unsettled conflicts of identities (i.e., territorial problems in individuals); weakening of a settled dominance-order; and weakening or failure of the leader to tend to the group. The actual loss of a leader is frequently fatal to a group, unless there was lengthy preparation for the transition. The loss of the leader tends to dissolve all dominance relationships, as well as weakening dedication to common purpose, differentiation of roles, and maintenance of norms. The most common symptoms of a troubled group are loss of efficiency, diminished participation, or weakening of purpose, as well as an increase in verbal aggression. Often, if a strong common purpose is still present, a simple reorganization with a new leader and a few new members will be sufficient to re-establish the group, which is somewhat easier than forming an entirely new group. This is the most common factor. Measures of Group Process, Dynamics, Climate, Leadership and Behaviours Measures of group process, dynamics, climate, leadership and behaviours. The following sections provide information related to group dynamics. Specifically, the formation and development of groups is first considered. Then some major types or classifications of groups are discussed. Then the structure of groups is examined.
GROUP DEVELOPMENT
As applied to group development, group dynamics is concerned with why and how groups develop. There are several theories as to why groups develop. A classic theory, developed by George Homans, suggests that groups develop based on activities, interactions, and sentiments. Basically, the theory means that when individuals share common activities, they will have more interaction and will develop attitudes (positive or negative) toward each other. The major element in this theory is the interaction of the individuals involved.
Social exchange theory offers an alternative explanation for group development. According to this theory, individuals form relationships based on the implicit expectation of mutually beneficial exchanges based on trust and felt obligation. Thus, a perception that exchange relationships will be positive is essential if individuals are to be attracted to and affiliate with a group.
Social identity theory offers another explanation for group formation. Simply put, this theory suggests that individuals get a sense of identity and self-esteem based upon their membership in salient groups. The nature of the group may be demographically based, culturally based, or organizationally based. Individuals are motivated to belong to and contribute to identity groups because of the sense of belongingness and self-worth membership in the group imparts.
Group dynamics as related to development concerns not only why groups form but also how. The most common framework for examining the "how" of group formation was developed by Bruce Tuckman in the 1960s. In essence, the steps in group formation imply that groups do not usually perform at maximum effectiveness when they are first established. They encounter several stages of development as they strive to become productive and effective. Most groups experience the same developmental stages with similar conflicts and resolutions.
According to Tuckman's theory, there are five stages of group development: forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning. During these stages group members must address several issues and the way in which these issues are resolved determines whether the group will succeed in accomplishing its tasks. 1. Forming. This stage is usually characterized by some confusion and uncertainty. The major goals of the group have not been established. The nature of the task or leadership of the group has not been determined (Luthans, 2005). Thus, forming is an orientation period when members get to know one another and share expectations about the group. Members learn the purpose of the group as well as the rules to be followed. The forming stage should not be rushed because trust and openness must be developed. These feelings strengthen in later stages of development. Individuals are often confused during this stage because roles are not clear and there may not be a strong leader. 2. Storming. In this stage, the group is likely to see the highest level of disagreement and conflict. Members often challenge group goals and struggle for power. Individuals often vie for the leadership position during this stage of development. This can be a positive experience for all groups if members can achieve cohesiveness through resolution. Members often voice concern and criticism in this phase. If members are not able to resolve the conflict, then the group will often disband or continue in existence but will remain ineffective and never advance to the other stages. 3. Norming. This stage is characterized by the recognition of individual differences and shared expectations. Hopefully, at this stage the group members will begin to develop a feeling of group cohesion and identity. Cooperative effort should begin to yield results. Responsibilities are divided among members and the group decides how it will evaluate progress. 4. Performing. Performing, occurs when the group has matured and attains a feeling of cohesiveness. During this stage of development, individuals accept one another and conflict is resolved through group discussion. Members of the group make decisions through a rational process that is focused on relevant goals rather than emotional issues. 5. Adjourning. Not all groups experience this stage of development because it is characterized by the disbandment of the group. Some groups are relatively permanent (Luthans, 2005). Reasons that groups disband vary, with common reasons being the accomplishment of the task or individuals deciding to go their own ways. Members of the group often experience feelings of closure and sadness as they prepare to leave.
GROUP NORMS.
Norms are acceptable standards of behaviour within a group that are shared by the members of the group. Norms define the boundaries of acceptable and unacceptable behaviour. They are typically created in order to facilitate group survival, make behaviour more predictable, avoid embarrassing situations, and express the values of the group. Each group will establish its own set of norms that might determine anything from the appropriate dress to how many comments to make in a meeting. Groups exert pressure on members to force them to conform to the group's standards. The norms often reflect the level of commitment, motivation, and performance of the group.
Performance norms determine how quickly members should work and how much they should produce. They are created in an effort to determine levels of individual effort. They can be very frustrating to managers because they are not always in line with the organization's goals. Members of a group may have the skill and ability to perform at higher levels but they don't because of the group's performance norms. For example, workers may stop working a production machine at 20 minutes before quitting time in order to wash up, even though they produced fewer items that day than management intended.
Reward-allocation norms determine how rewards are bestowed upon group members. For example, the norm of equality dictates equal treatment of all members. Every member shares equally so rewards are distributed equally to everyone. Equity norms suggest that rewards are distributed according to the member's contribution. In other words, members who contribute the most receive the largest share of the rewards. Members may contribute through effort, skill, or ability. Social responsibility norms reward on the basis of need. Members who have special needs therefore receive the largest share of the reward.
The majority of the group must agree that the norms are appropriate in order for the behaviour to be accepted. There must also be a shared understanding
Exhibit 1

Role Ambiguity and Role Conflict that the group supports the norms. It should be noted, however, that members might violate group norms from time to time. If the majority of members do not adhere to the norms, then they will eventually change and will no longer serve as a standard for evaluating behavior. Group members who do not conform to the norms will be punished by being excluded, ignored, or asked to leave the group.
GROUP COHESIVENESS.
Cohesiveness refers to the bonding of group members and their desire to remain part of the group. Many factors influence the amount of group cohesiveness. Generally speaking, the more difficult it is to obtain group membership the more cohesive the group. Groups also tend to become cohesive when they are in intense competition with other groups or face a serious external threat to survival. Smaller groups and those who spend considerable time together also tend to be more cohesive.
Cohesiveness in work groups has many positive effects, including worker satisfaction, low turnover and absenteeism, and higher productivity. However, highly cohesive groups may be detrimental to organizational performance if their goals are misaligned with organizational goals. Highly cohesive groups may also be more vulnerable to groupthink. Groupthink occurs when members of a group exert pressure on each other to come to a consensus in decision making. Groupthink results in careless judgments, unrealistic appraisals of alternative courses of action, and a lack of reality testing. It can lead to a number of decision-making issues such as the following: 1. Incomplete assessments of the problem, 2. Incomplete information search, 3. Bias in processing information, 4. Inadequate development of alternatives, and 5. Failure to examine the risks of the preferred choice.
Evidence suggests that groups typically outperform individuals when the tasks involved require a variety of skills, experience, and decision making. Groups are often more flexible and can quickly assemble, achieve goals, and disband or move on to another set of objectives. Many organizations have found that groups have many motivational aspects as well. Group members are more likely to participate in decision-making and problem-solving activities leading to empowerment and increased productivity. Groups complete most of the work in an organization; thus, the effectiveness of the organization is limited by the effectiveness of its groups.

Social Groups Play an Important Role in Overall Health and Well-Being
Social groups may be good for your health, according to new research by the Universities of Exeter and Queensland, Australia. Study results suggest that the quality of a person’s social life could have a greater impact on health and well-being than diet and exercise.
Science Daily recently posted a release on this study, which suggested that being a member of a social group can significantly reduce the risk of conditions like stroke, dementia, and even the common cold. Researchers involved with this study reviewed a number of previous studies that identify a link between group membership and physical and mental health.
“We are social animals who live and have evolved to live in social groups. Membership of groups, from football teams to book clubs and voluntary societies, gives us a sense of social identity. This is an indispensable part of who we are and what we need to be in order to lead rich and fulfilling lives. For this reason groups are central to mental functioning, health and well-being,” said Professor Alex Haslam of the University of Exeter.
Conclusions are drawn from a number of studies, including a 2008 study that showed that group memberships played as important a role in the positive recovery from a stroke as did the ability to overcome cognitive difficulties. For every group membership an individual was able to maintain after a stroke, his or her life satisfaction increased by 12 percent.
A 2009 study examined residents entering a new care home and found that those who participated as a group in decisions related to decoration of communal areas used those areas 57 percent more and were far happier.
Another 2009 study evaluated the impact of group interventions of 73 people residing in care. Those participating in a reminiscence group showed a 12 percent increase in memory performance after six weeks. Those not participating in the group showed no change.
Professor Jolanda Jetten from the University of Queensland said, “New research shows just how important groups and social identity are to well-being. This is something that people often overlook in the rush to find medical solutions to problems associated with ageing, but it is time that these factors were taken much more seriously.”
What are the important characteristics of social group in sociology ?
We live, work, worship and die in groups. Man's daily life is made up largely of participating in groups. Not only our life becomes boring and unbearable without fellow human beings but also our very survival becomes problematic. Man's life is to an enormous extent a group life. "Social group is any collection of human beings who are brought into human relationships with one another."
Characteristics of Social Group:
Following are the important characteristics of social group.
(1) Collection of individuals:
Social group consists of people. Without individuals there can be no group. Just as we cannot have a college or a university without students and teachers we cannot have a group in the absence of people.
(2) Interaction among members:
Social interaction is the very basis of group life. Hence, mere collection of individuals does not make a group. The members must have interaction. A social group is, in fact, a system of social interaction. The limits of social groups are marked by the limits of social interaction.
(3) Mutual awareness:
Group life involves mutual awareness. Group members are aware of one another and their behaviour is determined by this mutual recognition. This may be due to what Giddings calls, "Consciousness of kind".
(4) We-feeling:
We-feeling refers to the tendency on the part of the members to identify themselves with the groups. It represents group unity. We feeling creates sympathy and fosters co-operation among members.
(5) Group unity and solidarity:
Group members are tied by a sense of unity. The solidarity or integration of a group is largely depends upon the frequency, the variety, and the emotional quality of the interactions of its members.
(6) Common interests:
The interests and ideals of groups are common. In fact men not only join groups but also form groups for the realisation of their objectives or interests. Form of the groups differ depending upon the common interests of the group. Hence, there are political groups, religious groups, economic groups etc.
(7) Group norms:
Every group has its own rules and norms which the members are supposed to follow. These norms may be in the form of customs, folkways, mores, traditions, conventions, laws etc. They may be written or unwritten norms or standards.
(8) Similar behaviour:
The members of group behave in more or less similar way for the pursuit of common interests. Social groups represent collective behaviour.
(9) Size of the group:
Every group involves an idea of size. A group may be as small as that of 'two-members group e.g. husband and wife or as big as that of a political party having lakhs of members. Size will have its own impact on the character of the group.
(10) Groups are dynamic:
Social groups are not static but dynamic. They are subject to changes whether slow .or rapid. Old members die and new members are born. Whether due to internal or external pressures or forces, groups undergo changes.

the hunter-gatherer, but his need for social interaction and positive ties with others