Comparison Matrix Annotated Bibliography
Comparison Matrix
Natasha R. Spears
Grand Canyon University: RES-850
May 7, 2015
Comparison Matrix
Leadership is more than a place within an organizational structure; it is a discipline and a path, a calling to become a powerful catalyst for and the embodiment of change. When comparing leadership styles, there is a notion that the workplace proscribes dominant behavior to Black men and white women and looks upon dominant Black women differently.
The following is a discussion of Blacks, men and women, in leadership positions and training, job performance and employers’ expectations; organizational performance; and, leadership experiences through the comparison of three articles. The first article, titled “Blacks as Supervisors: A Study of Training, Job Performance, and Employers ' Expectations,” by Richard W. Beatty (1973) argues that the need for research on minority supervisors is essential, as is the need for research on other minority problems.
“Failure is not an Option for Black Women: Effects of Organizational Performance on Leaders with Single Versus Dual-Subordinate Identities” by Ashleigh Shelby Rosette and Robert W. Livingston (2012) is the second article. The researchers seek to fill the gap related to research that has explicitly investigated the manner in which leadership perceptions differ for …show more content…
individuals believed to be suffering from double-jeopardy (i.e., Black women), which was minimal at the time of the study, and explore whether leader perceptions vary as a function of single- versus dual-subordinate identities.
Finally, the purpose of the third article, “Rearticulating the Leadership Experiences of African American Women in Midlevel Student Affairs Administration,” by Hannah L.
Clayborne and Florence A. Hamrick (2007), is two-fold. First it seeks to explore and ultimately understand leadership from the onset of the experiences – personal and professional - of Black women in midlevel student affairs positions at two and four year predominantly white institutions (PWIs). Additionally, the study seeks to build upon definitions of leadership from Black women’s viewpoints and experiences in an effort to augment established notions of leadership and its
practices.
Examination of these articles, referred to as Articles 1, 2 and 3 moving forward, will explore training, job performance and employers’ expectations; organizational performance; and, leadership experiences. The examination includes a review of research questions and purpose, sample populations, results, ethics implications, limitations, and conclusions.
Research Questions
The following section presents a discussion of the research questions presented in Articles 1, 2, and 3. Focusing on a training program funded by federal, state, and foundation dollars in the spring of 1971 that sought to prepare “Negro” employees for first-level supervisory positions, the researcher in Article1 poses three research questions to add to the body of empirical research related to minority training programs. These include the extent to which a federal training program fulfilled its stated objectives of developing certain supervisory attitudes and cognitive skills; the importance of these attitudes and skills to employers ' evaluations of the trainees ' supervisory performance; and, the nature of the criteria actually used by employers in their performance ratings, (Beatty, 1973, p. 197).
The researchers in Article 2 foresee a direct correlation between leader gender and race, as well as organizational performance. They argue that leadership and subordinates perceive Black women negatively compared to Black men or White women, if their organization is not successful. Furthermore, the researchers predict that this proposed moderation will be mediated by the extent to which a target exhibits the characteristics consistent with a leader will mediate the predicted interaction between organizational performance, leader race, and leader gender on perceived leader effectiveness. To that end, the researchers question the manner in which Black women leaders fare relative to Black men leaders or White women leaders, (Rossette & Livingston, 2012).
Article 3 examines the leadership experiences of African American women in midlevel student affairs administration. The researchers seek to explore the manner in which respondents describe their leadership experiences and development, as well as the manner in which the use of Black feminist thought ultimately illuminates these ideologies of leadership. The researchers seek to build upon existing research by Belch & Strange (1995) that focused on midlevel administrators in higher education, centering on issues such as professional experiences and career paths, professional development, and morale (Johnsrud & Rosser, 1999). Research of midlevel administrators is critical because these professionals’ leadership capabilities are keen identifiers for senior leadership often selected from within the ranks, (Clayborne & Hamrick, 2007).
Sample Population
When compared to one another, the sample populations for the three studies are very different. However, when considered separately, the participants in Article 1 and Article 3 are homogeneous, while there is a significant amount of diversity in Article 2’s participant group. The 48 participants in Article I include 31 men and 11 women recruited from St. Louis industries to participate in a training program to prepare Blacks for first-level supervisory positions. Forty-four participants completed the training, offered in two phases: (a) a three-day retreat and (b) 16 hours of classroom training over a four-week period, (Beatty, 1973).
Although research in Article 2 focuses on Black women and the effects of organizational performance on leaders with single versus dual-subordinate identities, only 50% of the 228 study participants are women and 33% are Black. Participants include 164 undergraduate students, 41 graduate students, and 23 working adults recruited in the student union of a southeastern university to participate. The researchers did not use participants’ student status, race, or gender to qualify the results and; therefore, did not consider this information beyond the initial sample detail unlike the researcher and sample in Article 1. According to the researchers, many of the participants were employed fulltime (25%), part-time (45%), or were currently unemployed, but had worked previously (27%). To that end, the researchers assumed it likely that participants had exposure to leader roles in organizational settings, (Rossette & Livingston, 2012).
The researchers in Article 3 used a purposive non-probability strategy to identify respondents for this study. Twenty-five colleagues in a targeted geographic area nominated prospective respondents and researchers invited sixteen individuals to participate in the study. Pseudonyms were assigned to each of the six participants that agreed to participate - Cana, Gloria, Joi, Lauren, Shelley, and Yvonne - representing two 4-year institutions and four 2-year institutions, all predominantly white, in a Midwestern state. The average experience amongst the student affairs administrators is ten year with six being the least and 15 the maximum, (Clayborne & Hamrick, 2007).
Limitations
All studies have limitations, which are the circumstances the researcher cannot control. They are the deficiencies and influences the researcher cannot control that place restrictions on methodology and conclusions.
Selection
Nonprobability sampling does not involve random selection, as does probability sampling. It does not mean that nonprobability samples are not representative of the population, but it does mean that nonprobability samples cannot depend upon the rationale of probability theory. With nonprobability samples, a researcher may or may not represent the population well, and it will often be hard for them to know how well they have done so. Nonprobability sampling methods are either accidental or purposive. However, most sampling methods are purposive in nature because the researcher approaches sampling with a purpose in mind; having one or more specific predefined groups.
Nonprobability sampling can be a limitation because of the implication for biased research. Convenience sampling creates the potential for limitations in the research in Articles 1 and 3. In Article 1, the researcher focused on 48 Black participants participating in a training class in St. Louis to prepare Black employees for first-level supervisory positions, (Beatty, 2007). However, the researcher could have expanded the sample to include participants in similar programs across the country or, at minimum, in other Midwest cities. In Article 3, researchers contacted twenty-five colleagues in a targeted geographic area via e-mail and asked them to provide names and contact information for potential respondents, and the researchers invited the sixteen nominated individuals to participate in the study. Ultimately, six took part in the study, (Clayborne & Hamrick, 2007).
Population
The researchers provided very little demographic information for the respondents in Article 1, except that all are Black and 37 of the 48 original respondents (44 respondents completed the training) are male, (Beatty, 1973). As noted above, although research in Article 2 focuses on Black women and the effects of organizational performance on leaders with single versus dual-subordinate identities, only 50% of the 228 study participants are women and 33% are Black. Participants in Article 3 are comprised of six African American women representing two 4-year institutions and four 2-year institutions, all predominantly white, in a Midwestern state, (Clayborne & Hamrick, 2007).
Another significant limitation related to Article 1 is the absence of prior research on which to build. According to Hinrichs (1970), during the early 1970s – the time of the study - there exists minimal adequate research published concerning minority employment, thus hindering the design of quality training programs for Blacks. In Article 2, providing payment to respondents, particularly, college students living on very little, is a limitation. Paying respondents, especially, low-income respondents like college students could result in a skewed sample and has ethical implications. Additionally limitations related to Article 3 include “a small number of respondents, the regional homogeneity among respondents (also a limitation in Article 1), and the geographic distance from the primary researcher that resulted in a greater number of telephone follow-up interviews than planned,” (Clayborne & Hamrick, 2007, p. 136).
Results and Conclusions
The researchers in Article 1 found that the training developed comprehension of supervisory concepts and techniques; however, the increases are attributable to subjects concerning understanding and motivating employees and to training and learning. Furthermore, results show that training program content influences employers’ opinions of trainees’ success as supervisors only slightly. Finally, “supervisor 's classroom scores on cognitive content areas such as problem solving are not associated with the employer 's appraisal of the supervisor 's task behavior on the same or similar topics. The social behaviors also failed to show a relationship with the program 's cognitive content,” (Beatty, 1973, p. 202). The researcher concludes that the study sheds light on the problems related to the criteria used to evaluate manager performance. Additionally, the researcher acknowledges the significant subjective component in the evaluation of supervisors, especially if they are Black. The researcher offers no consideration for future research.
The results of Article 2 show that double jeopardy is more likely to occur when an organization is experiencing failure versus success because Black women’s subordinate identities are better matched to subpar as opposed to successful outcomes. However, Black women leaders are evaluated comparably to leaders with single-subordinate identities—White women and Black men – when they are successful; their two subordinate identities did not result in double jeopardy, (Rossette & Livingston, 2012). The researchers conclude that Black women executives may have to work exceptionally hard to minimize mistakes made on the job, as their consequence for doing so may be more significant than those experienced by White women and Black men. Researchers suggest that future research should examine the evaluation process for leaders with other subordinate identities (e.g., class, age, and sexuality). Additionally, “future research should also examine contextual factors other than performance that may influence whether double jeopardy or intersectional invisibility is experienced by individuals who possess more than one subordinate identity,” (Rossette & Livingston, 2012).
The respondents in Article 3 characterize leadership by engagements in substantive relationships and commitments to ensuring involvement by others. Strategies consistent with this approach to leadership were soliciting feedback, listening and responding to others’ needs and concerns, working alongside staff members, crediting staff members’ contributions and input, and providing guidance and nurturing. In short, individuals are leaders to the extent that leader- ship and responsibilities for leading are successfully distributed and shared among others.
In terms of their own continued leadership development as student affairs professionals, respondents noted two principal challenges: supervision and resource scarcity. Although most respondents are interested in promotion opportunities, they reported experiencing little in the way of training or grooming by their supervisors or others on campus. Respondents also described the drawbacks to their continued leadership development when they are isolated from politics, policy-making, and contact with senior-level administrators, (Clayborne & Hamrick, 2007).
The researchers conclude that the passage of time has not significantly altered fundamental challenges faced by African American women professionals in that the respondents’ personal accounts echo challenges that have been documented in prior studies of African American women, such as isolation and access to effective mentoring. To that end, these challenges warrant continued investigation and analysis of African American women’s experiences as well as the use of theoretical frameworks that can enable more targeted and grounded analyses. Researchers recommend more studies that unpack the differences and similarities between supervision and mentoring; investigate leadership styles and contributions to student affairs professionals; and, the manner in which student affairs professionals and issues related to intersecting race, ethnicity, class, gender, and other identities and histories affect the colleges and universities in which they work, (Clayborne & Hamrick, 2007).
Ethics Implications
The IRB and The Belmont Report require that those engaging in social research practice basic ethical principles (respect of persons, the principle of beneficence, and justice) and applications (informed consent, assessment of risks and benefits, and selection of subjects). The research in Article 1 occurred prior to The National Research Act of 1974 and was not subject to the principles and application of The Belmont Report, also drafted in 1974. Article 2 and 3 are subject to an IRB expedited review, as they present no more than minimal risk to subjects. Informed consent is an important step in ensuring ethical treatment of research participants. Participants must have enough information to make an informed decision whether to participate in the research study.
Informed consent in Article 1 is questionable. Trainers recruited participants for a supervisory training program not to participate in a study and the instruments given as a means to collect data for the study were not a part of the training course. It is unclear as to whether or not the participants took part in the study willingly. However, very little about their demographic information is shared in the study. Researchers told participants in Article 2 that the purpose of the study was to investigate the manner in which people make inferences from the newspaper articles they read. However, the researchers stated purpose is to investigate the manner in which leadership perceptions differ for individuals with dual-subordinate identities (i.e., Black women) and to examine whether leader perceptions vary as a function of single- versus dual-subordinate identities, (Rossette & Livingston, 2012). While the study is about perceptions, its scope is broader than news coverage, which means the researchers in Article 2 failed to provide a clear and honest explanation of the purpose of the study. This is a violation of informed consent. Each of the participants in Article 3 was nominated, had the opportunity to opt-in or not, and four of the six participants responded to the researchers’ release of interview text for approval prior its release. Additionally, the researchers obtained consent to record all interviews, (Clayborne & Hamrick, 2007).
Conclusion
The preceding pages provided a review and comparison of three studies that discuss race in the workplace. “Blacks as Supervisors: A Study of Training, Job Performance, and Employers ' Expectations,” by Richard W. Beatty (1973) seeks to prove that the program design for future efforts to develop and promote members of minority groups into managerial positions must rest upon empirical. “Failure is not an Option for Black Women: Effects of Organizational Performance on Leaders with Single Versus Dual-Subordinate Identities” by Ashleigh Shelby Rosette and Robert W. Livingston (2012) seeks to fill the gap in research that explicitly investigates the manner in which leadership perceptions differ for individuals with dual-subordinate identities (i.e., Black women). Finally, the purpose of the third article, “Rearticulating the Leadership Experiences of African American Women in Midlevel Student Affairs Administration,” by Hannah L. Clayborne and Florence A. Hamrick (2007), is two-fold. First, it seeks to explore and conceptualize leadership from the beginning of the personal and professional experiences of African American women in midlevel student affairs positions at two and four year PWIs. Secondly, the study seeks to refine and expand definitions of leadership from the perspectives and experiences of African American women in midlevel student affairs administration, in order to supplement, question, or challenge prevailing notions of leadership and its exercise.
The research in Article 1 took place prior to The Belmont Report and presents assumptions based upon the research culture of the time. Articles 2 and 3 present clear and reasonable assumptions using reasonable study samples to support their hypotheses. The limitations related to each study are expected, as there will always remain a segment of the population not represented; specifically, when a study is focused on a small segment of the population (i.e., Black women). Finally, conclusions and future recommendations for research create opportunities to address better those limitations and to answer new questions.
References
Beatty, R. W. (1973). Blacks as supervisors: A study of training, job performance, and employers ' expectations. Academy Of Management Journal, 16(2), 196-206. doi:10.2307/255322
Belch, H. A., & Strange, C. C. (1995). Views from the bottleneck: Middle managers in student affairs. NASPA Journal, 32 (3), 208–222.
Clayborne, H. L., & Hamrick, F. A. (2007). Rearticulating the leadership experiences of
African American women in midlevel student affairs administration. NASPA Journal (National Association Of Student Personnel Administrators, Inc.), 44(1), 123-146.
Hinrichs, John R. Psychology of men at work. Annual Review of Psychology, Vol. 21 (1970),
519-554.
Johnsrud, L. K., & Rosser, V. J. (1999). College and university midlevel administrators:
Explaining and improving their morale. Review of Higher Education, 22 (2), 121–141.
Rosette, A. S., & Livingston, R. W. (2012). Failure is not an option for Black women: Effects of organizational performance on leaders with single versus dual-subordinate identities. Journal Of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(5), 1162-1167. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2012.05.002
Comparison Matrix
Article 1
Article 2
Article 3
Title/Author(s)
Blacks As Supervisors: A Study of Training, Job Performance, and Employers ' Expectations by Richard W. Beatty
Failure is not an option for Black women: Effects of organizational performance on leaders with single versus dual-subordinate identities by Ashleigh Shelby Rosette Robert W. Livingston
Rearticulating the
Leadership Experiences of
African American Women in Midlevel Student Affairs Administration by
Hannah L. Clayborne
Florence A. Hamrick
Persistent GCU library link http://library.gcu.edu:2048/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com.library.gcu.edu:2048/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=4297514&site=eds-live&scope=site http://library.gcu.edu:2048/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com.library.gcu.edu:2048/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=77457355&site=eds-live&scope=site http://library.gcu.edu:2048/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com.library.gcu.edu:2048/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=24855122&site=eds-live&scope=site Purpose of the study
What is the author’s rationale for selecting this topic? Does he build a strong case?
The researchers believe that the need for research on minority supervisors is essential, as is the need for research on other minority problems, if the program design for future efforts to develop and promote members of minority groups into managerial positions is to be founded upon an empirical basis rather than upon social scientists ' preconceptions of the needs of minority groups
The current study seeks to fill gap related to research that has explicitly investigated the manner in which leadership perceptions differ for individuals with dual-subordinate identities (i.e., Black women) and examine whether leader perceptions vary as a function of single- versus dual-subordinate identities.
The purpose of this study was to explore and subsequently conceptualize leadership from the starting point of the personal and professional experiences of African American women in midlevel student affairs positions at 2- and 4-year PWIs.
The purpose of this study was to refine and expand definitions of leadership from the perspectives and experiences of these respondents, in order to supplement, question, or challenge prevailing notions of leadership and its exercise.
Research Question(s)
What question(s) does the author present?
The study seeks to answer the following (a) the extent to which a federal training program fulfilled its stated objectives of developing certain supervisory attitudes and cognitive skills, (b) the importance of these attitudes and skills to employers ' evaluations of the trainees ' supervisory performance, and (c) the nature of the criteria actually used by employers in their performance ratings.
How do Black women leaders fare relative to Black men leaders or White women leaders?
The researchers predict a three-way interaction between leader gender, leader race, and organizational performance such that Black women will be perceived negatively relative to Black men or White women, but only when their organization is not successful. Furthermore, the researchers predict that this proposed moderation will be mediated by the extent to which a target exhibits the characteristics consistent with a leader will mediate the predicted interaction between organizational performance, leader race, and leader gender on perceived leader effectiveness.
The research questions guiding this study include - How do respondents describe their leadership experiences and leadership development? How does the use of Black feminist thought subsequently illuminate these descriptions of leadership?
Literature Review
How is this organized? What are the main themes found in the review? Who are the main authors used?
Sample Population(s)
What group(s) is/are being studied?
The 48 participants were recruited through industries in metropolitan St. Louis. Of the original 37 men and 11 women, 44 completed the training program.
A total of 228 participants (50% women) which comprised undergraduate students (164), graduate students (41), and working adults (23) were recruited in the student union of a southeastern university
Twenty-five colleagues in a targeted geographic area were contacted via e-mail and asked to provide names and contact information for prospective respondents, and the sixteen nominated individuals were invited to participate in the study. Six (Cana, Gloria, Joi, Lauren,
Shelley, and Yvonne—all pseudonyms) representing two 4-year institutions and four 2-year institutions (all PWIs) in a Midwestern state, subsequently agreed to participate.
Limitations
What are the limitations of the study? Why can it only encompass so much?
There is an absence of prior research
The researchers use nonprobability sampling can be a limitation because of the implication for biased research
Research participants are homogeneous in race and locations
Respondents were paid to participate, which could skew responses based upon the need for the incentive
College students were used as respondents and not the subjects of the study (i.e, Black women and men and white men and women in leadership)
The researchers use a small number of respondents, a result of nonprobability
Research participants have regional homogeneity
The geographic distance from the primary researcher resulted in a greater number of telephone follow-up interviews than planned
Results/ Conclusions
What did the author find through the study? Was the original question answered?
The researchers in Article 1 found that the training developed comprehension of supervisory concepts and techniques; however, the increases were attributable to subjects concerning understanding and motivating employees and to training and learning. Furthermore, results show that training program content influences employers’ opinions of trainees’ success as supervisors only slightly. Finally, “supervisor 's classroom scores on cognitive content areas such as problem solving were not associated with the employer 's appraisal of the supervisor 's task behavior on the same or similar topics. The social behaviors also failed to show a relationship with the program 's cognitive content,” (Beatty, 1973, p. 202). The researcher concludes that the study sheds light on the problems related to the criteria used to evaluate manager performance. Additionally, the researcher acknowledges the significant subjective component in the evaluation of supervisors, especially if they are Black.
Double jeopardy is more likely to occur when an organization is experiencing failure versus success because Black women’s subordinate identities were better matched to subpar as opposed to successful outcomes.
Black women leaders are evaluated comparably to leaders with single-subordinate identities—White women and Black men – when they are successful Black women’s two subordinate identities did not result in double jeopardy
The researchers conclude that Black women executives may have to work exceptionally hard to minimize mistakes made on the job, as their consequence for doing so may be more significant than those experienced by White women and Black men.
Researchers suggest that future research should examine the manner in which leaders with other subordinate identities (e.g., class, age, and sexuality) are evaluated.
Future research should also examine contextual factors other than performance that may influence whether double jeopardy or intersectional invisibility is experienced by individuals who possess more than one subordinate identity
Respondent characterize leadership by engagements in substantive relationships and commitments to ensuring involvement by others
Strategies consistent with this approach to leadership are soliciting feedback, listening and responding to others’ needs and concerns, working alongside staff members, crediting staff members’ contributions and input, and providing guidance and nurturing
Individuals are leaders to the extent that leadership and responsibilities for leading are successfully distributed and shared among others
Respondents noted two principal challenges: supervision and resource scarcity
Respondents were interested in promotion opportunities, they reported experiencing little in the way of training or grooming by their supervisors or others on campus.
Respondents also described the drawbacks to their continued leadership development when they are isolated from politics, policy-making, and contact with senior-level administrators
The researchers conclude that the passage of time has not significantly altered fundamental challenges faced by African American women professionals in that the respondents’ personal accounts echo challenges that have been documented in prior studies of African American women, such as isolation and access to effective mentoring
The researchers recommend continued investigation and analysis of African American women’s experiences as well as the use of theoretical frameworks that can enable more targeted and grounded analyses
Researchers recommend more studies that unpack the differences and similarities between supervision and mentoring; investigate leadership styles and contributions to student affairs professionals; and, the manner in which student affairs professionals and issues related to intersecting race, ethnicity, class, gender, and other identities and histories affect the colleges and universities in which they work
Natasha R. Spears
Grand Canyon University: RES-850
May 7, 2015
Comparison Matrix
Leadership is more than a place within an organizational structure; it is a discipline and a path, a calling to become a powerful catalyst for and the embodiment of change. When comparing leadership styles, there is a notion that the workplace proscribes dominant behavior to Black men and white women and looks upon dominant Black women differently.
The following is a discussion of Blacks, men and women, in leadership positions and training, job performance and employers’ expectations; organizational performance; and, leadership experiences through the comparison of three articles. The first article, titled “Blacks as Supervisors: A Study of Training, Job Performance, and Employers ' Expectations,” by Richard W. Beatty (1973) argues that the need for research on minority supervisors is essential, as is the need for research on other minority problems.
“Failure is not an Option for Black Women: Effects of Organizational Performance on Leaders with Single Versus Dual-Subordinate Identities” by Ashleigh Shelby Rosette and Robert W. Livingston (2012) is the second article. The researchers seek to fill the gap related to research that has explicitly investigated the manner in which leadership perceptions differ for …show more content…
individuals believed to be suffering from double-jeopardy (i.e., Black women), which was minimal at the time of the study, and explore whether leader perceptions vary as a function of single- versus dual-subordinate identities.
Finally, the purpose of the third article, “Rearticulating the Leadership Experiences of African American Women in Midlevel Student Affairs Administration,” by Hannah L.
Clayborne and Florence A. Hamrick (2007), is two-fold. First it seeks to explore and ultimately understand leadership from the onset of the experiences – personal and professional - of Black women in midlevel student affairs positions at two and four year predominantly white institutions (PWIs). Additionally, the study seeks to build upon definitions of leadership from Black women’s viewpoints and experiences in an effort to augment established notions of leadership and its
practices.
Examination of these articles, referred to as Articles 1, 2 and 3 moving forward, will explore training, job performance and employers’ expectations; organizational performance; and, leadership experiences. The examination includes a review of research questions and purpose, sample populations, results, ethics implications, limitations, and conclusions.
Research Questions
The following section presents a discussion of the research questions presented in Articles 1, 2, and 3. Focusing on a training program funded by federal, state, and foundation dollars in the spring of 1971 that sought to prepare “Negro” employees for first-level supervisory positions, the researcher in Article1 poses three research questions to add to the body of empirical research related to minority training programs. These include the extent to which a federal training program fulfilled its stated objectives of developing certain supervisory attitudes and cognitive skills; the importance of these attitudes and skills to employers ' evaluations of the trainees ' supervisory performance; and, the nature of the criteria actually used by employers in their performance ratings, (Beatty, 1973, p. 197).
The researchers in Article 2 foresee a direct correlation between leader gender and race, as well as organizational performance. They argue that leadership and subordinates perceive Black women negatively compared to Black men or White women, if their organization is not successful. Furthermore, the researchers predict that this proposed moderation will be mediated by the extent to which a target exhibits the characteristics consistent with a leader will mediate the predicted interaction between organizational performance, leader race, and leader gender on perceived leader effectiveness. To that end, the researchers question the manner in which Black women leaders fare relative to Black men leaders or White women leaders, (Rossette & Livingston, 2012).
Article 3 examines the leadership experiences of African American women in midlevel student affairs administration. The researchers seek to explore the manner in which respondents describe their leadership experiences and development, as well as the manner in which the use of Black feminist thought ultimately illuminates these ideologies of leadership. The researchers seek to build upon existing research by Belch & Strange (1995) that focused on midlevel administrators in higher education, centering on issues such as professional experiences and career paths, professional development, and morale (Johnsrud & Rosser, 1999). Research of midlevel administrators is critical because these professionals’ leadership capabilities are keen identifiers for senior leadership often selected from within the ranks, (Clayborne & Hamrick, 2007).
Sample Population
When compared to one another, the sample populations for the three studies are very different. However, when considered separately, the participants in Article 1 and Article 3 are homogeneous, while there is a significant amount of diversity in Article 2’s participant group. The 48 participants in Article I include 31 men and 11 women recruited from St. Louis industries to participate in a training program to prepare Blacks for first-level supervisory positions. Forty-four participants completed the training, offered in two phases: (a) a three-day retreat and (b) 16 hours of classroom training over a four-week period, (Beatty, 1973).
Although research in Article 2 focuses on Black women and the effects of organizational performance on leaders with single versus dual-subordinate identities, only 50% of the 228 study participants are women and 33% are Black. Participants include 164 undergraduate students, 41 graduate students, and 23 working adults recruited in the student union of a southeastern university to participate. The researchers did not use participants’ student status, race, or gender to qualify the results and; therefore, did not consider this information beyond the initial sample detail unlike the researcher and sample in Article 1. According to the researchers, many of the participants were employed fulltime (25%), part-time (45%), or were currently unemployed, but had worked previously (27%). To that end, the researchers assumed it likely that participants had exposure to leader roles in organizational settings, (Rossette & Livingston, 2012).
The researchers in Article 3 used a purposive non-probability strategy to identify respondents for this study. Twenty-five colleagues in a targeted geographic area nominated prospective respondents and researchers invited sixteen individuals to participate in the study. Pseudonyms were assigned to each of the six participants that agreed to participate - Cana, Gloria, Joi, Lauren, Shelley, and Yvonne - representing two 4-year institutions and four 2-year institutions, all predominantly white, in a Midwestern state. The average experience amongst the student affairs administrators is ten year with six being the least and 15 the maximum, (Clayborne & Hamrick, 2007).
Limitations
All studies have limitations, which are the circumstances the researcher cannot control. They are the deficiencies and influences the researcher cannot control that place restrictions on methodology and conclusions.
Selection
Nonprobability sampling does not involve random selection, as does probability sampling. It does not mean that nonprobability samples are not representative of the population, but it does mean that nonprobability samples cannot depend upon the rationale of probability theory. With nonprobability samples, a researcher may or may not represent the population well, and it will often be hard for them to know how well they have done so. Nonprobability sampling methods are either accidental or purposive. However, most sampling methods are purposive in nature because the researcher approaches sampling with a purpose in mind; having one or more specific predefined groups.
Nonprobability sampling can be a limitation because of the implication for biased research. Convenience sampling creates the potential for limitations in the research in Articles 1 and 3. In Article 1, the researcher focused on 48 Black participants participating in a training class in St. Louis to prepare Black employees for first-level supervisory positions, (Beatty, 2007). However, the researcher could have expanded the sample to include participants in similar programs across the country or, at minimum, in other Midwest cities. In Article 3, researchers contacted twenty-five colleagues in a targeted geographic area via e-mail and asked them to provide names and contact information for potential respondents, and the researchers invited the sixteen nominated individuals to participate in the study. Ultimately, six took part in the study, (Clayborne & Hamrick, 2007).
Population
The researchers provided very little demographic information for the respondents in Article 1, except that all are Black and 37 of the 48 original respondents (44 respondents completed the training) are male, (Beatty, 1973). As noted above, although research in Article 2 focuses on Black women and the effects of organizational performance on leaders with single versus dual-subordinate identities, only 50% of the 228 study participants are women and 33% are Black. Participants in Article 3 are comprised of six African American women representing two 4-year institutions and four 2-year institutions, all predominantly white, in a Midwestern state, (Clayborne & Hamrick, 2007).
Another significant limitation related to Article 1 is the absence of prior research on which to build. According to Hinrichs (1970), during the early 1970s – the time of the study - there exists minimal adequate research published concerning minority employment, thus hindering the design of quality training programs for Blacks. In Article 2, providing payment to respondents, particularly, college students living on very little, is a limitation. Paying respondents, especially, low-income respondents like college students could result in a skewed sample and has ethical implications. Additionally limitations related to Article 3 include “a small number of respondents, the regional homogeneity among respondents (also a limitation in Article 1), and the geographic distance from the primary researcher that resulted in a greater number of telephone follow-up interviews than planned,” (Clayborne & Hamrick, 2007, p. 136).
Results and Conclusions
The researchers in Article 1 found that the training developed comprehension of supervisory concepts and techniques; however, the increases are attributable to subjects concerning understanding and motivating employees and to training and learning. Furthermore, results show that training program content influences employers’ opinions of trainees’ success as supervisors only slightly. Finally, “supervisor 's classroom scores on cognitive content areas such as problem solving are not associated with the employer 's appraisal of the supervisor 's task behavior on the same or similar topics. The social behaviors also failed to show a relationship with the program 's cognitive content,” (Beatty, 1973, p. 202). The researcher concludes that the study sheds light on the problems related to the criteria used to evaluate manager performance. Additionally, the researcher acknowledges the significant subjective component in the evaluation of supervisors, especially if they are Black. The researcher offers no consideration for future research.
The results of Article 2 show that double jeopardy is more likely to occur when an organization is experiencing failure versus success because Black women’s subordinate identities are better matched to subpar as opposed to successful outcomes. However, Black women leaders are evaluated comparably to leaders with single-subordinate identities—White women and Black men – when they are successful; their two subordinate identities did not result in double jeopardy, (Rossette & Livingston, 2012). The researchers conclude that Black women executives may have to work exceptionally hard to minimize mistakes made on the job, as their consequence for doing so may be more significant than those experienced by White women and Black men. Researchers suggest that future research should examine the evaluation process for leaders with other subordinate identities (e.g., class, age, and sexuality). Additionally, “future research should also examine contextual factors other than performance that may influence whether double jeopardy or intersectional invisibility is experienced by individuals who possess more than one subordinate identity,” (Rossette & Livingston, 2012).
The respondents in Article 3 characterize leadership by engagements in substantive relationships and commitments to ensuring involvement by others. Strategies consistent with this approach to leadership were soliciting feedback, listening and responding to others’ needs and concerns, working alongside staff members, crediting staff members’ contributions and input, and providing guidance and nurturing. In short, individuals are leaders to the extent that leader- ship and responsibilities for leading are successfully distributed and shared among others.
In terms of their own continued leadership development as student affairs professionals, respondents noted two principal challenges: supervision and resource scarcity. Although most respondents are interested in promotion opportunities, they reported experiencing little in the way of training or grooming by their supervisors or others on campus. Respondents also described the drawbacks to their continued leadership development when they are isolated from politics, policy-making, and contact with senior-level administrators, (Clayborne & Hamrick, 2007).
The researchers conclude that the passage of time has not significantly altered fundamental challenges faced by African American women professionals in that the respondents’ personal accounts echo challenges that have been documented in prior studies of African American women, such as isolation and access to effective mentoring. To that end, these challenges warrant continued investigation and analysis of African American women’s experiences as well as the use of theoretical frameworks that can enable more targeted and grounded analyses. Researchers recommend more studies that unpack the differences and similarities between supervision and mentoring; investigate leadership styles and contributions to student affairs professionals; and, the manner in which student affairs professionals and issues related to intersecting race, ethnicity, class, gender, and other identities and histories affect the colleges and universities in which they work, (Clayborne & Hamrick, 2007).
Ethics Implications
The IRB and The Belmont Report require that those engaging in social research practice basic ethical principles (respect of persons, the principle of beneficence, and justice) and applications (informed consent, assessment of risks and benefits, and selection of subjects). The research in Article 1 occurred prior to The National Research Act of 1974 and was not subject to the principles and application of The Belmont Report, also drafted in 1974. Article 2 and 3 are subject to an IRB expedited review, as they present no more than minimal risk to subjects. Informed consent is an important step in ensuring ethical treatment of research participants. Participants must have enough information to make an informed decision whether to participate in the research study.
Informed consent in Article 1 is questionable. Trainers recruited participants for a supervisory training program not to participate in a study and the instruments given as a means to collect data for the study were not a part of the training course. It is unclear as to whether or not the participants took part in the study willingly. However, very little about their demographic information is shared in the study. Researchers told participants in Article 2 that the purpose of the study was to investigate the manner in which people make inferences from the newspaper articles they read. However, the researchers stated purpose is to investigate the manner in which leadership perceptions differ for individuals with dual-subordinate identities (i.e., Black women) and to examine whether leader perceptions vary as a function of single- versus dual-subordinate identities, (Rossette & Livingston, 2012). While the study is about perceptions, its scope is broader than news coverage, which means the researchers in Article 2 failed to provide a clear and honest explanation of the purpose of the study. This is a violation of informed consent. Each of the participants in Article 3 was nominated, had the opportunity to opt-in or not, and four of the six participants responded to the researchers’ release of interview text for approval prior its release. Additionally, the researchers obtained consent to record all interviews, (Clayborne & Hamrick, 2007).
Conclusion
The preceding pages provided a review and comparison of three studies that discuss race in the workplace. “Blacks as Supervisors: A Study of Training, Job Performance, and Employers ' Expectations,” by Richard W. Beatty (1973) seeks to prove that the program design for future efforts to develop and promote members of minority groups into managerial positions must rest upon empirical. “Failure is not an Option for Black Women: Effects of Organizational Performance on Leaders with Single Versus Dual-Subordinate Identities” by Ashleigh Shelby Rosette and Robert W. Livingston (2012) seeks to fill the gap in research that explicitly investigates the manner in which leadership perceptions differ for individuals with dual-subordinate identities (i.e., Black women). Finally, the purpose of the third article, “Rearticulating the Leadership Experiences of African American Women in Midlevel Student Affairs Administration,” by Hannah L. Clayborne and Florence A. Hamrick (2007), is two-fold. First, it seeks to explore and conceptualize leadership from the beginning of the personal and professional experiences of African American women in midlevel student affairs positions at two and four year PWIs. Secondly, the study seeks to refine and expand definitions of leadership from the perspectives and experiences of African American women in midlevel student affairs administration, in order to supplement, question, or challenge prevailing notions of leadership and its exercise.
The research in Article 1 took place prior to The Belmont Report and presents assumptions based upon the research culture of the time. Articles 2 and 3 present clear and reasonable assumptions using reasonable study samples to support their hypotheses. The limitations related to each study are expected, as there will always remain a segment of the population not represented; specifically, when a study is focused on a small segment of the population (i.e., Black women). Finally, conclusions and future recommendations for research create opportunities to address better those limitations and to answer new questions.
References
Beatty, R. W. (1973). Blacks as supervisors: A study of training, job performance, and employers ' expectations. Academy Of Management Journal, 16(2), 196-206. doi:10.2307/255322
Belch, H. A., & Strange, C. C. (1995). Views from the bottleneck: Middle managers in student affairs. NASPA Journal, 32 (3), 208–222.
Clayborne, H. L., & Hamrick, F. A. (2007). Rearticulating the leadership experiences of
African American women in midlevel student affairs administration. NASPA Journal (National Association Of Student Personnel Administrators, Inc.), 44(1), 123-146.
Hinrichs, John R. Psychology of men at work. Annual Review of Psychology, Vol. 21 (1970),
519-554.
Johnsrud, L. K., & Rosser, V. J. (1999). College and university midlevel administrators:
Explaining and improving their morale. Review of Higher Education, 22 (2), 121–141.
Rosette, A. S., & Livingston, R. W. (2012). Failure is not an option for Black women: Effects of organizational performance on leaders with single versus dual-subordinate identities. Journal Of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(5), 1162-1167. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2012.05.002
Comparison Matrix
Article 1
Article 2
Article 3
Title/Author(s)
Blacks As Supervisors: A Study of Training, Job Performance, and Employers ' Expectations by Richard W. Beatty
Failure is not an option for Black women: Effects of organizational performance on leaders with single versus dual-subordinate identities by Ashleigh Shelby Rosette Robert W. Livingston
Rearticulating the
Leadership Experiences of
African American Women in Midlevel Student Affairs Administration by
Hannah L. Clayborne
Florence A. Hamrick
Persistent GCU library link http://library.gcu.edu:2048/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com.library.gcu.edu:2048/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=4297514&site=eds-live&scope=site http://library.gcu.edu:2048/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com.library.gcu.edu:2048/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=77457355&site=eds-live&scope=site http://library.gcu.edu:2048/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com.library.gcu.edu:2048/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=24855122&site=eds-live&scope=site Purpose of the study
What is the author’s rationale for selecting this topic? Does he build a strong case?
The researchers believe that the need for research on minority supervisors is essential, as is the need for research on other minority problems, if the program design for future efforts to develop and promote members of minority groups into managerial positions is to be founded upon an empirical basis rather than upon social scientists ' preconceptions of the needs of minority groups
The current study seeks to fill gap related to research that has explicitly investigated the manner in which leadership perceptions differ for individuals with dual-subordinate identities (i.e., Black women) and examine whether leader perceptions vary as a function of single- versus dual-subordinate identities.
The purpose of this study was to explore and subsequently conceptualize leadership from the starting point of the personal and professional experiences of African American women in midlevel student affairs positions at 2- and 4-year PWIs.
The purpose of this study was to refine and expand definitions of leadership from the perspectives and experiences of these respondents, in order to supplement, question, or challenge prevailing notions of leadership and its exercise.
Research Question(s)
What question(s) does the author present?
The study seeks to answer the following (a) the extent to which a federal training program fulfilled its stated objectives of developing certain supervisory attitudes and cognitive skills, (b) the importance of these attitudes and skills to employers ' evaluations of the trainees ' supervisory performance, and (c) the nature of the criteria actually used by employers in their performance ratings.
How do Black women leaders fare relative to Black men leaders or White women leaders?
The researchers predict a three-way interaction between leader gender, leader race, and organizational performance such that Black women will be perceived negatively relative to Black men or White women, but only when their organization is not successful. Furthermore, the researchers predict that this proposed moderation will be mediated by the extent to which a target exhibits the characteristics consistent with a leader will mediate the predicted interaction between organizational performance, leader race, and leader gender on perceived leader effectiveness.
The research questions guiding this study include - How do respondents describe their leadership experiences and leadership development? How does the use of Black feminist thought subsequently illuminate these descriptions of leadership?
Literature Review
How is this organized? What are the main themes found in the review? Who are the main authors used?
Sample Population(s)
What group(s) is/are being studied?
The 48 participants were recruited through industries in metropolitan St. Louis. Of the original 37 men and 11 women, 44 completed the training program.
A total of 228 participants (50% women) which comprised undergraduate students (164), graduate students (41), and working adults (23) were recruited in the student union of a southeastern university
Twenty-five colleagues in a targeted geographic area were contacted via e-mail and asked to provide names and contact information for prospective respondents, and the sixteen nominated individuals were invited to participate in the study. Six (Cana, Gloria, Joi, Lauren,
Shelley, and Yvonne—all pseudonyms) representing two 4-year institutions and four 2-year institutions (all PWIs) in a Midwestern state, subsequently agreed to participate.
Limitations
What are the limitations of the study? Why can it only encompass so much?
There is an absence of prior research
The researchers use nonprobability sampling can be a limitation because of the implication for biased research
Research participants are homogeneous in race and locations
Respondents were paid to participate, which could skew responses based upon the need for the incentive
College students were used as respondents and not the subjects of the study (i.e, Black women and men and white men and women in leadership)
The researchers use a small number of respondents, a result of nonprobability
Research participants have regional homogeneity
The geographic distance from the primary researcher resulted in a greater number of telephone follow-up interviews than planned
Results/ Conclusions
What did the author find through the study? Was the original question answered?
The researchers in Article 1 found that the training developed comprehension of supervisory concepts and techniques; however, the increases were attributable to subjects concerning understanding and motivating employees and to training and learning. Furthermore, results show that training program content influences employers’ opinions of trainees’ success as supervisors only slightly. Finally, “supervisor 's classroom scores on cognitive content areas such as problem solving were not associated with the employer 's appraisal of the supervisor 's task behavior on the same or similar topics. The social behaviors also failed to show a relationship with the program 's cognitive content,” (Beatty, 1973, p. 202). The researcher concludes that the study sheds light on the problems related to the criteria used to evaluate manager performance. Additionally, the researcher acknowledges the significant subjective component in the evaluation of supervisors, especially if they are Black.
Double jeopardy is more likely to occur when an organization is experiencing failure versus success because Black women’s subordinate identities were better matched to subpar as opposed to successful outcomes.
Black women leaders are evaluated comparably to leaders with single-subordinate identities—White women and Black men – when they are successful Black women’s two subordinate identities did not result in double jeopardy
The researchers conclude that Black women executives may have to work exceptionally hard to minimize mistakes made on the job, as their consequence for doing so may be more significant than those experienced by White women and Black men.
Researchers suggest that future research should examine the manner in which leaders with other subordinate identities (e.g., class, age, and sexuality) are evaluated.
Future research should also examine contextual factors other than performance that may influence whether double jeopardy or intersectional invisibility is experienced by individuals who possess more than one subordinate identity
Respondent characterize leadership by engagements in substantive relationships and commitments to ensuring involvement by others
Strategies consistent with this approach to leadership are soliciting feedback, listening and responding to others’ needs and concerns, working alongside staff members, crediting staff members’ contributions and input, and providing guidance and nurturing
Individuals are leaders to the extent that leadership and responsibilities for leading are successfully distributed and shared among others
Respondents noted two principal challenges: supervision and resource scarcity
Respondents were interested in promotion opportunities, they reported experiencing little in the way of training or grooming by their supervisors or others on campus.
Respondents also described the drawbacks to their continued leadership development when they are isolated from politics, policy-making, and contact with senior-level administrators
The researchers conclude that the passage of time has not significantly altered fundamental challenges faced by African American women professionals in that the respondents’ personal accounts echo challenges that have been documented in prior studies of African American women, such as isolation and access to effective mentoring
The researchers recommend continued investigation and analysis of African American women’s experiences as well as the use of theoretical frameworks that can enable more targeted and grounded analyses
Researchers recommend more studies that unpack the differences and similarities between supervision and mentoring; investigate leadership styles and contributions to student affairs professionals; and, the manner in which student affairs professionals and issues related to intersecting race, ethnicity, class, gender, and other identities and histories affect the colleges and universities in which they work