Fodder

INTRODUCTION
Nepal is predominantly an agricultural country, people dependant on agriculture with raising household livestock. These livestock cannot be maintained on the fodder produced on arable land alone. In Nepal, agricultural crops are seldom grown specifically for fodder production except in some small areas. Because of increasing pressure of human population and also because of higher income from cereal and cash crops than from forage crops, more agriculture area cannot be set apart for fodder production. In most of the areas, cereal straw and dry grass which are very poor in protein and need to be supplemented with green fodder of high nutritive value, constitute the principal fodder for livestocks.
Fodder shrubs/trees as animal feed, particularly during winter and dry period have been the important traditional source of livestock feed especially, in the Middle and Northern Belt of Nepal. Plantation of fodder trees and shrubs are an ecological sound practices, which contributes on soil conservation and maintaining agricultural sustainability.
Fodder trees and shrubs play an important role in Nepalese economy. More than 136 different species of trees/shrubs have been used as a source of livestock feed in Nepal. Trees/shrubs are the main source of fodder and bedding material for livestock, fuel-wood for energy needs and, timber for house construction. Traditionally, foliage of fodder tree and shrub has been offered to cattle, buffalo, and goats especially in stall-fed conditions. For example, in high Northern Belt, when, the pasturelands are covered with snow for most of the winter season (5-6 months of a year) and there is a conserved forage deficit, the foliage of trees/shrubs help the requirements of feed for livestock.
Fodders and forages are the ultimate source of feed for herbivorous animals. BERSEEM is known as king of fodder and LUCERN as queen of fodder. So they are explained in details below while other major fodders and forages are described in brief.

BERSEEM

Introduction
Scientific Name: Trifolium alexandrium
Berseem is a nutritive, succulent, palatable and digestive winter is fodder which is called king of the fodders, especially in areas where irrigation water is available in plenty. Berseem originated in Egypt and at present it is being cultivated n I in Egypt, Israel, Syria, Persia, Cyprus, Italy, South Africa, South America, Australia, Pakistan and many other European countries. In I 1904, its seeds were imported from Egypt to India and presently it is cultivated in Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat and some parts of Bihar, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh.
Climate
Berseem crop is very sensitive to the climatic conditions. It does not grow well when there are fluctuations in the climatic temperature or in rainfall. A region with annual rainfall of 300 cm or less rains and assured irrigation, with slight fluctuations in temperature within the range of 15°C is quite suitable for berseem cultivation.
Soil
Berseem can grow on all types of soils except very light sandy soil. The soil should be well drained, rich in phosphorus, calcium and potash. It does not grow well on acid soils but grow successfully on alkaline soils having good water retaining capacity. The land should be well leveled and uniform. The crop does not tolerate water logging. It successfully grows in soil with pH 7 to 8.
Land Preparation
Plough the land 3 to 4 times with desi plough followed by one soil inversion ploughing. One or two plankings should be done to break all the soil clods. Remove the grass, stubbles particularly doob grass root, as they cause difficulty later on and level the land uniformly. Small sized beds (1/10 or 1/20 of an acre) are finally prepared with ridges before sowing for easy irrigation. In light soils, puddling is necessary to prevent excessive loss of water.
Sowing Requirements
Method and time of sowing along with seed treatment and seed ; rate are important factors which judge the yield of the crop to a great extent.
1. Sowing time
Berseem is sown from end of September to the end of October. Early sowing may affect adversely due to rains, high temperature and weed problem. While late sown crop also suffers due to low temperature. In eastern region it is sown from beginning of November to tile first week of December.
2. Seed rate
The seed rate depends on the land preparation, field, sowing, treatment of seed, proportion of hard coated seeds, fertility status; texture, alkalinity and salinity of the soil, fertilizer application, spacing, time of sowing, temperature, soil moisture, etc. Good seeds of 25-50 kg are sufficient for an area of one hectare. For better growth of yield, tetraploid and diploid should be mixed in the ratio of 3:1. The seed should be free from other waste seeds. The seeds before sowing should be dipped in 5% salt solution then remove the floating seeds and sow only the heavy seeds settled at the bottom. Seeds should be washed thoroughly 2-3 times with clean water.
3. Seed treatment
Berseem seeds are sometimes mixed with weed seed i.e. Kasani seed (Cichorium intybus). These have to be removed before sowing by putting the seeds in a bucket containing common saIt5% solution. This makes the light-kasani-seeds to float on the surface and can be removed by skimming. Also mostly new fanners like to grow this crop in their fields, which have never been cultivated by the barseem crop before. Such field do not contain bacteria Rhizobium trifolli which live in nodules of berseem crop roots. To inoculate tile field with the bacteria any of the two methods described here can be adopted.

1. Soak the seed in water for 12 hours (overnight) and spread the seed on the floor to drain the excessive water. Meanwhile prepare the berseem-culture. This is done by mixing the con- tents of the culture to 10% sterilized gur solution, at room temperature. Mixed the wet seed with berseem-culture-solution thoroughly and let it dry under shade for atleast one hour. Now tile seed is ready for sowing.
2. In case the berseem-culture is not available in the market the fanner can spread 50 kg of soil from the field in which barseem has been successfully cultivated during previous year, in his own field before sowing.
4. Sowing methods
Berseem seed can be sown in anyone of the two methods described here.
1. Seed is broadcasted uniformly over the field with good moisture content and is mixed with soil by pulling tinned bar-harrow over the field. Irrigation is applied only after proper germination has been observed.
2. Field is watered and seed is broadcasted in the standing puddled water. The soil particles suspended in water cover the seeds on settling. This method generally gives good germination and requires delayed irrigation.
Varieties
BL-l, Miscavi, Khadaravi, Chhindwara, IGFRI-99-I, etc.
Manures and Fertilizers
Addition of farmyard manure helps in improving tl1e physical conditions of the soil for better working of Rhizobium bacteria. Therefore, apply 20-25 cartload (tonnes) of farmyard manure at the last ploughing and mix it with the soil thoroughly. Inorganic fertilizers are also applied to increase the rate of growth and yield of fodder. Since berseem crop is a legume crop, dose of nitrogen fertilizer is very much reduced, it is only applied at the time of sowing to help tile germinating seedlings to pick up growtl1. In tl1e absence of soil test, following doses of chemical fertilizers are suggested Nitrogen 25 kg, Phosphorus 60 kg and Potash 40 kg per hectare. These are applied as ba al dose at tile time of sowing.
Irrigation
Berseem is a quick growing crop and it requires a well balanced amount of available soil moisture. To maintain tl1e level of available and soil moisture. a number of light irrigations of 5 cm deep water are required. In some cases it requires more than 20 irrigations. Weather conditions, rainfall and soil moisture retention capacity determine the need of irrigation. During cold season it requires Iess irrigations, while in hot seasons it requires more irrigation. Irrigation after each cutting is also beneficial to tile crop.
Weeding
The crop is infested by a number of weeds like Asphodelus, Chenopodium, Convolvulus and Cichorium. The berseem crop is thickly populated crop so weeding is a very difficult process. The weeds also serve as fodder and do not make it necessary to pull them \out, but some weeds like Cichorium has low content of protein, silica and crude fibre. Thus when fed to animals along with barseem animal/may become sick. For removing such weeds, it is suggested that before sowing the seed should be screened through 5% to 10% salt solution, where the seeds of Cichorium, being light. float on the surface of salt solution and can be skimmed off.
Harvesting and Yield
Berseem gives 4 to 5 cuttings. The first cut is taken when the plant height is 35 cm and thereafter, regular cuts are taken after one or one and half month. After 5 cuttings the stem and leaf become fibrous and poor in nutrient. Therefore, they are not used as fodder, but ploughed in the soil for green manuring.

The average yield of the fodder is about 1000 quintal per hectare in all cuttings. The seed crop yields about 5 quintals of seed/hectare and 450 quintal of green fodder at 45 days of interval. In late cuttings, the plants become stemmy and poor in plant nutrient.

LUCERN Introduction
Lucerne (Medicago sativa) is a leguminous fodder crop. It is a deep rooted crop and can be grown under rain fed or less irrigation condition. It is both annual as well a perennial crop. Its fodder is palatable and nutritive. It is generally believed that lucerne originated in South-West Asia. It was first cultivated in Persia, from where it was taken to Greece in 500 B.C
Climate
Lucerne crop is highly sensitive to climatic changes. During seedling stage a cool and dry weather is conducive for their development, while hot, dry conditions with normal soil moisture contents are required for quick vegetative growth. Therefore, its cultivation extends from sea level to lower hills up to an elevation of 2500 meter. It tolerates short spell of drought.
Soil
Deep loamy soils rich in phosphorus, calcium and potash are very good for lucerne crop. Upland sandy soils are not suitable for it as they have low water holding capacity. It needs levelled, well drained soils. Soils with pH 5.5-R.8 pro- duce good crop. It cannot thrive on alkaline soils but can be grown on acid soils with lime application. Land Preparation
Lucerne requires well pulverized and tilled soil. The fine seed bed ensures proper germination. Plough the land 3-4 times with desi plough and once with a moldboard plough; The land should be leveled and made into rectangular compartments for uniform irrigation and proper drainage. After each ploughing, planking should be done to secure a firm and fine seed bed.
Sowing
Sowing the seeds at proper time, rate and method increases the yie1d. These are described below.
1. Time of sowing
The optimum time of sowing of lucerne is from 1st week , of October to middle of November. However, middle of October is the best time for sowing lucerne.
2. Seed rate
In case of broadcasting, 20-25 kg per hectare of seed should be sown, while for line sowing 12-15 kg per hectare is sufficient.
3. Sowing method
Sowing of lucerne can be done either by broadcast or by line sowing. In line sowing, the rows are kept 30 cm apart, the seed is sown on tl1ese in ridges. This method is useful in high rainfall areas, as it helps in draining excess water through the furrows. This method also economises water use in the summer and winter seasons. In broadcast method the seed is broadcast and mixed into the soi1 by light peg harrowing. Manures and Fertilizers
Lucerne is a leguminous crop which fixes the atmospheric nitrogen in the soil and make it fertile. So the crop requires small quantity of nitrogen for the first year. For general improvement of physical properties of the soil, 25 tonnes of farmyard manure is to be properly mixed with the soil about one month before sowing. Then add nitrogen (N) 25 kg, phosphorus (P2O5) 60 kg, potash K2O) 40 kg per hectare as basal dose and the same quantity should annually be added along with 9 tonnes of FYM per hectare from the second year onwards in case of perennial crop. Lucerne is a heavy feeder on soil nutrients. Varieties
Rambler, Sirsa No. 9, Sirsa No.8, NDRI Selection No.1, Composite-3
Irrigation
Lucerne is a perennial crop i.e. once sown lasts for about 6 years. It has a deep root system. On the other hand it extracts water even when the soil water potential is low and can survive prolonged drought. Its water requirement is high. To get good germination pre-sowing irrigation is essential. For successful establishment of the crop, frequent irrigations are required. In summer, irrigation should be given at an interval of 10 days, while in winter it can be given at an interval of 15 days. The crop requires 20 irrigations in a year depending upon the soil type and weather. Weed Control
Weeds have more chances for growth and establishment since they grow faster than the lucerne crop. The weeding , and hoeing operations become more essential during early stages i.e. after sowing to first cutting, which occurs after 2 months. The most serious weed of the lucerne crop is dodder (cuscuta), which remains as parasite on the plants of lucerne which is the host. The seeds of this parasite can remain viable for many years and thus create a serious problem if allowed to set seeds. The best way to reduce its intensity year after year is to uproot the plants (host\plant) along with parasite plant and bum them. Some times spraying with crude oil kills the flowers of the fodder parasite and thus reduces seed setting by the weed plant.
Harvesting and Yield
Harvesting and marketing of the green fodder starts after 55-65 days of sowing, when first cutting is done and the sub- sequent cuttings at an interval of 20-30 days are taken de- pending upon the season, variety, soil fertility etc. and when the crop has attained the height of about 60 cm. In all, seven to nine cuttings are taken during the year. In drier areas with '; good irrigation facilities one or tow additional cuts can be taken.
1. Yield of green fodder
A healthy lucerne crop gives a potential yield of 1000 to 1500 quintals of green fodder per hectare per year. Early harvest yields more crude protein and less of crude fibre. About, 40 plants per square metre ensure maximum yield.
2. Yield of seed
About 280 kg of seed can be obtained from a hectare of land under good crop husbandry measures.

Molasse
Scientific name : Melinis minutiflora
Description:
Molasses is a spreading summer growing perennial herb with branching, stems up to 1 meter tall ,which may become prostrate under grazing. It is adapted to tropical and subtropical climate with moderate rainfall. Leaves are hairy and root anywhere along their length from the nodes in moist soils.
Cultivation practices:
In Nepal, it could be cultivated from terai to mid hills up to an altitude of 1500 meters It performs well in well-drained clay loam soils. It can be sown in furrows,50 cm apart.
Seed rate:
It is sown after rains, when there is enough moisture in the soil in the month of June-July. The seed rate is 5 Kg per hectare of land.
Fertilization:
It is desirable to use 60 Kg Nitrogen, 100 Kg Phosphorus and 40Kg Potash per hectare of land. In Nepalese context, FYM at the rate of 10 cart load per hectare could be used for good production.

Napier Grass
Scientific name: Pennisetum purpureum
Description:
Napier is a tall, robust perennial forming large, bamboo-like clumps, with clumps usually 2-3.5 m high and branched towards the top. As it attains the height of 2-3 m with enough number of tillers which cannot be destroyed by the elephant, it is also called elephant grass. Spread by short rhizomes, rooting from lower nodes or falling stems rooting at nodes creating a stolon.
Cultivation practices:
Napier can grow in a wide variety of soil types and moisture variations. It prefers warm climate and can be grown up to 4500 feet. It performs well in well-drained fertile loamy soils with adequate level of lime. The field is prepared ploughing four to six times, manuring and forming ridge and furrows of 90 cm apart.
Seed rate:
It can be established from seed( no post harvest dormancy ),although almost invariably planted from sets or cuttings or spilts. Sets are taken from the basal 2/3 of moderately matured stems and should contain at least 3 nodes. About 12,500 sets are required per hectares of land. Cuttings can also be planted horizontally into a furrow, to a depth of 5-10 cm.
Fertilization:
It requires liberal manuring, with 125 to 250 quintals of FYM per hectare of land. N,P,K at the rate of 100:60:40 is recommended per hectare of land.
Nutritive value:
Varies greatly with age of re-growth and fertility particularly nitrogen.e.g.6 week regrowth 10% CP,10 week re-growth 7.6% CP.CP level of leaf ranges from 9.5-19.7% .

Rhodes Grass
Scientific Name: Chloris gayana
Description:
Tufted perennial, usually stoloniferous, with foliages from 0.5 to 1.2 m, and fertile tillers from 0.9-1.2 m tall. Leaves glabrous with 2-3 mm long hairs near the collar. Stolon stems 4-5 mm in diameter, fertile stems 2-4 mm in diameter.
Cultivation practices:
It grows on most well drained soils, except very heavy clays provided fertility is adequate. More tolerant of high than low pH, growing best in soils with pH between about 5.5-7.5.Generally poor shade tolerance. Rainfall in its natural range varies from 500-1,500 mm per year.
Seed rate:
A more rapid cover can generally be obtained by planting from seed, usually at sowing rate of 0.5-1 kg/hectare. Seeds of diploid has little or no pot-harvest dormancy, while seed of the tetraploids may not reach maximum germination for 3-6 months.
Fertilization:
Although can survive on infertile soil, it is very unproductive. Respond to phosphorus in poorer soil, and gives a linear yield and crude protein response up to 300 Kg/ha of nitrogen if other nutrients is adequately supplied. Spilt applications, each of 50-100 Kg/ha N is normally used when economically feasible.
Nutritive value:
Crude protein level may range from 17% in very young leaf, to 3% in old leaves. Phosphorus level may range from 0.4% in young growth to 0.15 in older material. Similarly, IVDMD may varies from 40-80%.Sodium level varies from 300-3,100, depending on the variety.

Setaria
Scientific name: Setaria anceps
Description:
It is an annual as well as perennial grass, could attain height of 1-2 meter. It has altogether 120 species. It can be very easily cultivated in the area with an average rainfall of 750 mm. It is well relished by the livestock and is very nutritious. Young plant has high oxalate content so it should be grazed before about one week prior to flowering.
Cultivation practices:
It could be cultivated in wet, swampy land, flood plain, forest slope or any type of soil up to the elevation of 1800 meter with pH 6 to 8.5.The land should be ploughed for 2-3 times, weed should be removed. It is not necessary to finely pulverize the soil.
Seeding rate:
Seeds are broadcasted directly or sown in 3 cm deep drilled hole in line of 25-50 cm distance. Generally one hectare of land requires 5-11 Kg seed. Since seed of setaria are very small it is difficult to broadcast so before broadcasting soil is mixed to 4 times the volume of seed.
Fertilization:
If soil is fertile FYM 25 MT, Nitrogen 50 Kg, Phosphorus 40 Kg and Potash 30 Kg are required for 1 hectare of land. Fertilizer should be applied during the time of land preparation.

Sorghum/Jawar
Scientific name: Sorghum x almum
Description:
An erect robust perennial with numerous tillers and thick short rhizomes. Culms solid and pithy, about 1 cm thick, sometimes reaching a height of 3-3.6 m . Leaf 2.4-5.0 cm wide, generally glabarous except for hairs near the ligule. Inflorescence is a large pyramidal panicle with secondary and tertiary branches.
Cultivation practices:
Adapted to fertile soils from clay to loam with neutral to high pH(pH of 5-8.5).Some tolerance of salinity but not water logging. Good drought tolerance and best in semi-arid conditions with 500-800 mm rainfall. Short day response. Seed planted for summer growth when soil temperatures are above 15 C. Begins flowering 7-8 weeks after planting.
Seed rate:
Planted with seed sown into (5-7 Kg/ha) arable seedbed. Also sown at light seed rates (<5 Kg/ha) with other grasses into ash after clearing bush, or after blade ploughing shrubby re-growth.
Fertilization:
Should be grown only on fertile soils where little extra fertilizer is required.
Nutritive value
It greatly depends on soil fertility. It provides good feed only on soils which are at least moderately fertile. Total free sugars in the stem average about 20%.

Para Grass
Scientific name: Bracharia mutica
Description:
A creeping perennial grass with long, coarse stolon up to 5.0 m, very hairy, decumbent stems and soft, moderately hairy leaves up to 20 mm wide and 30 cm long. Leaf sheath has a densely hairy collar. Inflorescence is a panicle 6-30 cm long. Stolon and branches root readily at the nodes.
Cultivation practices:
Well adapted to wide range of soil types (from sandy to clay soils) of moderate to good fertility. Suited to poorly drained land in the tropics and warmer sub-tropics, but will also grow productively on free-draining soil in high rainfall environment. Humid to sub-humid regions with 1,200-4,000 mm annual rainfall. Warm season growth only, with growth restricted by temperatures below 15 C.
Seed rate:
Easily established from vegetative sets hand-planted or disc-harrowed to a depth of 10-15 cm.Plant sets should be 25-30 cm long with 3-4 nodes, and at least 2 nodes should be buried into moist soil. Can also be sown from seed at the rate of 3-4 Kg per hectare but seed is not generally available.
Fertilization:
Responds well to nitrogen fertilizer under its moist growing conditions. DM productivity can be sustained by the addition of companion legumes contributing 20-30% of DM.
Nutritive value:
A grass with high nutritive value, although DM intake by grazing livestock may be reduced by high water content. Actively growing para grass can have very high nutritive value, with 14-20% CP and IVDMD of 65-80% for leafy re-growth and 55-65% IVDMD for whole top growth.

Perennial ryegrass
Scientific name: Lolium perenne
Description:
It is a prolific tillering, compact grass with dark green leaves that are shiny underneath and folded in the sheath. It is a shallow rooted and inflorescence is spike. It is a faster establishing winter-active grass with a flush of production in every spring in the southern hemisphere.It is one of the well distributed pasture species.
Cultivation practices:
Relative to the other grass species, perennial ryegrass is extremely tolerant of treading demage and hard grazing. Swards can be productively maintained at as low as 30-40 mm under sheep grazing.
Seed rate:
Average sowing rate of perennial ryegrass in mixture could be 10-20 Kg/ha.Ryegrass could be sown during Kartik for mid-hills, and Vaishak/Jestha for high Himalayan regions.
Fertilization:
Rate of fertilization could be varied due to fertility status of the given area, however 10 t FYM along with 100:60:40 Kg NPK/ha, respectively, can be applied to get a good DM yield.

Italian ryegrass
Scientific name: Lolium multiflorum
Description:
It is similar in appearance to perennial ryegrass, but the leaves and tillers are larger and the emerging tiller of each tiller is rolled rather than folded. Tillering is les prolific than perennial ryegrass.
Cultivation practices:
They represent a continuum from true annuals to near perennials that can persist over three or more years provided they receive enough rainfall or irrigation during summer.All the ryegrasses with a high prortion of Italian in their percentage are susceptible to dying out in dry summer. Growth in summer could be poorer than the perennial ryegrass.
Seed rate:
They are liable to out-complete other species in a mix unless the sowing rate is kept low (5-8 Kg/ha) and the pasture is grazed early and regularly. Normally sowing rate of hybrid ryegrass and Italian ryegrass could be 10-20 Kg/ha and 25-30 Kg/ha, respectively in mixture.

Tall fescue
Scientific name: Festuca aundinacea
Description:
A deep rooted perennial grass with large tiller and hairless but coarse large dark-green leaves. The seed head is large, spreading panicle with small spikelets.
Cultivation practices:
It is slow to establish owing to poor mobilization of seed reserves and slow seedling growth. Careful establishment during period adequate soil moisture and warm soil temperatures is recommended.
Fertilization:
It requires high fertility to produce well and are usually invaded by other grasses if fertility is medium to low.
Seed rate:
In practice, sowing needs to be as early as autumn rains allow. It should be sown in mixture with perennial or Italian ryegrass as they will out-compete it during pasture establishment. It is best sown as the sole grass species with white clover and red clovers .Average sowing rate in mixture is 16-20 kg/ha.
Nutritive value:
Nutritive value is good but declines rapidly when tall fescue becomes rank or produces seed head.

Cocksfoot
Scientific name: Dactylis glomerata
Description:
A perennial grass with flattened tillers and bluish-green leaves The seed head is a contracted panicle with spikelets in clumps. Cocksfoot ranges from plants with many, small, prostrate tillers to plant with a few large, erect tillers.
Cultivation practices:
Establishment is slower than perennial ryegrass but superior to tall fescue. Tolerance of treading damage is poorer than ryegrass and tall fescue, but more prostate densely tillered cultivars have been bred.
Seed rate:
Cocksfoot can be sown at 2-5 Kg/ha in a mixture with ryegrass. Average sowing rate in mixture could be 4-10 Kg/ha.
Fertilization:
Cocksfoot is adapted to a wide range of conditions. It persists under medium fertility conditions but respond to higher fertility.
Nutritive value:
Nutritive value is usually lower than that of perennial ryegrass.

Phalaris
Scientific name: Phalaris aquata
Description:
A large tillered, very deep-rooted, rhizomatous perennial grass, with good winter and early spring production. Leaves are bluish-green. Seed head is a dense panicle.

Cultivation practices:
It is usually sown as a minor component of pasture mix to avoid the possibility of phalaris staggers. Seedling vigor is similar to only slightly better than cocksfoot, with the resultant slow establishment.
Seed rate:
Usually sown at 1-4 Kg/ha with perennial ryegrass, or with cooksfoot and tall fescue.
Fertilization:
It is extremely persistent to drought owing to deep root system and rhizomes, and vegetative dormancy. Phalaris requires moderate to high fertility.
Nutritive value:
Nutritive value is lower than ryegrass CONCLUSION
Like food and other crops, due care has to be exercised for the cultivation of forages crops in respect of seed bed preparation, selection of cultivars, seed rate, sowing, manuring, irrigation, drainage, weeding and harvesting. Plant protection cautions should be used cautiously to guard against ill effects on livestock. To increase livestock production, it is therefore, imperative to regenerate the existing areas by adopting better management practices and also to increase the area under cultivated fodder crops and establishment of pastures wherever possible. We, therefore, need better forage crop varieties both annual and perennial with higher nutrient yield potential per unit area and unit times for maximizing animal products including milk, wool, meat, eggs, etc.
The barred land of our country could be utilized by cultivation of pastures according to the climate, temperature and environment. Better varieties of the seed should be used to maximize the yield as well as the nutritive value of the plants.

REFERENCES
Department of Livestock Services (1996). Annual Progress Report. Department of Livestock Services, Pasture and Animal Nutrition Development Section.
HMG/ADB/FINNIDA (1988). Master Plan for the Forestry Sector Nepal, Kathmandu.
Miller, D.J. (1987). Yaks and Grasses, Pastoralism in the Himalayan Countries of Nepal and Bhutan and Strategies for Sustained Development, University of Montana USA.
National Reaearch Council: Recommended Nutrients Allowance for Horses. Washington, D.C., National Academy of Science, 1978.
Pariyar, D., Banstola, B.R. and Sedhain, G.K. (1996). Fodder and Pasture Research and Development in Nepal. A Review and Synthesis of Its Application for Rehabilitating Degraded Land.
Rajbhandary, H.B. and Shah S.G. (1981). Trends and Projections of Livestock Production in The Hills of Nepal. Presented at Seminar on Nepal 's Experience in Hill Agricultural Development, held on 30 March - 3 April, 1981, MOA / ADC, Kathmandu.
Stainton, J.B. (1973). Forests of Nepal. John Murray Press London.

Class notes of ANU111 by Dr N.R. Devkota

References: Department of Livestock Services (1996). Annual Progress Report. Department of Livestock Services, Pasture and Animal Nutrition Development Section. HMG/ADB/FINNIDA (1988). Master Plan for the Forestry Sector Nepal, Kathmandu. Miller, D.J. (1987). Yaks and Grasses, Pastoralism in the Himalayan Countries of Nepal and Bhutan and Strategies for Sustained Development, University of Montana USA. National Reaearch Council: Recommended Nutrients Allowance for Horses. Washington, D.C., National Academy of Science, 1978. Pariyar, D., Banstola, B.R. and Sedhain, G.K. (1996). Fodder and Pasture Research and Development in Nepal. A Review and Synthesis of Its Application for Rehabilitating Degraded Land. Rajbhandary, H.B. and Shah S.G. (1981). Trends and Projections of Livestock Production in The Hills of Nepal. Presented at Seminar on Nepal 's Experience in Hill Agricultural Development, held on 30 March - 3 April, 1981, MOA / ADC, Kathmandu. Stainton, J.B. (1973). Forests of Nepal. John Murray Press London. Class notes of ANU111 by Dr N.R. Devkota