Effects of Computers in a Developing Nation

Nigerian Journal of Research and Production (NIJOREP) Vol. 1, 2002

THE IMPACT OF COMPUTER IN A DEVELOPING COUNTRY LIKE NIGERIA

S.A. Onasanya
Abstract The cascade of in format ion available to the society, which is carried on by natural and artificial representation, has added more functional values to the use of computer, h is becoming more important lo appreciate application with its flexible and versatile roles and the tree aim it gives to our individuality. Computer has been used in the various; fields. The business people have applied it to boost their entrepreneurial spirit by their electronic spread sheet, it has been used by writers and editors whose creativity is nourished by word processing, researchers and social scientists whose range is extended by computerized databases. It alsoapplies to visual artists who are provided with sketchpad through computer graphics, simulations and computer animations. To the teachers, it has been useful in developing computer based individualized instructions. It is a patient tutor for every child. It is this same computer mat provides mysterious accuracy outcomes, in controlling space (light, and guided missiles and satellites. The paper assesses various roles of computers in a developing country. These include the use of computers for instructional delivery, for information processing, for graphic production and presentations, and for communication among others. It also suggested ways through which Nigeria could respond to this great challenge. Introduction Computer is one of the latest media which technology has brought for the use of mankind. Computer has been described as an automatic electronic machine that performs calculation. It is capable of accepting data, and performing operation according to instruction (programme), and providing result of the operation with great speed and accuracy (Brightman and Dunsdalc 19X6). Computer has a depth of history from the oriental world, with the use of an Abacus since about 3,000 years ago. Pascal, a French scientist, developed the first digital calculating machine in 1642. Gollried W.L, a German mathematician, also developed 'Stepped Reckoner ' in 1671, an improvement on Pascal 's effort. Further development led to the invention of the analogue computer in the 1940s (Anyaogu, 1991). Computer at these times were used basically for elementary task of calculation and were merely looked upon as a device to help mankind move some data and do some calculation. Its further adaptive use in the 20"

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century is in automation and its adaptation to educational and individual functions. Computer today is involved in reshaping the global world and had been more deeply involved in the texture of human life than any other dormant technology ever. Computer has become an integral part of an operation, and also, it is a tool that aids in computation of data processing. It has a significant place in offices, banks, factories, and schools and even in the homes; it has been used in business offices and banks for data processing for inventory control, preparation of pay roll and distributing operations. It has also been used for research and to aid decision-making at a high administrative level. Computer has also been applied in medical fields to aid research and solve diagnostic problems, modeling diseases and for full medical training. Seehrest & Henry (1996) conducted at research on computer-based patient education observations on effective communication in the clinical setting. The researchers relayed their experiences in designing and implementing interactive multimedia presentations for patient education in an orthopaedic surgery office setting. Their findings revealed that computer graphics and animation arc good for conveying complex medical and surgical concepts. In a similar study, Deir, Bittner-Wust, Pick, Kaiser,, & Felix (1996), worked on 3D visualization of thoracic tumors from Machine Rendering (MR) images. Their result revealed that a combination of all three methods in one single image are possible as well with computer software they developed, even within few seconds; animations can easily be calculated and displayed with 3D frames/second. Computer has therefore increasingly affected human lives to the benefit of individuals and offices, computerized database, accounting programs and word-processing programs for administrative and clerical convenience. Computer simulation has also helped in business to eliminate the need for costly scale nodel while in engineering and sciences (Anyaogu, 1991). In recent years, great developments have been made in making synthetic objects behave the way they do in the real world. For example a ball can be made to bounce by using the equations of motion to animate its movement. A Hag can be animated by simulating the force that acts upon its surface when blown by a breeze, and articulated human characters can be made to walk, run, jump and even talk with realistic human gestures (Mc (Coombs and Whistler, 1997). This is evident from the television commercials of some products ' advertisements. Computer Use in Education Because the school is a micro society within the macro setup of human society and endeavours, what the computer docs to the large society has its origin in the training afforded in the school. Therefore, the services rendered by the different types of computer in the society are what is being used in the school. Computer has been used in education for years but up till 1980 's, it is localized to institutions where computer science is taught. Computer had been adapted to drill work which is now an indispensable part of traditional education, as an endless patient tutor which is usually individualized and students can progress at their own pace. The computer is well adapted for immersing a child in the 'great works ' of analysis and problem solving to shape the mind of the child using a

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mechanical super-toy called a Turtle and a computer language called logo. The child can be adequately involved in the production of great works. Through this, the child learns computer programming, learns to work with tight, colors, and animation, learns mathematics and secures intellectual and emotional selfreliance (Price, 1984). Computers are also used in the teaching of laboratory science when experiments are simulated. This is in the form of computer-assisted instruction that networks the system through programmed logic and automatic teaching operations. This is specially designed for students at all levels. Computer has therefore served the purpose of retooling education (Howl, 1978). Price (1984) reported 'boy-meet-girl ' simulations of real life situated with computer an motion program designed to simulate classroom discussion and personal thought. It was increasingly an effort of education than a mere entertainment. A different type of "Spinnaker 's Snooper", which is one of the best examples of training children in the rudiments of logic and systematic thinking as a good introduction of scientific investigations under the guise of being a detective (Stonier, 1986). One other most appreciated use of computer is word processing. A report, letter, stories, can be typed and seen on the screen. Review is easy; words, phases, paragraphs can be corrected, inserted or deleted or re-arranged as appropriate. Computer games and simulation have also been functionally used for educational purposes to structure role-playing and appreciate the importance of some administrative and clerical chores less burdensome through some database. Computer in Information Storage Retrieval In schools, people receive, store, process, call up selectively and retrieve, and transmit a vast amount of potentially useful information that will facilitate students ' learning and teacher 's instructional function. It has been adapted for preparing class enrolment list and recording attendance; grading and assigning marks to students; posting marks to cumulative records sheet, and preparing pay rolls (Ives, 1984). In some of Nigerian 's higher institutions today, students ' academic records and transcripts are computed and processed using computer. Using computer to process vast amounts of academic data had been easier, faster and accurate. In Computer Assisted Instruction and Computer Managed Instruction, computer has been used for tutorial drills and practice, inquiry, games and simulation, problem solving and dialogue, through automated instructional technique when stored programs of instruction are retrieved Ibr the interactive process. Examples of such instructions as highlighted by Anyaogu (1991) are: 1. Program of learning in accordance to needs (PLAN) 2. Individualized prescribed instruction (IPI) 3. Individualized mathematics system (IMS) 4. Programmed logic and automated teaching operation (PLATO) Anyaogu further stressed that in the computer-managed instruction, a computer is programmed to perform four junctions for many students: 1. It stores information about each of the students. 2. It stores lists of objectives, materials, teachers-students activities to attain objectives and the related assessment toots.

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3. 4.

It relates to students ' characteristics. It prints out possible instructional decisions regarding materials and activities that may be acted on regarding each student.

All these provide a prescriptive and diagnostic guidance to the learner while the emphasis is on management of institution. Computer has been used to support learning aids as in the library where learners have access to stored information, which is released, as at when the learner needs them (Dickinson, 1992). Computer as a tool for writing relates to if! use as word processor where students can learn and apply (he mechanics of writing, teaching, spelling, grammar and punctuation. In recent years, the application of microcomputer in Nigeria classrooms is gradually becoming a reality because of its tremendous appropriateness. Computer offers several instructional opportunities in the classroom in the areas of drill and practice, simulations, animations, demonstrations, designing, data analysis and games. Computer as a Graphics Presentation Tool Computer graphics are drawings produced by computers, using output devices, such as printers and plotters. It is used in movies, videogames, cartoons, TV commercials and other animated entertainment. Computer graphics are useful for showing imaginary places or things and for creating things, which would have been impossible to create using other means like photograph. Most of the films and pictures watched through video games are computer graphics (Brightman, 1986). The use of computer for slide shows and for graphic presentations using Microsoft Power Point programme, during seminars and workshops are common in our tertiary institutions. In businesses, computer graphics are used to display performance chart like income and expenditure for a given period of time. Other statistical charts that enable the company 's operators understand the trends of their business including Forecasting are made possible through computer graphics. Industrial designers, engineers and architects use computer graphics to draw buildings, design engines, new cars through the use of computer software known as Computer Aided Design or CAD. With the of CAD multi-dimensional objects could be designed. Use of Computer in Creating Animation Computer animation is valuable when other techniques for creating movement prove difficult or impossible. Animated pictures would be used to illustrate a planet traveling through space. We can also reproduce objects with greater accuracy using computer graphics than we can do using other techniques. That is why computer graphics are used in map making and in designing of new products. Animation cartoons arc a form of simulation, to simulate means to imitate. The military and the police in the developed countries use laser-video programs to simulate expensive dangerous events; for example, scientists use computer animation to simulate events that arc cither too small or too far away to capture. Scientists use laser-video technology to simulate space shuttle Slights and the police use laser-video technology to train police with shoot/don 't shoot simulations (Godfrey. 1978). Computer has given film, and TV producers '

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powerful new tools for the creation of animation for cartoons and creating special effects in many films. Computer- generated animation saves time as compared to the old method because artists use computers to create key frames that could be changed or modified to create series of drawings (Katshi and Kawahara, 1991). In the absence of this, the artist would have created new drawings for each change in position. Fantastic scenes are created in Him pictures through computer-generated graphics hence creating exciting effects to their audiences. Computer hi other Professions Different kinds of jobs today require the knowledge of computer graphics. For example; many designers, architects and engineers use computers for designing and for drawing almost anything from parts of machines to plan for houses to bridges. Using computer graphics in these jobs make their works easier and as a result, workers can be more productive. Advertising, film making, publishing and other communications industries also need people with computer graphics skill. There arc hardly any occupations that do not or cannot use computers for their jobs. The doctors, lawyers architects, engineers, farmers, designers, teachers, pharmacists, bankers, supermarkets, scriptwriters, agents, government, police, army, publishers, students and so on all use computers (Anyaogu, 1991). Computers are useful to people for many different reasons. The computers can handle many repetitious, boring and time-consuming jobs. Also, mistakes, which may be made as a result of the repetitious boring nature of the jobs, can be avoided. People in all occupations are beginning to buy computers because of the power; speed and versatility of processing data. There is no doubt that the predication of various researchers that, dictators would use the computer to rule the world, will certainly come to pass following the rate of application of computers in developing and developed societies (Stonier, 1987). Architects, engineers and industrial designers use computer graphics to design everything from a simple house to a complex-aided design. Drawings that could take them months to complete can now be accomplished within minutes. Today, computers have made their task easier, less tedious and less time consuming (Anyaogu, 1991). In supermarkets, computers are used to read prices from special codes known as Universal Product Codes with the aid of Optical Character Recognition (OCR) (Brightman, 1986). The UPC labels arc marked on the body of each product in the supermarket and they are made up of the name of the product, its manufacturer and other relevant information about the product. The checker simple passes the code over a scanner, which reads the codes, and instantly, the computer displays the price of the product. Airlines seat reservation companies use computer to keep track of-all the reservations made by other ticket agents in cities, across the country or at times across the continent. Mainframe computers are used for this purpose. In this way, all ticket agencies can tell if there is room for a night. Telephone companies also use mainframe computers to route calls, give information and to keep a record of each call made and by whom through their communication numbers. Once a month, the computer adds up charges for all the calls made by a customer and

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issues a bill to that person. These computers are called Special Purpose Computers (Hrightman and Dunsdale, 1986). In large and small offices, computers arc used to write letters and reports, prepare spreadsheets and graphics displays. Financial management is done using the power of computer. Computer systems arc used to manage company records, prepare pay-slips through payroll system, and send electronic mail. Brighlman and Dunsdale (1986) also stressed that Doctors use computers to record medical histories and to communicate with labs and hospitals. Computer provides information about risks and benefits of different drugs to Doctors and it is also used to analyse the need of patients and thereby keep effective hospital appointments. Lawyers could also keep records of legal cases on computers. They could also use computers to plan strategies for winning cases and also spend little time in retrieving legal cases related to the one they arc handling (Hartley, 1978). The use of Computers in Government Agencies Computers are also used by various government agencies. Records of government employees could be properly kept for future use. Salaries of government staff could be best prepared by using computer 's payroll system hence eliminating "Ghost Worker" syndrome and fraud. In developed countries, police patrol cars are equipped with various types of computers and computerbased gadgets. The patrol teams can effectively communicate with each other and reports from different officers can be saved in the computer for the purpose of updating police reports. In these countries, the police maintain an up-to-date record of traffic. For example, a police officer who flags down a car for traffic violation can type the license plate number into the computer and within seconds the computer provides information about the car owner ' name, address, age and previous criminal record (Anyaogu, 1991). Government agencies can also use computers for the counting of votes during elections to eliminate election frauds, taking a census and to keep track of the country 's population, and for collecting taxes both from companies and individuals through the Board of Internal Revenue. Computer can also be used for analying data gathered on social, economic and medical problems with the hope of finding solutions to them. Inventory of Government Properties and keeping tracks of planes in radar by the Air force, Army, Navy and Marines can be very effective with the computer. Computer as a Communication Facility A computer can send information to another computer. These communications are made cither through telephone line or special -compute]* cables or wires. The information that could be sent may be in form of airline company queries, bank transactions, statistical reports, personal messages and so on. There is virtually no type of information that cannot be communicated between one computer and the other provided they are connected together. There are a number of advantages of computer communication. First is the high speed and accuracy in information transmitted due to the absence of other intervening media? The communication is between the sending and receiving computers. Second is the rapidity of information processing. Computer

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can process a huge amount of data in a microsecond. For example, a research fellow who needs information about a particular topic in atomic physics can obtain such information in a mailer of minutes. The process of getting such information from a library through our normal conventional library manual system is to visit the library and search through the reference hooks. This will definitely take your days and with much effort. Hut in computer communication in countries where computer companies operate proprietary databases for subjects of interest, you can link your computer through the telecommunication line with the appropriate proprietary database and the information could he obtained in less than an hour (Brightman and Dunsdale, 1986). Thirdly, a large amount of data could be stored and processed across varying distances. Teleprocessing: A method of processing the data between one computer and the other through the telephone lines is called Teleprocessing. The data being transmitted could be words, letters or numbers of programs. The communication can occur between microcomputers, mini computers, mainframe or a combination of these. These communicating computers may be located within varying distances between each other, even across the continent. Digital computers generate digital signals which cannot be transmitted through telecommunication lines, which can only transmit analog signals. A peripheral device called moden is installed to translate or modulate the digital signals to analog signals before transmission from the sending computer. The receiving computer, which understands only digital signals, must have a moden for the transmission and demodulation of the input signals from analog to digital (Brightman and Dunsdalc, 1986). When the computer has received and processed the data, the result is sent back in reverse operation. The airline companies are able to carry out seat reservation and booking through their agents across the country using this Teleprocessing system of data processing. In addition to moden, communication software is needed to enable the computer, the moden and the telephone to work together (Hartley, 1978) Network System: In a network system, a number of computer users arc hooked up through their microcomputers, Workstation or terminals to a central powerful computer, which can be a mainframe or minicomputer. A terminal is a combination of a keyboard and monitor and has no CPU. Because of the absence of CPU it cannot process data but only receive or transmit (Howl, 1981). The Central computer may be located in-house. In this type of installation, users are linked to the central computer through computer cables or wires. This is called a Local Area Network (LAN). The central computer can also be remotely located and in this case users are linked to the computer through telephones lines. This is called an External Area Network. When the terminals arc directly hooked to the computer under the control of the CPU, it is called an on-line system (Brightman and Dunsdale, 1986. An airline reservation system is a good example of an external network system. Real Time Systems: These are an on-line communication system that provides a two-way communication between the terminal and the computer. For example, the Airline/Hotel reservation system is a good example of a real time system. The term "real time" means that computer gives back response to random inquiries

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from various terminals so fast that these responses can be used to answer customers ' questions, control operations or modify a process. Time Sharing System: A time sharing is an on-line real-time system in which many users with varying processing needs share the resources of one central computer. In a university, terminals, which are distributed to various Faculties and Departments, are hooked to the central computer and each of these departments process their data across the computer. These terminals may be available in the research; mathematics; architectural and engineering departments (Ives, 1984). Each user in each of these departments processes his job without interfering in that others. Because of the fantastic speed at which the central computer moves from one terminal to the other, each user has the feeling that he is using the central computer alone. In a time-sharing system, a computer is able to accept inputs, process it and return response to a terminal so fast that many such terminals can be handled by a single computer (Ives, 1984). Many companies and institution own and operate time-sharing system known as the in-house system. When a small company has the need for a small data processing, it may not be economical for them to proceed to buy one. Rather, they can rent this service from an outside source usually known us TimeSharing Bureau Services. In this case, the user company pays rent, which is based on the amount of time the terminal is hooked to the CPU during a processing time and also the amount of CPU used by the terminal (Hartley, 1978). In a typical commercial system, the bureau rents to many companied throughout the state or the country. Artificial Intelligence: When a computer or a computer based device is such that it possesses the ability to enter, solve problems and take decisions, similar to that of a human, the system is said to possess artificial intelligence. There arc three major areas of artificial intelligence and they are the robotics, the expert systems and the voice recognition and synthesis (Brightman and Dunsdale, 1986). Robotics: A robot is a computer-controlled mechanical device that does a job the way a person might do it. Some simple robots do repetitive jobs such as welding objects on an assembly line. Some advanced robots do more complex tasks than the simple ones. Some robots can think while others are programmed to do heavy-duty, repetitive jobs through movements controlled by the program. Because these robots cannot think there is always a human supervisor who supervises the robot to ensure that operational errors that may occur as a-result of mechanical failure do not affect the robot. For example, an unintelligent robot programmed to drive a screw into a bolt may not understand that the screw, which is being driven, is faulty and should be changed. It will not also understand that the bolt into which the screw will drive has not been properly positioned. This because it is only programmed to drive the screw into the boll one after the other. In this case, the supervisor does the thinking and directs the robot to function correctly (Anyaogu, 1991). Scientist and engineers are working on intelligent robots that can be used for domestic and business tasks. Experts have predicted that in future, robots will do such tasks as carrying heavy packages, keeping watch over factory and home

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premises, prepare Ibod, clean the house and even help the children in their educational works (Brightman and Dunsdale, 1986). The question still remains, (/an robot drive a ear on a busy commercial street? The speed, low cost and the reliability of robot workers have e a used many manufacturing companies in developed countries like United States and Japan to change the way goods\are made. One of the biggest "employers" of robots is a car manufacturer. Robots can do other jobs like exploring the solar system to working with dangerous chemicals or materials. In the United States there are about 6,000 robots and expert have predicted that by 1999 over 10,000 robots will be used in factories across America (Brightman and Dunsdale, 1986). Other experts predict that robots will manage the near future entire operations in the factories with only a small number of humans to keep them running. Expert System: There are different kinds of expert system that are in use in business and industries all over the world. Telecommunication companies employ the expert system, which enables them to identify, and locate problems in telephone cables. The system has the capability of tracking down problem in an hour and recommends necessary technical procedures for affecting repairs. In developed countries like United States, expert systems are used in the hospital to help doctors diagnose and treat illness (Sechrest and Henry, 1996). This type of system is fed with a large amount of information for some particular illness. It is also programmed to follow the rules that doctors follow on diagnosing a treatment and making prescription. The system has the ability to question either the doctor or the patient and the response is used by the system in taking a conclusion about what illness patient is suffering from and which treatment to give. Expert systems are best in this type of task. Because of the vast amount of information it has about a particular illness, it therefore has the best chances of giving the best diagnosis, prescription and treatment. Voice Synthesis and Recognition: Some computers and computer-based devices have the capability of understanding human voice. In some developed countries ' main airports, computers are used to keep track of information about passengers ' baggage and planes. At different terminals of an airport, baggage handlers use voice recognition to route the baggage to their destinations. They shout out the destination of each passenger 's bag as it rolls along a conveyor belt. The computer, recognizing the voice then routes the baggage to the correct place or arrival terminal thereby cutting down the number of theft on baggage and misplacement. A computer also has the ability to speak to the user. This is known as voice synthesis (Stonier, 1987). A computer telephone in an "answer-back mode has the capability of relaying a voice message back to the caller. These computers that recognize and imitate the human voice have limited capabilities. Some computers understand human speech. This is done in two ways: First is the conservation of speech sound into electrical signals and secondly, the conservation of these electric signals of pulses of Ts and 0 ' known as digitizing the sound wave (Shelly; Cashman; Waggoner and Waggoner; 1992). 11 then recognizes the words when the new pattern matches the stored patterns. In this

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way the computer is able to understand human speech, though there are a number of limitations. An area of [his application is the computerized toys and talking dolls. Conclusion As computers are being introduced into schools, offices and homes, there should be an encouragement on the part of the government to organize workshops for teachers, managers, and engineers and for the entire public. They could also setup computer offices in major cities and towns across the country. Vendors must resist the temptation to introduce too many new releases and new models each year. Users grow wary of on-going upgrade and the associated type. The reality is that the Nigerian economy is in a shambles and following the large devaluation of the Nigeria currency, buyers could hard-pressed to spend more on computers. But while computer users and vendors should continue to encourage the public on the wonders of information technology, the government could supplement efforts by positively reviewing the policies on the importation of computer equipment coming into the country. Recommendations Government should remove or at least reduce the high import duties on computer equipment. Another index, through which governments lack of policy on computerization is being measured, is the fact that government 's owned parastatals have been at the bottom of the list of institutions installing computers. They have surrendered the initiative to the private sector, where the banks and oil companies have headed the way. However since the successful hosting of DCAL 92 by the Computer Association of Nigeria in Jos, there has been a lot more awareness yielding great dividend in the new political dispensation. It is the researcher 's opinion that, without further delay, governments will soon be embarking on a more vigorously positive policy in its bid to ensure that Nigeria becomes fully computerized. References Anyaogu, V.O. (3 991) Computer Literacy and Application for Professionals and Students. Enugu, Nigeria: Gospel Communications International Box. 9443. Beier, J. Bitlner, R. Wust, P. Meek, H. Kaiser, D. & Felix, R. (1996). 3D Visualization of Thoracic Tumors from MR Images. Audiovisual MediaMedical Journal, 164 (1), 75-78. Brightman, W. and Dunsdale M. (1986) Using Computers in an Information Age. Albany, New York: Dclmar Publishers Inc. Dickinson, A. (1992) Word Processing Packaged. Computers in Africa 6 (5), 18. Godfrey, 13. (1978). Wonderful World of Animation. London: Faber and Faber.

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Hartley, J.R. (1978). An Appraisal of Computer Assisted Learning in the United Kingdom. Programmed Learning and Educational Technology, 15, 136151. Howl, J.A.M. (1978) Artificial Intelligence and Computer Assisted Learning: Ten years on PLET 15 (2). Republished in Rushby, N.I (Ed) 1981 Selected Readings in Computer Based Learning, London: Kegan Page. Ives, R. (1984). Trying Out New Ideas in ESL Work. Educational Computing, 3 (4), 41-43. Price, C. (1984). Boy Meets Girl (Computer Program). Microcomputers in Religious Education (MIRE). West Yorkshire: Keighley. Katshi, M. & Kawahara, T. (1991). World Graphic Design and Computer Graphics, Tokyo: Kodansha. McCoombs, B.L. & Whistler, J.S. (1997. The Learn-centered Classroom and school San Francisco: Josscy Bass. Sechrest, P. & Henry, D. (1996). Computer-based Patient Education: Observations on Effective Communication in the Clinical Setting. Biocommunication Journal, 23, (1), 8-12. Shelly, G.B; Cash man, T..1 Waggoner, G.A, & Waggoner, W.C. (1992) Complete Computer Concepts. Massachusetts: Boyd & Fraser Publishing Company. Stonier, T.T. (1987). The Computer: Most Powerful Technology Ever? In N. Rushby, (Eds.), Technology Based Learning. Selected Readings. (PP122133), New York: Kegan Page.

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References: Anyaogu, V.O. (3 991) Computer Literacy and Application for Professionals and Students. Enugu, Nigeria: Gospel Communications International Box. 9443. Beier, J. Bitlner, R. Wust, P. Meek, H. Kaiser, D. & Felix, R. (1996). 3D Visualization of Thoracic Tumors from MR Images. Audiovisual MediaMedical Journal, 164 (1), 75-78. Brightman, W. and Dunsdale M. (1986) Using Computers in an Information Age. Albany, New York: Dclmar Publishers Inc. Dickinson, A. (1992) Word Processing Packaged. Computers in Africa 6 (5), 18. Godfrey, 13. (1978). Wonderful World of Animation. London: Faber and Faber. 101 Nigerian Journal of Research and Production (NIJOREP) Vol. 1, 2002 Hartley, J.R. (1978). An Appraisal of Computer Assisted Learning in the United Kingdom. Programmed Learning and Educational Technology, 15, 136151. Howl, J.A.M. (1978) Artificial Intelligence and Computer Assisted Learning: Ten years on PLET 15 (2). Republished in Rushby, N.I (Ed) 1981 Selected Readings in Computer Based Learning, London: Kegan Page. Ives, R. (1984). Trying Out New Ideas in ESL Work. Educational Computing, 3 (4), 41-43. Price, C. (1984). Boy Meets Girl (Computer Program). Microcomputers in Religious Education (MIRE). West Yorkshire: Keighley. Katshi, M. & Kawahara, T. (1991). World Graphic Design and Computer Graphics, Tokyo: Kodansha. McCoombs, B.L. & Whistler, J.S. (1997. The Learn-centered Classroom and school San Francisco: Josscy Bass. Sechrest, P. & Henry, D. (1996). Computer-based Patient Education: Observations on Effective Communication in the Clinical Setting. Biocommunication Journal, 23, (1), 8-12. Shelly, G.B; Cash man, T..1 Waggoner, G.A, & Waggoner, W.C. (1992) Complete Computer Concepts. Massachusetts: Boyd & Fraser Publishing Company. Stonier, T.T. (1987). The Computer: Most Powerful Technology Ever? In N. Rushby, (Eds.), Technology Based Learning. Selected Readings. (PP122133), New York: Kegan Page. 102