Deafblind Adults Essay
British Journal of Visual Impairment http://jvi.sagepub.com/ The hands and reading : What deafblind adult readers tell us
Cynthia L. Ingraham and Jean F. Andrews
British Journal of Visual Impairment 2010 28: 130
DOI: 10.1177/0264619609359416
The online version of this article can be found at: http://jvi.sagepub.com/content/28/2/130 Published by: http://www.sagepublications.com Additional services and information for British Journal of Visual Impairment can be found at:
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What is This?
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The hands and reading
What deafblind adult readers tell us
BJVI
THE BRITISH
JOURNAL OF
VISUAL
IMPAIRMENT
Copyright © 2010 Authors
(Los Angeles, London, New Delhi,
Singapore and Washington DC)
Vol 28(2): 130–138
DOI: 10.1177/0264619609359416
ARTICLE
C Y N T H I A L . I N G R A H A M A N D J E A N F.
A N D R E W S Lamar University, Beaumont, Texas, USA
A B S T R AC T Deafblind readers are heterogeneous in reading skill acquisition. This qualitative study uses in-depth interviews and protocol analyses and queries the three deafblind adult participants in describing their metacomprehension, metacognitive and metalinguistic strategies used when reading different types of text. Using retrospective analysis, the three adults describe and reflect on how they learned language and how they learned to read as children. The participants also describe the technology that assists them in reading print. Data suggest that deafblind adults use a variety of auditory, visual and tactilekinesthetic strategies (i.e. braille, large print, and raised print) in decoding English. Some also use ASL, Signed English and tactile
ASL and tactile Signed English.
blindness, braille, deafblind, d e a f n e s s , h e a r i n g l o s s , l i t e r a c y, v i s i o n l o s s
K E Y WO R D S
BACKGROUND
We typically associate reading with matching spoken language to printed language but for the approximately 3 million deafblind individuals in the
USA many will access printed English through the use of the hands
(Wolf-Schein, 1989). Deafblind adults may use braille, raised print, fingerspelling, or even a modified sign language as in the case of tactile sign language or fingerspelling. The purpose of this pilot study was to interview three successful deafblind adult readers. They reflected on how they learned to communicate; to use language and literacy skills in their daily experiences using their hands and ears. While our sample is from the USA, we believe our findings have relevance for populations in other countries as well.
Severe sensory loss to both hearing and vision can adversely impact daily functioning especially when learning to read (Ingraham, 2007). While deafblind adults may have some residual vision and hearing, information
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INGRAHAM & ANDREWS: THE HANDS AND READING
obtained from one modality is often insufficient singularly (Brabyn et al.,
2007).
For example, if a student with limited vision and hearing is unable to completely hear a particular vocabulary word, the use of their vision to see the printed word or the manual sign can be useful.
The earlier the onset of deafblindness, the more challenging it is for the student to develop communication and literacy skills (Cummings-Reid,
2007; Miles and Riggio, 1999). However, persons who are born deaf and lose their vision later in life may face obstacles depending on how much American Sign Language (ASL) and English skills they have already acquired (Reid, 1996). When deafblind persons lose their vision, as in the case of a student with Usher Syndrome (a combination of congenital deafness and progressive vision loss caused by Retinitis
Pigmentosa), they often learn to read braille (Ingraham and Anderson,
2001). Further, etiologies associated with deafblindness may also cause reading disabilities, dysgraphia, and learning disabilities in general
(Miles and Riggio, 1999: 15).
METHOD
Our purpose was to document how successful deafblind adult readers who used a variety of communication methods developed reading. We interviewed three deafblind adults who were willing to discuss with us their language and reading histories. All participants had at least average IQs as measured by a non-verbal test. Two possessed acquired deafblindness and one was congenitally deaf with early onset of blindness before the acquisition of language skills. All were from families in which language intervention began early. All attended college.
Our pilot study is a retrospective analysis of the communication, language and reading abilities of successful deafblind readers. We used interview, self-reports, and ‘think aloud’ protocols. Each was interviewed in person by one of the authors skilled in deafblind communication methods (Ingraham). These responses were also videotaped individually; each interview lasted about one hour. The signed/spoken interviews were transcribed into English and were analyzed.
RESULTS OF OUR PILOT STUDY
Case study of Rebecca
At birth, Rebecca was diagnosed with a rare inherited recessive gene disorder called Leber Congenital Amaurosis (LCA)1 that affects both the rods and cones of the retina. By the age of five, most of her vision and
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hearing were lost. Rebecca was enrolled in the School for the Deaf until she was eight years old. She reported that she attended some classes with other deaf students and individual classes in the deafblind resource room where she received individualized support services specific to her vision loss. At age eight, she transferred to a private school – the sole student with a disability. However, with individualized tactile interpreting services, she was able to access classroom lectures, group discussions and extra-curricular activities. She attended Gallaudet
University for one year, and then transferred to a university to major in computer science.
When communicating with others, Rebecca uses Contact Sign
Language via tactile sign language; a type of English-based sign language that uses ASL signs in English word order. Both tactile PSE or tactile signing are manual communication methods where signs are produced into the deafblind person’s palm (Ingraham and Anderson,
2001) and can employ facial expressions, space and body movement similar to ASL grammar and structure (Miner, 1996). However, for
Rebecca, emotions or voice inflections must be communicated tactually as her vision loss prevents the discernment of such facial expressions and subtle body movements.
Rebecca reported learning sign language at age three and braille at age four. She used tactile sign language when communicating with her father and mother. As a child, her mother frequently read stories using twin books which have braille on one side of the page and print on the other. Her mother used tactile signing to explain the meaning of words
Rebecca read using braille. As she became an older more independent reader, Rebecca would scan printed documents, and upload them to the computer using braille translation software which would transcribe her documents into an ASCII or text file which she would use to produce a braille copy to read (Bhattacharyya and Spears, 2007).
Rebecca reported she used the strategies of rereading and self-question as she read print using braille. Mentally, she would use summarization techniques as she read stories. She also used a dictionary. Rebecca also reported she read much in school. For instance, in second grade in high school she read Charlie and the Chocolate Factory and the Catcher in the Rye – both in braille.
Memory and reading strategies
Deaf readers have been found to use inner speech, phonological, visual, tactile, dactylic and a combination of these coding strategies
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INGRAHAM & ANDREWS: THE HANDS AND READING
in translating print into a mental language they could understand
(Andrews and Mason, 1991; Tye-Murray et al., 2007). When reporting on early reading experiences, Rebecca reported she often honed her haptic skills by using an Optacon to access print and would then use braille to remember words. In school she preferred to get information from the sign language interpreter rather than reading textbooks. She reported using strategies such as skimming texts and the dictionary for difficult words for which she did not know the meaning. Rebecca reported she reads novels ‘all the way through’. She uses the strategy of rereading frequently. With journal articles, she typically only reads the headings and bold print. However, with newspapers, she simply scans and does not closely read them unless the article topic interests her.
Case of Angela
Angela attended public school at age six. Realizing that halfway through the second grade she could not read print any more, her family enrolled her in the state school for the blind. There she stayed until the ninth grade, enrolled in the local public school, graduated, then went on to complete two semesters of college.
Angela was diagnosed with Usher Syndrome II while a student in her primary school. She studied braille at an early age and acquired independent living skills. Today, she is a stay-at-home housewife and teaches braille to other blind and deafblind consumers part time.
Angela reported she lost her hearing in her late teens when she was about 18 or 19 years old. Having had to wear eye glasses before the age of two, by the time she was seven years old, the glasses did not help her.
Angela reports that 75 per cent of her hearing is now gone. She also reported that she currently has heavy cataracts and some light perception. Angela wears two digital hearing aids, uses an FM system in certain situations and uses JAWS (Jobs Access with Speech software) with a braille display to access the computer.
Angela reported that she uses braille when reading cookbooks. She also reported that she uses a talking kitchen scale, headphones and audiotapes. She uses the computer about one hour to two hours each day where she surfs the web. Angela subscribes to braille newspapers but doesn’t watch much TV, ‘because the people on the TV talk too fast and the same with the radio’.
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Angela reported she uses sign language when she isn’t wearing her hearing aids. She had learned the manual alphabet while attending the state school for the blind. But ASL can be inaccessible as she reports she cannot see facial expressions.
Angela reported her first language was English and her teachers taught her to read at about age six or seven using braille. Her teachers read to her at school and dorm staff read to her at night. She does not remember learning to read her first word, but does recall that when she learned to read, she enjoyed it and carried a book everywhere.
The first books she remembers reading in braille were in the Dick and
Jane reading series. She also learned to read printed raised letters.
When the information load increased, she preferred to read books in braille, especially school textbooks.
Memory and reading strategies
In her mind, Angela depended on her knowledge of braille or raised letters to get meaning from print or spoken text. Angela does not use sign language. She prefers to have her textbooks ‘strictly’ in braille. By using braille, she can get the meaning down so she does not have to repeatedly reread the material.
Related to reading strategies, she does not skim when reading chapters in a textbook, but tends to read the text to completion. If she comes across a word she does not understand, she typically rereads the passage. When she comes to other unfamiliar words, she stops and tries to figure them out using context clues. Very rarely will she use a dictionary when reading chapters in a textbook.
Angela often relies on family members to help her fill in the gaps of what she does not understand. She prefers braille when reading nonfiction books and newspapers. However, when reading fiction she often listens to books on tape as she does not think it important to catch every word. Case of Rosario
Rosario, born into a Spanish-speaking hearing family, reported she was born deaf of unknown causes. She reported that her vision loss was caused by retinal detachment. Rosario has a profound hearing loss and
20/200 vision in her right eye and only light perception in her left eye.
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INGRAHAM & ANDREWS: THE HANDS AND READING
She reported using sign language all the time to communicate in the deaf world. In the hearing world, she uses English – writing, speaking, and hearing. While in school, she uses an FM system. She reported that she likes to listen to music using headphones, but needs to have the printed lyrics in front of her to comprehend the song. She says she does not have enough hearing to comprehend books on tape.
Rosario attended and graduated from public school where she received specialized services for her vision and hearing loss. She never attended a school for the deaf. Rosario reported that she watches five to six hours of TV each day and does not listen to the radio much. She spends two hours on the web, and enjoys but infrequently reads novels.
Rosario reported she previously used a video magnifier to access print while in school. By using the unit to project images onto a video monitor, Rosario could manipulate images to the size, color and clarity best suited for her vision needs. For the computer, she currently uses the
Zoomtext screen enlargement program.
In Rosario’s home, Spanish and English were both used. However, her family mainly used English with her even though her mother did not master English until Rosario was nine or 10 years old. Rosario considers English to be her first language.
Rosario reported that she taught herself how to read at age three. Even though her parents did not read to her at home there were books available. During her time in school, her teachers introduced reading to her, but she had already taught herself about reading at home. Rosario reported she vividly remembered the printed word drink combined with a picture as the first word she learned to read.
Memory and reading strategies
Rosario reported that she does not use braille frequently when reading.
Most of the time when reading, she uses regular print and holds the page six inches from her face. She reports that large print books and the computer help reduce stress on her eyes. Rosario shared that translating text into sign language assists her in understanding. She explains ‘I sign a passage to myself to help me understand what I have read.’
Rosario reported that she learned study skills in middle school. She reported she has a ‘photographic mind’, and this helped her succeed with reading and her school work.
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T H E B R I T I S H J O U R NA L O F V I S U A L I M PA I R M E N T 2 8 ( 2 )
When asked how she translated print, Rosario reported she does not translate print into braille, but instead creates ‘a picture in my mind’ or
I ‘make a movie in my mind’. She relies mostly on English to remember words and uses ASL for ‘enjoyment’. However, she reported using an interpreter the entire time while in school. If she could not follow the teacher’s lecture, after class she would often ask the interpreter or teacher for clarification.
While reading a textbook chapter, Rosario reported she uses skimming, rereading, context clues, bold print, headings, summaries and looking at illustrations. When she comes across a word she does not understand, she will try to figure it out and if she cannot she goes to the dictionary.
Related to strategies across text types, Rosario reported she skims a textbook chapter and uses rereading, context clues, bold print, headings, summaries and looking at pictures when reading textbooks for school.
She would often use the dictionary for vocabulary with which she was unfamiliar. She used these same strategies when reading a novel, journal articles and newspapers.
SUMMARY
Rebecca, Angela and Rosario are deafblind active readers who read for pleasure and have used their skills to acquire higher education. All had early exposure to language and came from families where their education was stressed. All used a variety of metacomprehension and metalinguistic strategies when reading texts such as rereading, context clues, looking back into the text and using chapter subheadings
(Andrews and Mason, 1991). All participants used computer technology, scanners, print enlargers, JAWS software and other technology to access print.
Each participant had a unique configuration of sensory abilities.
Understanding these configurations can help us guide instruction for deafblind children (Coppins and Barlow-Brown, 2006; Lane, 1997; WellsJensen et al., 2008). For instance, in our study, Rebecca received instruction in tactile sign language, braille and sign language, while Angela and Rosario received instruction in large print, speech and later braille.
IMPLICATIONS
Deafblind persons, whose age-at-onset of their vision and hearing loss varies, are often not as fortunate as these three successful deafblind
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INGRAHAM & ANDREWS: THE HANDS AND READING
readers. Many remain functionally isolated and illiterate in their home and school communities for most of their lives (Shelton, 2007). Students frequently comment that deafblindness can result in agonizing social isolation and marginalization while in school and in life in general
(Ingraham, 2007). Many of the communication methods and instructional strategies used by deafblind persons, such as fingerspelling, require strong literacy skills. In addition, captioning, large print notes, computer and internet access via a braille display, instant messaging, and pagers are all dependent on the use of English (Ingraham, 2007;
Reid, 1996). Additional retrospective studies of successful deafblind readers can inform us how we can develop more effective instructional reading programs for deafblind children and youth.
Note
1 See ‘Leber’s Congenital Amaurosis’, American Association for Pediatric
Ophthalmology and Strabismus, URL (consulted January 2009): http://www. aapos.org/faq_list/lebers_congenital_amaurosis References
ANDREWS, J. F. & MASON, J. M.
(1991) ‘Strategy Usage among Deaf and Hearing
Readers’, Exceptional Children 57(6): 536–45.
BHATTACHARYYA, A. & SPEARS, A. (2007) ‘Aids and Accommodations for DeafBlind
Students: Recommendations for High School Students Who Are Preparing for College and Work’, in C. L. Ingraham (ed.) Transition Planning for
Students Who Are DeafBlind. Knoxville, TN: PEPNet-South, URL (consulted
January 2010): http://pdcorder.pepnet.org/media/1218%20DeafBlind07/ deafblind07/chapter%20three.pdf BRABYN, J. A., SCHNECK, M. E., HAEGERSTROM-PORTNOY, G. & LOTT, L. A. (2007) ‘Dual
Sensory Loss: Overview of Problems, Visual Assessment, and Rehabilitation’,
Trends in Amplification 11(4): 219–26.
COPPINS, N. & BARLOW-BROWN, F. (2006) ‘Reading Difficulties in Blind, Braillereading Children’, British Journal of Visual Impairment 24(1): 37–9.
CUMMINGS-REID, R. (2007) ‘Not in my Footsteps: A DeafBlind Mother’s Transition
Lessons for her DeafBlind Son’, in C. L. Ingraham (ed.) Transition Planning for
Students Who Are DeafBlind. Knoxville, TN: PEPNet-South, URL (consulted
January 2010): http://pdcorder.pepnet.org/media/1218%20DeafBlind07/ deafblind07/chapter%20nine.pdf INGRAHAM , C . L . (2007) ‘What Does it Mean to be DeafBlind – Really?’, in
C. L. Ingraham (ed.) Transition Planning for Students Who Are DeafBlind.
Knoxville, TN: PEPNet-South, URL (consulted January 2010): http://pdcorder. pepnet.org/media/1218%20DeafBlind07/deafblind07/chapter%20two.pdf INGRAHAM, C. L. & ANDERSON, H. C. (2001) ‘The Time is High School; The Resource
Is the Community: Self-determination, Transition, and Deaf-blind Students’,
Odyssey: New Directions in Deaf Education 2(3): 24–5.
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LANE, H.
(1997) ‘Modality-appropriate Stimulation and Deaf-blind Children and
Adults’, Address to the Hilton-Perkins Conference on DeafBlindness, June,
Washington, DC.
MILES, B. & RIGGIO, M. (1999) Remarkable Conversations: A Guide to Developing
Meaningful Communication with Children and Young Adults Who Are
Deafblind. Watertown, MA: Perkins School for the Blind.
MINER, I. (1996) ‘The Impact of Usher Syndrome, Type I, on Adolescent
Development’, Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation 6(2): 159–66.
REID, J. (1996) Deaf-Blind Literacy Curriculum. Toronto: CNIB, Deaf-Blind
Services.
SHELTON, R. (2007) ‘Emerging through Unlikely Moments and Flourishing in
Reality’, in C. L. Ingraham (ed.) Transition Planning for Students Who Are
DeafBlind. Knoxville, TN: PEPNet-South, URL (consulted January 2010): http://pdcorder.pepnet.org/media/1218%20DeafBlind07/deafblind07/ chapter%20nine.pdf
TYE-MURRAY, N., SOMMERS, M. & SPEHAR, B. (2007) ‘Auditory and Visual Lexical
Neighborhoods in Audiovisual Speech Perception’, Trends in Amplification
11(4): 233–41.
WELLS-JENSEN, S., GOSCHE, B. & BURKE, S. M. (2008) ‘The Writing of Braille: Hand,
Finger, and Frequency Effects on Error and Accuracy Patterns’, British Journal of Visual Impairment 26(1): 82–98.
WOLF-SCHEIN, E. (1989) ‘A review of the size, characteristics, and needs of the deaf-blind population of North America’, ACEHI/ACEDA 15(3): 85–99.
CYNTHIA L. INGRAHAM
Lamar University
Beaumont TX, USA
Email: sophieaccess@aol.com
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Cynthia L. Ingraham and Jean F. Andrews
British Journal of Visual Impairment 2010 28: 130
DOI: 10.1177/0264619609359416
The online version of this article can be found at: http://jvi.sagepub.com/content/28/2/130 Published by: http://www.sagepublications.com Additional services and information for British Journal of Visual Impairment can be found at:
Email Alerts: http://jvi.sagepub.com/cgi/alerts
Subscriptions: http://jvi.sagepub.com/subscriptions
Reprints: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsReprints.nav
Permissions: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
Citations: http://jvi.sagepub.com/content/28/2/130.refs.html …show more content…
>> Version of Record - May 17, 2010
What is This?
Downloaded from jvi.sagepub.com by Cynthia Ingraham on October 3, 2012
The hands and reading
What deafblind adult readers tell us
BJVI
THE BRITISH
JOURNAL OF
VISUAL
IMPAIRMENT
Copyright © 2010 Authors
(Los Angeles, London, New Delhi,
Singapore and Washington DC)
Vol 28(2): 130–138
DOI: 10.1177/0264619609359416
ARTICLE
C Y N T H I A L . I N G R A H A M A N D J E A N F.
A N D R E W S Lamar University, Beaumont, Texas, USA
A B S T R AC T Deafblind readers are heterogeneous in reading skill acquisition. This qualitative study uses in-depth interviews and protocol analyses and queries the three deafblind adult participants in describing their metacomprehension, metacognitive and metalinguistic strategies used when reading different types of text. Using retrospective analysis, the three adults describe and reflect on how they learned language and how they learned to read as children. The participants also describe the technology that assists them in reading print. Data suggest that deafblind adults use a variety of auditory, visual and tactilekinesthetic strategies (i.e. braille, large print, and raised print) in decoding English. Some also use ASL, Signed English and tactile
ASL and tactile Signed English.
blindness, braille, deafblind, d e a f n e s s , h e a r i n g l o s s , l i t e r a c y, v i s i o n l o s s
K E Y WO R D S
BACKGROUND
We typically associate reading with matching spoken language to printed language but for the approximately 3 million deafblind individuals in the
USA many will access printed English through the use of the hands
(Wolf-Schein, 1989). Deafblind adults may use braille, raised print, fingerspelling, or even a modified sign language as in the case of tactile sign language or fingerspelling. The purpose of this pilot study was to interview three successful deafblind adult readers. They reflected on how they learned to communicate; to use language and literacy skills in their daily experiences using their hands and ears. While our sample is from the USA, we believe our findings have relevance for populations in other countries as well.
Severe sensory loss to both hearing and vision can adversely impact daily functioning especially when learning to read (Ingraham, 2007). While deafblind adults may have some residual vision and hearing, information
130
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INGRAHAM & ANDREWS: THE HANDS AND READING
obtained from one modality is often insufficient singularly (Brabyn et al.,
2007).
For example, if a student with limited vision and hearing is unable to completely hear a particular vocabulary word, the use of their vision to see the printed word or the manual sign can be useful.
The earlier the onset of deafblindness, the more challenging it is for the student to develop communication and literacy skills (Cummings-Reid,
2007; Miles and Riggio, 1999). However, persons who are born deaf and lose their vision later in life may face obstacles depending on how much American Sign Language (ASL) and English skills they have already acquired (Reid, 1996). When deafblind persons lose their vision, as in the case of a student with Usher Syndrome (a combination of congenital deafness and progressive vision loss caused by Retinitis
Pigmentosa), they often learn to read braille (Ingraham and Anderson,
2001). Further, etiologies associated with deafblindness may also cause reading disabilities, dysgraphia, and learning disabilities in general
(Miles and Riggio, 1999: 15).
METHOD
Our purpose was to document how successful deafblind adult readers who used a variety of communication methods developed reading. We interviewed three deafblind adults who were willing to discuss with us their language and reading histories. All participants had at least average IQs as measured by a non-verbal test. Two possessed acquired deafblindness and one was congenitally deaf with early onset of blindness before the acquisition of language skills. All were from families in which language intervention began early. All attended college.
Our pilot study is a retrospective analysis of the communication, language and reading abilities of successful deafblind readers. We used interview, self-reports, and ‘think aloud’ protocols. Each was interviewed in person by one of the authors skilled in deafblind communication methods (Ingraham). These responses were also videotaped individually; each interview lasted about one hour. The signed/spoken interviews were transcribed into English and were analyzed.
RESULTS OF OUR PILOT STUDY
Case study of Rebecca
At birth, Rebecca was diagnosed with a rare inherited recessive gene disorder called Leber Congenital Amaurosis (LCA)1 that affects both the rods and cones of the retina. By the age of five, most of her vision and
131
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hearing were lost. Rebecca was enrolled in the School for the Deaf until she was eight years old. She reported that she attended some classes with other deaf students and individual classes in the deafblind resource room where she received individualized support services specific to her vision loss. At age eight, she transferred to a private school – the sole student with a disability. However, with individualized tactile interpreting services, she was able to access classroom lectures, group discussions and extra-curricular activities. She attended Gallaudet
University for one year, and then transferred to a university to major in computer science.
When communicating with others, Rebecca uses Contact Sign
Language via tactile sign language; a type of English-based sign language that uses ASL signs in English word order. Both tactile PSE or tactile signing are manual communication methods where signs are produced into the deafblind person’s palm (Ingraham and Anderson,
2001) and can employ facial expressions, space and body movement similar to ASL grammar and structure (Miner, 1996). However, for
Rebecca, emotions or voice inflections must be communicated tactually as her vision loss prevents the discernment of such facial expressions and subtle body movements.
Rebecca reported learning sign language at age three and braille at age four. She used tactile sign language when communicating with her father and mother. As a child, her mother frequently read stories using twin books which have braille on one side of the page and print on the other. Her mother used tactile signing to explain the meaning of words
Rebecca read using braille. As she became an older more independent reader, Rebecca would scan printed documents, and upload them to the computer using braille translation software which would transcribe her documents into an ASCII or text file which she would use to produce a braille copy to read (Bhattacharyya and Spears, 2007).
Rebecca reported she used the strategies of rereading and self-question as she read print using braille. Mentally, she would use summarization techniques as she read stories. She also used a dictionary. Rebecca also reported she read much in school. For instance, in second grade in high school she read Charlie and the Chocolate Factory and the Catcher in the Rye – both in braille.
Memory and reading strategies
Deaf readers have been found to use inner speech, phonological, visual, tactile, dactylic and a combination of these coding strategies
132
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INGRAHAM & ANDREWS: THE HANDS AND READING
in translating print into a mental language they could understand
(Andrews and Mason, 1991; Tye-Murray et al., 2007). When reporting on early reading experiences, Rebecca reported she often honed her haptic skills by using an Optacon to access print and would then use braille to remember words. In school she preferred to get information from the sign language interpreter rather than reading textbooks. She reported using strategies such as skimming texts and the dictionary for difficult words for which she did not know the meaning. Rebecca reported she reads novels ‘all the way through’. She uses the strategy of rereading frequently. With journal articles, she typically only reads the headings and bold print. However, with newspapers, she simply scans and does not closely read them unless the article topic interests her.
Case of Angela
Angela attended public school at age six. Realizing that halfway through the second grade she could not read print any more, her family enrolled her in the state school for the blind. There she stayed until the ninth grade, enrolled in the local public school, graduated, then went on to complete two semesters of college.
Angela was diagnosed with Usher Syndrome II while a student in her primary school. She studied braille at an early age and acquired independent living skills. Today, she is a stay-at-home housewife and teaches braille to other blind and deafblind consumers part time.
Angela reported she lost her hearing in her late teens when she was about 18 or 19 years old. Having had to wear eye glasses before the age of two, by the time she was seven years old, the glasses did not help her.
Angela reports that 75 per cent of her hearing is now gone. She also reported that she currently has heavy cataracts and some light perception. Angela wears two digital hearing aids, uses an FM system in certain situations and uses JAWS (Jobs Access with Speech software) with a braille display to access the computer.
Angela reported that she uses braille when reading cookbooks. She also reported that she uses a talking kitchen scale, headphones and audiotapes. She uses the computer about one hour to two hours each day where she surfs the web. Angela subscribes to braille newspapers but doesn’t watch much TV, ‘because the people on the TV talk too fast and the same with the radio’.
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Angela reported she uses sign language when she isn’t wearing her hearing aids. She had learned the manual alphabet while attending the state school for the blind. But ASL can be inaccessible as she reports she cannot see facial expressions.
Angela reported her first language was English and her teachers taught her to read at about age six or seven using braille. Her teachers read to her at school and dorm staff read to her at night. She does not remember learning to read her first word, but does recall that when she learned to read, she enjoyed it and carried a book everywhere.
The first books she remembers reading in braille were in the Dick and
Jane reading series. She also learned to read printed raised letters.
When the information load increased, she preferred to read books in braille, especially school textbooks.
Memory and reading strategies
In her mind, Angela depended on her knowledge of braille or raised letters to get meaning from print or spoken text. Angela does not use sign language. She prefers to have her textbooks ‘strictly’ in braille. By using braille, she can get the meaning down so she does not have to repeatedly reread the material.
Related to reading strategies, she does not skim when reading chapters in a textbook, but tends to read the text to completion. If she comes across a word she does not understand, she typically rereads the passage. When she comes to other unfamiliar words, she stops and tries to figure them out using context clues. Very rarely will she use a dictionary when reading chapters in a textbook.
Angela often relies on family members to help her fill in the gaps of what she does not understand. She prefers braille when reading nonfiction books and newspapers. However, when reading fiction she often listens to books on tape as she does not think it important to catch every word. Case of Rosario
Rosario, born into a Spanish-speaking hearing family, reported she was born deaf of unknown causes. She reported that her vision loss was caused by retinal detachment. Rosario has a profound hearing loss and
20/200 vision in her right eye and only light perception in her left eye.
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She reported using sign language all the time to communicate in the deaf world. In the hearing world, she uses English – writing, speaking, and hearing. While in school, she uses an FM system. She reported that she likes to listen to music using headphones, but needs to have the printed lyrics in front of her to comprehend the song. She says she does not have enough hearing to comprehend books on tape.
Rosario attended and graduated from public school where she received specialized services for her vision and hearing loss. She never attended a school for the deaf. Rosario reported that she watches five to six hours of TV each day and does not listen to the radio much. She spends two hours on the web, and enjoys but infrequently reads novels.
Rosario reported she previously used a video magnifier to access print while in school. By using the unit to project images onto a video monitor, Rosario could manipulate images to the size, color and clarity best suited for her vision needs. For the computer, she currently uses the
Zoomtext screen enlargement program.
In Rosario’s home, Spanish and English were both used. However, her family mainly used English with her even though her mother did not master English until Rosario was nine or 10 years old. Rosario considers English to be her first language.
Rosario reported that she taught herself how to read at age three. Even though her parents did not read to her at home there were books available. During her time in school, her teachers introduced reading to her, but she had already taught herself about reading at home. Rosario reported she vividly remembered the printed word drink combined with a picture as the first word she learned to read.
Memory and reading strategies
Rosario reported that she does not use braille frequently when reading.
Most of the time when reading, she uses regular print and holds the page six inches from her face. She reports that large print books and the computer help reduce stress on her eyes. Rosario shared that translating text into sign language assists her in understanding. She explains ‘I sign a passage to myself to help me understand what I have read.’
Rosario reported that she learned study skills in middle school. She reported she has a ‘photographic mind’, and this helped her succeed with reading and her school work.
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When asked how she translated print, Rosario reported she does not translate print into braille, but instead creates ‘a picture in my mind’ or
I ‘make a movie in my mind’. She relies mostly on English to remember words and uses ASL for ‘enjoyment’. However, she reported using an interpreter the entire time while in school. If she could not follow the teacher’s lecture, after class she would often ask the interpreter or teacher for clarification.
While reading a textbook chapter, Rosario reported she uses skimming, rereading, context clues, bold print, headings, summaries and looking at illustrations. When she comes across a word she does not understand, she will try to figure it out and if she cannot she goes to the dictionary.
Related to strategies across text types, Rosario reported she skims a textbook chapter and uses rereading, context clues, bold print, headings, summaries and looking at pictures when reading textbooks for school.
She would often use the dictionary for vocabulary with which she was unfamiliar. She used these same strategies when reading a novel, journal articles and newspapers.
SUMMARY
Rebecca, Angela and Rosario are deafblind active readers who read for pleasure and have used their skills to acquire higher education. All had early exposure to language and came from families where their education was stressed. All used a variety of metacomprehension and metalinguistic strategies when reading texts such as rereading, context clues, looking back into the text and using chapter subheadings
(Andrews and Mason, 1991). All participants used computer technology, scanners, print enlargers, JAWS software and other technology to access print.
Each participant had a unique configuration of sensory abilities.
Understanding these configurations can help us guide instruction for deafblind children (Coppins and Barlow-Brown, 2006; Lane, 1997; WellsJensen et al., 2008). For instance, in our study, Rebecca received instruction in tactile sign language, braille and sign language, while Angela and Rosario received instruction in large print, speech and later braille.
IMPLICATIONS
Deafblind persons, whose age-at-onset of their vision and hearing loss varies, are often not as fortunate as these three successful deafblind
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readers. Many remain functionally isolated and illiterate in their home and school communities for most of their lives (Shelton, 2007). Students frequently comment that deafblindness can result in agonizing social isolation and marginalization while in school and in life in general
(Ingraham, 2007). Many of the communication methods and instructional strategies used by deafblind persons, such as fingerspelling, require strong literacy skills. In addition, captioning, large print notes, computer and internet access via a braille display, instant messaging, and pagers are all dependent on the use of English (Ingraham, 2007;
Reid, 1996). Additional retrospective studies of successful deafblind readers can inform us how we can develop more effective instructional reading programs for deafblind children and youth.
Note
1 See ‘Leber’s Congenital Amaurosis’, American Association for Pediatric
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CYNTHIA L. INGRAHAM
Lamar University
Beaumont TX, USA
Email: sophieaccess@aol.com
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