Gender Equality
DIPLOMATIC ACADEMY OF VIETNAM
DEPARTMENT OF INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION
READING ASIGNMENT
TOPIC 6
GENDER EQUALITY
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GROUP 6
STUDENTS: Nguyen Linh Dan (leader)
Truong Thi Thuy Dung
Vu Thi Dang
Nguyen Thu Hang
HaNoi, October 30, 2012
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 3
I. OVERVIEW OF GENDER EQUALITY 4
1. History of gender equality 4
2. Actual situation of gender equality all over the world 7
3. Reasons of gender inequality issues 10
4. The impact of gender inequality in education and employment on economic growth in developing countries 12
4.1 Education 12
4.2. Employment 14
4.3. The impact of education and employment on economic growth 16
II. PROMOTING GENDER EQUALITY IN VIET NAM 17
1. Status of gender equality in VN 17
1.1 Sex Ratio at Birth (SRB) 17
1.2 Gender inequality in politics 18
1.3 Gender inequality in education 19
1.4 Gender inequality in economic, labor and employment. 20
2. Achievements and restrictions of building gender equality in VN: 22
3. Key principles and strategies for promoting gender equality in VN 24
3.1 Key principles for the promotion of gender equality 24
LIST OF REFERENCES 28
INTRODUCTION
Gender inequality has long been a burning issue facing mankind. It is posing serious challenges in all aspects of social life. Women have been, are and definitely will be an intrinsic part of civilization. No society or country can progress without an active participation of women in its overall development. However, men and women have not been treated fairly and squarely in all matters. Women have been particularly discriminated against in that they have often been denied basic education, voting rights and even the right to have their own property. Although this trend has been strongly counteracted over the last 100 years, in a lot of areas including in some developed countries, the pace of progress on gender equality is limited.
Taking this problem seriously, Vietnam in recent years has followed strict national policies with a view to changing the status of gender inequality. Our paper will focus on in-depth analysis of gender inequality in Vietnam, its causes and consequences. In addition, we will mention the achievements and limitations in promoting gender equality in Vietnam.
The paper has 2 main parts: * Overview of gender equality
* Promoting gender equality in Vietnam.
We would like to sincerely thank our English teacher for helping our group complete this assignment.
OVERVIEW OF GENDER EQUALITY
1. History of gender equality
- Details definition: Gender equality, also known as sexual equality, is the objective of making women 's rights equal to men 's and also making men 's rights equal to women 's. This objective stems from a belief in the injustice of numerous forms of sex inequality.
According to "Guidelines for gender mainstreaming in planning and implementation policy" by the National Committee for the Advancement of Women in Vietnam, published in 2004, "Gender equality is recognized and treated equally characteristic similarities and differences between women and men.”[1]
According to Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW): “Gender Equality: is the status (living conditions, activities, etc.) in which women and men enjoy the position as the same together, they have an equal opportunity to access and use the resources to benefit yourself, discover and develop potential of each gender in order to contribute to the development of national and benefit from this one.”[2]
- Starting time and place of the issue:
The idea of equality of the sexes has a relatively short history. Until the end of the nineteenth century, women were treated as the inferior sex and were excluded from taking part in public life including politics, education and certain professions. The suffragette movement of the late - 19th century in Western countries is supposed to be the first movement towards gender equality. Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony in the US and the Suffragettes led by the Pankhursts in England were the key pioneers of ‘first-wave feminism’, a period in which women organized themselves into public and high –profile advocacy groups, campaigning for equality in property, economic and voting rights. Beginning with New Zealand in 1898, women were granted the right to vote and within half a century, enjoyed suffrage in a majority of countries across all continents: the US in 1919 and Britain in 1928.
The second-wave of feminists campaigning for gender equality targeted new objectives from their ‘first wave’ sisters. In the 1960s, a more general movement for gender equality developed based on women 's liberation and feminism. Having achieved suffrage and equality in property rights, feminists after WWII broadened their objectives to tackling discrimination in employment opportunities, pay and education, reproductive rights and the role of women in the family and household. The slogan and battle-cry of the second wave was coined by Carol Hanisch: "The Personal is Political." The second wave deconstructed and criticized for the first time power relations between men and women in the realm of the personal as well as the public: culture, sexuality, and political inequalities were intimately intertwined, subjecting women to discrimination that only self-realization of these power relations could overcome. Key feminists of this period include Germaine Greer and Betty Friedan. Their works explored the origins and contours of women’s inequality, breaking the silence over the false myth of the domestic and docile ‘bliss’ of housewives and breaking taboos over female sexuality. [3]
This period also saw international committees and conferences dedicated to promoting gender equality. The United Nations established a Commission on the Status for Women in 1946 whose mission was “to raise the status of women, irrespective of nationality, race, language or religion, to equality with men in all fields of human enterprise, and to eliminate all discrimination against women in the provisions of statutory law, in legal maxims or rules, or in interpretation of customary law”
In its first decade, the Commission passed the following conventions aimed at promoting gender equality: Convention on the Political Rights of Women, adopted by the General Assembly (1952); the Convention on the Nationality of Married Women, (1957), the Convention on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage and Registration of Marriages (1962); and the Recommendation on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage and Registration of Marriages (1965).[4]
Under the auspices of the various UN agencies responsible for gender equality, the first world conferences on women were held, first in Mexico (1975), Copenhagen (1980), Nairobi (1985) and Beijing (1995). In 1980, in the middle of the UN Decade for Women, the Convention for the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) came into force on 3 September 1981, signed initially by 64 countries.
By the late 1980s, the campaign for gender equality entered the ‘third wave’. In response to what was seen as the predominantly ‘white’ and middle class agenda of the second wave, feminists called for greater awareness of the specific equality concerns of other female identities previously marginalized in second wave discourses for gender equality: women from black and minority backgrounds, bisexual, lesbian and transgender women, the ‘postcolonial’ voice and lower social classes. The third wave criticizes the second wave’s “conformism”. An important shift in the past two decades has occurred in the approach to gender equality issues. While certain academics have criticized this shift as cosmetic, that is another way of referring to ‘women’ or an attempt to lend legitimacy to the study of women. The shift does have strong epistemological justifications.
2. Actual situation of gender equality all over the world
As mentioned above, there have been a lot of efforts to fight against gender inequality. The current situation is as follows:
World bodies have defined gender equality in terms of human rights, especially women 's rights, and economic development. UNICEF describes that gender equality "means that women and men, and girls and boys, enjoy the same rights, resources, opportunities and protections. It does not require that girls and boys, or women and men, be the same, or that they be treated exactly alike."
The United Nations Population Fund has declared that women have a right to equality. "Gender equity" is one of the goals of the United Nations Millennium Project, to end world poverty by 2015; the project claims, "Every single Goal is directly related to women 's rights and societies where women are not afforded equal rights as men can never achieve development in a sustainable manner."
Thus, promoting gender equality is seen as an encouragement to greater economic prosperity. For example, nations of the Arab world that deny equality of opportunity to women were warned in a 2008 United Nations-sponsored report that this disempowerment is a critical factor crippling these nations ' return to the first rank of global leaders in commerce, learning and culture.[5]
In 2010, the European Union opened the European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE) in Vilnius, Lithuania to promote gender equality and to fight sex discrimination.
It is also worthy to note that gender equality is part of the national curriculum in Great Britain and many other European countries for English, Religious Studies and P.S.H.E have topics about gender equality and is considered a very serious subject with extensively discussion.
Despite all of the above efforts, we can see that the human rights of women are still systematically denied in some parts of the world, particularly in the countries throughout the Middle East and North Africa with a diversity of political systems. Many governments routinely suppress civil society by restricting freedom of the press, expression, and assembly. These restrictions adversely affect both men and women; however, women are subject to a host of additional gender-specific human rights violations.
Here are five of the most extreme examples of gender inequality you can find currently practiced, often state-sanctioned, in the world today.
The first example of gender inequality is that women are forbidden from driving. In Saudi Arabia, women aren’t allowed to drive, or even ride bikes, and men aren’t allowed to drive women they are not closely related to. The kingdom is currently dealing with the dilemma of how to get 367,000 girls to school on buses that can only be driven by men. The logical question at this point is this: If no men are allowed to come in contact with schoolgirls, and women aren’t allowed to drive, who will be driving the school buses?[6]
Secondly, gender inequality is expressed in clothing requirements for women. In 2001 a militant group called Lashkar-e-Jabar demanded that Muslim women in Kashmir wear burqas, head to toe garments that cover their clothes, or risk being attacked. Men threw acid in the faces of two women for not covering up in public. The group also demanded that Hindu and Sikh women dress so as to identify themselves: they said that Hindu women should wear a bindi (the traditional colored dot) on their foreheads, and Sikh women should cover their heads with saffron-colored cloth.
Next, women’s unequal legal rights increase their vulnerability to violence. In many countries in the region, no specific laws or provisions exist to penalize domestic violence, even though domestic violence is a widespread problem. Domestic violence is generally considered to be a private matter outside the state’s jurisdiction. Battered women are told to go home if they attempt to file a complaint with the police. Few shelters exist to protect women who fear for their lives. Spousal rape has not been criminalized; husbands have an absolute right to their wives’ bodies at all times. Penal codes in several countries in the region also contain provisions that authorize the police and judges to drop charges against a rapist if he agrees to marry his victim.
Besides, travel right is also a reliable evidence about gender inequality. For example, husbands in Egypt and Bahrain can file an official complaint at the airport to forbid their wives from leaving the country for any reason. In Syria, a husband can prevent his wife from leaving the country. In Iraq, Libya, Jordan, Morocco, Oman and Yemen, married women must have their husband’s written permission to travel abroad, and they may be prevented from doing so for any reason. In Saudi Arabia, women must obtain written permission from their closest male relative to leave the country or travel on public transportation between different parts of the kingdom.
Lastly, custody rights are the typical problem of gender inequality. You can see that in Bahrain, where family law is not codified, judges have complete power to deny women custody of their children for the most arbitrary reasons. Bahraini women who have been courageous enough to expose and challenge these violations in 2003 were sued for slander by eleven family court judges.
3. Reasons of gender inequality issues
There are many reasons for gender inequality. Our group found 4 main causes of this problem.
Researchers said that the first reason is structural marginalization
Gender inequalities often stem from social structures that have institutionalized conceptions of gender differences.
Marginalization occurs on an individual level when someone feels as if they are on the fringes or margins of their respective society. This is a social process and displays how current policies in place can affect people. For example, media advertisements display young girls with easy bake ovens (promoting being a housewife) as well as with dolls that they can feed and change the diaper of (promoting being a mother). When women are not the stereotypical housewife and mother, they have to face the consequences that come along with that.
The politics of NGOs is the second.
Non-governmental organizations (NGO 's) have the ability to create change. Certain NGO 's, such as the Kiva promote women entrepreneurs. Currently, Kiva distributes loans to approximately 400 more women than men. However, even when women work at NGO 's in order to create a voice and a space for women 's empowerment; there are still gender discrepancies amongst the women. For example, in Uttar Predash in India, there is a NGO where women work. Marginalized because of their caste and religion, this organization has the opportunity to provide a voice to the voiceless and expose the issues that are happening. However, women from a higher caste still have issues eating the food of women from a lower caste. This tension shows that there are still fundamental gender inequality issues that working at an NGO cannot readily solve.
Next, gender stereotypes also cause gender inequality.
Cultural stereotypes are engrained in both men and women and these stereotypes are a possible explanation for gender inequality and the resulting gendered wage disparity. Women have traditionally been viewed as being caring and nurturing and are designated to occupations which require such skills. While these skills are culturally valued, they were typically associated with domesticity, so occupations requiring these same skills are not economically valued. Men have traditionally been viewed as the breadwinner or the worker, so jobs held by men have been historically economically valued and occupations predominated by men continue to be economically valued and pay higher wages.
The last reason is sexism and discrimination
Gender inequality can further be understood through the mechanisms of sexism. Discrimination takes place in this manner as men and women are subject to prejudicial treatment on the basis of gender alone. Sexism occurs when men and women are framed within two dimensions of social cognition.
Discrimination also plays out with networking and in preferential treatment within the economic market. Men typically occupy positions of power within the job economy. Due to taste or preference for other men because they share similar characteristics, men in these positions of power are more likely to hire or promote other men, thus discriminating against women.
Discrimination against men in the workplace is rare but does occur, particularly in health care professions. Only an estimated 0.4% of midwives in the UK are male and according to CBS only 1% of all trainee nurses and only 2% of Secretaries are male.[7]
Discrimination against women in the workplace also occurs. Only an estimated 1% of roofers in the US are female.
4. The impact of gender inequality in education and employment on economic growth in developing countries
4.1 Education
Enhancing public education about gender inequality may lead to a reduction in child mortality rate as well as growing awareness of future generations.
Educating girls and women is one of the best investments a society can make. An educated woman has enough necessary skills, knowledge, and self-confidence in order to become a better parent, worker, and citizen. However, in families with many children, tuition fees, cost of textbooks, uniforms, transportation and other expenses typically exceed the income of the family; girls are the first to be denied schooling.
Girls’ lack of access to education isn’t always related to scarcity of places in schools. It also emerges from expectations, attitudes and biases in communities and families. Economic costs, social traditions, and religious and cultural beliefs limit girls’ educational opportunities. Whatever the underlying reasons, having large number of girls outside the formal schooling system brings developmental challenges to both current and future generations. Individuals, families, communities and nations are affected. Inability to read, write and calculate complicates a girl’s efforts to engage in both market-focused production and household activities as effectively and efficiently possible. This affects her family’s welfare and diminishes her potential contribution to the development of the household, local and national economy.[8]
Despite reported progress, there is still a persistent gap between women and men’s access to education. Combating the high rate of illiteracy among women and girls remains an urgent global need. According to the UNESCO Institute of Statistics, it is now estimated that two-thirds of the world’s 875 million illiterate adults are women. In Southern Asia, nearly three in five women are illiterate and it is estimated that half of all women in Africa and in the Arab region are still illiterate.
Educational Variation in Labor Force Participation: 1950-2000[9]
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Women of all educational levels increased their labor force participation steadily from 1960 to 1990 (Table 4). However, all groups saw a decline in participation from 1990 to 2000. There was also a decline among college women in the 1950s. Only among high school dropouts was there a noticeable growth in labor force participation in the 1950s. However, because education levels were lower then, their increases dominated the declines among college women so that the overall change was an increase (Figure 1). Since the 1950s however, labor force participation rates among high school dropouts, always the lowest, have grown more slowly than for other women so the gap between high school dropouts and those with at least a high school diploma has grown since 1970. For women, education has become an increasingly important predictor of labor force participation
4.2. Employment
Gender gaps in education might automatically lead to gender gaps in employment, where employers will prefer educated workers and thus will not consider applications of uneducated women. Conversely, if there are large barriers to female employment or gender gaps in pay, rational parents (and girls) might decide that education of girls is not as lucrative which might therefore lead to lower demands for female education and resulting gender gaps in education. While nearly 9 out of 10 men are in the labor force, only 3 out 4 women are working. In addition, women and men continue to be highly concentrated in typically female and typically male jobs, respectively. Women continue to earn substantially less than men for the work they do such that women still earn just 73 cents for every dollar men earn. Gender gaps in education and employment are closely related to each other.
Median Annual Earnings by Gender and Age.
Source: 2000 PUMS, 1%, employed full-time year-round.
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The gender difference in earnings is dramatically larger among older workers than among younger workers. In 1999, the average 25 year old woman earned 90% of what the average 25 year old man earned. But 55 year-old women earned only 65% of what 55 year-old men earned. In what are usually the post-retirement years, the gender difference diminishes somewhat so that the age relationship is curvilinear. However, the growing gender gap in 1999 between 16 year olds and those in their late fifties does not mean that the gender gap increases over people’s careers. When the same individuals are studied over time, the gender earnings gap between the average woman and the average man is quite stable across their work lives. Women earn less than men throughout their careers, but the disadvantage for the average woman doesn’t change much after working many years. The age differences in Figure 11 occur for two other reasons, one a “cohort effect,” the other an “out of labor force effect”. First, the older workers in 1999 were born before the end of World War II; gender gaps for this generation have been higher than for any generation before or after (see below). Second, women interrupt their careers for childcare and family responsibilities more often than men do. This time out of the labor force puts older women at a disadvantage when they return to work. By age 55, the typical woman has accumulated fewer years of work experience than a man. If we compare men and women with the same years of work experience (something we cannot do with Census data), the earnings difference between the average man and the average woman remains fairly constant over their work lives.[10]
4.3. The impact of education and employment on economic growth
Gender inequality in education has a direct impact on economic growth through lowering the average quality of human capital. In addition, economic growth is indirectly affected through the impact of gender inequality on investment and population growth. Point estimates suggest that between 0.4-0.9 % of the differences in growth rates between East Asia and Sub Saharan Africa, South Asia, and the Middle East can be accounted for by the larger gender gaps in education prevailing in the latter regions.
Noble-laureate Amartya Sen (1999) found that increasing GDP by itself should not be the ultimate goal of efforts to help poor countries. Rather, what aid should hope to maximize are the freedoms associated with wealth: freedom to exchange goods and labor, freedom to make choices and influence one’s life, freedom to live longer, freedom to get an education. He suggest that restrictions on an individual’s right to own property, save, borrow, become educated, make labor contracts or to control the products of one’s own labor would qualify as disincentives to growth, while freedom to exercise these activities would be associated with economic growth. Given that roughly half of the population of any country is female, it is reasonable to postulate that a society’s failure to provide such freedoms or resources to them would be reflected in failures at the macroeconomics level as well.[11]
PROMOTING GENDER EQUALITY IN VIET NAM
Status of gender equality in VN
1.1 Sex Ratio at Birth (SRB)
- The sex ratio is often measured as the number of infant boys per a hundred infant girls.
- This rate is considered normally to range from 105 to 108 boys per every 100 girls.
- In Vietnam, the sex ratio at birth has been increased rapidly in recent years as follows
SRB in Viet Nam, 2005 – 2009.
|Year |Source |Time |SRB |
|2005 |Annual rate |1/4/2005 |106.0 |
|2006 |Annual rate |1/4/2006 |110.0 |
|2007 |Annual rate |1/4/2007 |111.6 |
|2008 |Annual rate |1/4/2008 |112.1 |
|2009 |Annual rate |1/4/2009 |110.5 |
1.2 Gender inequality in politics
Today, women not only take care of the kitchen but also go out to work in order improve their lives. At the office, if the woman strives for the high position, the issue of gender equality will be a natural barrier or a problem that the woman must strive to pass. To assert themselves in positions of leadership and management, firstly, the women themselves have to be capable, to be qualified, trusted colleagues. In fact, many women are capable and qualified. Men also confirmed women capacity and qualifications. However, due to the perception that women leaders are not effective, the ratio of women getting high positions is limited, which is expressed in the following tables:
The proportion of women involved in the People 's Assembly course 2004 - 2011
Source: National Committee for the Advancement of Women in Vietnam, 2011.[12]
Percentage of female officials in the People 's Committees at all levels (%)
(2004 - 2011)
Source: Report on the situation of gender equality in the planning, recruitment, appointment of civil servants, the Ministry of the Interior.
Percentage of female political officers in our country is very lower than that in men, the proportion of women in the National Assembly of Vietnam term of 12 accounted for 25.8% with 127 participants. This reflects that the opportunity to get ahead in politics of women is much lower than that of men. In other words, inequality still exists in politics.
1.3 Gender inequality in education
There are four types of non-formal education, mainly for adults, including women. These programs are creating opportunities for women for learning far more than ever before. Aware of the situation and the importance of women, especially the role of education to society, the Department of Education & Training has done a relatively good job in promoting gender equality.
Table 7: Percentage of female students in colleges and universities (%)
| |2004-2005 |2005-2006 |2006-2007 |
|University |46,95 |47,23 |54,99 |
|Colleges |50,98 |53,09 |53,88 |
|Both kind of university and colleges |47,79 |48,49 |53,32 |
Source: Ministry of Education and Training
At the national level, the gender inequality gap between men and women are stretched wider in postgraduate courses. The proportion of women with postgraduate qualifications in Vietnam was higher than 30%, only by 1/2 compared to men. In particular, at a higher level of education, the level of gender inequality is bigger.
Percentage of men and women keep the titles and scientific degrees
Source: Council of the title of professor, Department of Education and Training through the years
1.4 Gender inequality in economic, labor and employment.
Vietnam is one of the countries with the percentage of women participating in economic activities at a high level (83% vs. 85% men). Women play an increasingly important role in the national economy as a whole, participating more and more in non-agricultural sector, especially in high tech industries and economic sectors.
Percentage of female employees (aged 15 and over) (%)
| |Women |Men |
|Agriculture, forestry, and fishery |51,6 |48,4 |
|Mining |31,1 |68,9 |
|Industrial processing, manufacturing |51,7 |48,3 |
|Production and distribution of electricity, gas, hot water, steam ... |27,4 |72,6 |
|Trade, repair of motor vehicles... |61,5 |38,5 |
|Hotels and restaurants |71,6 |28,4 |
|Finance, credit, banking, insurance |52,5 |47,5 |
|Science and technology |34,0 |66,0 |
|Business assets, administrative services, counseling support |42,2 |57,8 |
|State management of security and defense, social security, etc. |24,7 |75,3 |
|Education and training |69,2 |30,8 |
|Health and social relief activities |59,6 |40,4 |
|Cultural and sports activities |48,8 |51,2 |
|Working in international organizations |51,4 |48,2 |
|Total |49,4 |50,6 |
Source: Survey of labor and employment dated 1/8/2007 of the GSO
In general, the structural distribution of men and women in occupations shows that men still accounts for a higher rate in the group of workers, leadership, personal service, technical expertise and resources armed.
Achievements and restrictions of building gender equality in VN:
There have been a number of real accomplishments in gender equality in the East Asia Pacific region, including in Vietnam. It is worth noting that Vietnam has a strong track record of promoting gender equality and women’s empowerment. Our efforts are shown in our legislative framework. The Constitution of Vietnam protects the principle of gender equality, and specifically prohibits the violation of women’s rights. In regard to legal rights, the position of Vietnamese women has improved over the past decades. The framework was strengthened with the passage of two laws, the 2006 Law on Gender Equality and the 2007 Law on the Prevention and Control of Domestic Violence. Nevertheless, the establishment of the legal policies remains a challenge. There exist big hurdles in public education, reporting, gender analysis, collection of sex-disaggregated data and monitoring. In truth, our country has achieved remarkable progress in narrowing gender gaps, but serious challenges remain in some areas.
One good example is the issue of inheritance. Vietnam’s Civil Code provides men and women with equal opportunities to write a will or benefit as an heir. Nonetheless, certain inequalities can still be observed. If a person dies without a will, the law requires an equal distribution of property among the next of kin. In practice, the general custom is for the eldest son to inherit the parental home and the largest portion of the family property, particularly land. Younger sons will often inherit some land or other assets of value, while daughters receive only some small symbolic items. There is a relatively popular practice in Vietnam that among people in rural areas or ethnic people, when their daughters get married, and in most of the cases, daughters cannot inherit properties of their parents.
Another serious disparity that remains is the rate at which girls and women die relative to men. Worldwide, excess female mortality after birth accounts for an estimated 3.9 million women each year in low- and middle-income countries. About two-fifths of girls are never born due to a preference for sons; a sixth die in early childhood; and over a third die in their reproductive years. In Vietnam, however, the general situation is getting better. The mortality rate of Vietnamese female child in 1997 is 13, 4 per 1000, which is three times higher than that in 2006 (4, 1 per 1000). The mortality rate of Vietnamese female adult (between the ages of 15 and 60) in 1960 is 356, 25 per 1000, which is four times higher than that in 2010 (89, 04 per 1000).
Disparities between boys and girls in primary education have closed in almost all countries, including in Vietnam. Among developing countries, girls now outnumber boys in secondary schools in 45 countries, and there are more young women than men in universities in 60 countries. In Viet Nam, enrolment rates for girls are slightly lower than for boys at both primary and secondary school level, although attendance rates are virtually equal, according to UNICEF (94% at primary level, and 77% for boys / 78% for girls at secondary level).
Although gaps in labor-force participation have narrowed, gender gaps in earnings remain stubbornly unchanged. Despite having one of the highest female economic participation rates in the world (78% in 2006), Vietnamese women continue to earn less than men with a wage gap of around 87% to 88% of men.
The position of women varies considerably among Vietnam’s 54 official ethnic groups. Harmful practices such as the marriage of young girls and marriage of a widow to her deceased husband’s brother are prevalent among some groups, despite being prohibited by law since 2000. Public life is still traditionally viewed as a predominantly male domain, while women remain responsible for unpaid work in the household. This is particularly true in rural areas and in the highlands, where women also face limited education and employment opportunities, and access to healthcare.
At the national level, Vietnam has set some explicit goals including having the number of women involved in Party organizations in the 2016-2020 term reach 25 percent or more, and women representing 25 percent of trained rural workers under 45 years old by 2015 and 50 percent by 2020. Vietnam now belongs to the group of developing countries that has been internationally praised in the Gender-related Development Index (GDI) compared to other Southeast Asian and Asian Pacific nations at the same development level.
All in all, Vietnam has made some genuine progress in promoting gender equality, and yet more needs to be done.
Key principles and strategies for promoting gender equality in VN
3.1 Key principles for the promotion of gender equality
3.1.1 Striving for gender equality is the responsibility of everyone.
Formerly, those fighting for gender equality were mostly women. The notion that this subject only concerns women and not men, however, is fallacious. Fortunately, there is growing consensus that gender equality requires contributions and inputs from both women and men. Without the male active involvement, a gender equitable society will neither be achievable, nor be sustainable.
3.1.2 Promoting gender equality will benefit everyone
There exists a fear that advancing the position of women means that something is taken away from men. Nonetheless, the promotion of equality between women and men is actually enabling both men and women to take part fully in social and economic life and leading to a win-win situation, in which arbitrary inequalities of all kinds are rejected. Such inequalities, as we have known, produce staggering economic health and social costs. In New Zealand, for example, the cost of family violence in 1993 was more than $1.2 billion – more than its wool export earnings.
3.1.3. Gender inequalities are deeply rooted in the social, economic, cultural and political fabric of societies and therefore need to be addressed in all development fields and at all stages of the programming cycle.
3.1.4. Address practical and strategic gender needs
The needs of men and women are generally not the same.
In order to formulate strategies which promote gender equity, two kinds of needs are usually identified: * Practical needs refer to needs related to basic livelihood such as food, water, shelter, income, clothing and healthcare. Fulfilling practical needs is necessary but gender equality cannot be achieved without addressing strategic needs. * Strategic needs refer to the needs related to the promotion of the equal and meaningful participation of men and women in their family and community. As women are usually in a subordinate position when compared to men in their societies, satisfying strategic needs typically means working towards the empowerment of women, which involves a slow and gradual process of changing attitudes and practices in societies. For instance, strategic needs concern equality issues such as enabling women to have equal access to job opportunities and training, sharing of family responsibilities, equal pay for work of equal value, rights to land and other assets, prevention of sexual harassment at work and domestic violence etc.
* Strategies for the promotion of gender equality
In order to facilitate the establishment of the above principles, the following strategies can be used: * Conducting a gender study with the view to recognizing gender inequalities that need to be dealt with. * Providing equal chances to everyone and carrying out gender-specific actions whenever inequalities are pronounced, targeting girls or women exclusively, men or boys exclusively, or boys and girls, women and men together in order to redress existing gender inequalities and discrimination * Stimulating a process of institutional reform in procedures - incorporating primary gender concerns into the planning, programming, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of all programs and activities * Giving women a voice alongside men by increasing their participation in programs, organizations and in decision-making processes with a view to ensuring that their interests and perspectives are taken into account in development
CONCLUSION
Gender equality and women 's liberation is the principal target which has been clearly set in the Constitution as well as in many documents and resolutions of the Central Party, State Government, political and social organizations, and has been institutionalized in most legal documents, thereby providing a legal basis for the fairness between men and women in every field such as politics, economy, culture, etc. Gender inequality is both a cause of poverty and a formidable barrier to sustainable development, hence having a negative impact on all members of the society. As a matter of fact, the higher the level of gender equality, the higher the economic growth rate, since everyone in the society will have the opportunity to fully develop themselves and enjoy the resultant development of their society. Although many women still encounter considerable difficulties and pressures in certain sectors of the global community, their plight is currently being brought to the attention of the world. Women have come a long way in the past 100 years, despite the efforts which still need to be made on behalf of them. Our study, we fervently hope, will be one of these efforts and will raise public awareness about gender inequality issues, thus giving a hand in removing an enormous obstacle for the sustainable development of our society.
LIST OF REFERENCES
I.Over view of gender equality
1.History of gender equality: ➢ http://www.phunu.hochiminhcity.gov.vn/hoidap/kb/default1.aspx?pt=d&qid=170 ➢ Documents (Project "Promoting community management model in Vietnam" ➢ http://www.unicef.org/education/bege_61657.html ➢ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_equality. ➢ http://wHYPERLINK "http://www.history.ac.uk/ihr/Focus/Gender/articles.html"wHYPERLINK "http://www.history.ac.uk/ihr/Focus/Gender/articles.html"w.history.ac.uk/ihr/Focus/Gender/articles.html. ➢ http://arthsabi.hubpages.com/hub/Gender-equality-as-a-result-of-womens-integration-into-nation-building-and-early-political-history. ➢ http://hrba.undp.sk/index.php/terms-and-concepts/gender-mainstreaming/gender-and-inequality-and-the-history-and-of-gender-mainstreaming. ➢ http://www.wikigender.org/index.php/History_of_the_Movement_for_Gender_Equality# Situation.
2. Actual situation of gender equality all over the world: ➢ http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/eiro/2004/08/feature/sk0408101f.htm.
➢ http://www.unicef.org/media/media_66187.html
➢ http://www.gender.cdnee.org/index.php?option=com_contentHYPERLINK "http://www.gender.cdnee.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=14:gender-equality-all-across-eastern-europe&catid=10:articles&Itemid=4"&HYPERLINK "http://www.gender.cdnee.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=14:gender-equality-all-across-eastern-europe&catid=10:articles&Itemid=4"view=articleHYPERLINK "http://www.gender.cdnee.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=14:gender-equality-all-across-eastern-europe&catid=10:articles&Itemid=4"&HYPERLINK "http://www.gender.cdnee.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=14:gender-equality-all-across-eastern-europe&catid=10:articles&Itemid=4"id=14:gender-equality-all-across-eastern-europeHYPERLINK "http://www.gender.cdnee.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=14:gender-equality-all-across-eastern-europe&catid=10:articles&Itemid=4"&HYPERLINK "http://www.gender.cdnee.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=14:gender-equality-all-across-eastern-europe&catid=10:articles&Itemid=4"catid=10:articlesHYPERLINK "http://www.gender.cdnee.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=14:gender-equality-all-across-eastern-europe&catid=10:articles&Itemid=4"&HYPERLINK "http://www.gender.cdnee.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=14:gender-equality-all-across-eastern-europe&catid=10:articles&Itemid=4"Itemid=4.
➢ http://listverse.com/2008/11/20/10-extreme-examples-of-gender-inequality/
➢ Ebook: Intergrating gender equality dimensions into public financial management reform
➢ Ebook: National strategy on gender equality and domestic violence.
➢ Ebook: WORKING FOR AN EQUAL FUTURE - UNICEF Policy on Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Girls and Women
1. Reasons of gender inequality issue ➢ http://www.acdi-cida.gc.ca/acdi-cida/ACDI-CIDA.nsf/En/JUD-31192610-JXF ➢ http://filipspagnoli.wordpress.com/2008/05/09/human-rights-facts-10/. ➢ http://ec.europa.eu/justice/gender-equality/gender-pay-gap/causes/index_en.htm. ➢ http://www.nyu.edu/classes/jackson/causes.of.gender.inequality. ➢ Hyde, J. S. (2005). The Gender Similarities Hypothesis. American Psychologist, 60, 581-592 (doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.60.6.581). ➢ Rosabeth Moss Kanter. "Some Effects of Proportions on Group Life: Skewed Sex Ratios and Responses to Token Women" American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 82, No. 5 (Mar., 1977), pp. 965-990. ➢ Analyzing the Persistence of Gender Inequality: How to Think about the Origins ➢ Joan N. Huber. "Reproductive Biology, Technology, and Gender Inequality: An Autobiographical Essay" Annual Review of Sociology, Vol. 34 (2008) : 1-13 (doi: 10.1146/annurev.soc.34.040507.134654) ➢ Sharon Smith. "Engels and the Origin of Women 's Oppression" International Socialist Review Issue 2, Fall 1997 ➢ Brines, Julie. 1994. “Economic Dependency, Gender, and the Division of Labor at Home.” American Journal of Sociology 100(3): 652-689.
4.The impact of gender inequality in education and employment on economic growth in developing countries ➢ http://mpra.ub.unimuenchen.de/685/1/MPRA_paper_685.pdf. ➢ http://ethesis.helsinki.fi/julkaisut/eri/hecer/disc/159/developm.pdf. ➢ Gender inequality in education and employment by Geeta Sharma, Editor, Learningchannel.org. ➢ http://genderpolicyforum.files.wordpress.com/2012/02/gender_policy_forum_outcome_report21.pdf.
II/ Promoting gender equality in Viet Nam:
1.Status of gender equality in VN:
➢ Report of National Committee for the Advancement of Women in Vietnam, 2011.
➢ Report on the situation of gender equality in the planning, recruitment, appointment of civil servants, the Ministry of the Interior,2007
➢ Report of Ministry of Education and Training, 2007
➢ Report “Council of the title of professor, Department of Education and Training through the years”, 2010
➢ Survey of labor and employment dated 1/8/2007 of the GSO
2. Achievements and restritions of building gender equality in VN.
➢ http://vietnamnews.vnagency.com.vn/social-issues/218730/gender-equality-improves-in-east-asia-pacific-region.html
➢ http://vietnam.unfpa.org/public/lang/en/pid/10257 http://english.vovnews.vn/Home/Seminar-on-Vietnams-international-commitments-on-gender-equality/20123/135408.vov
3. Key principles and strategies for promoting gender equality ( gender equity) in VN:
➢ http://genic.molisa.gov.vn/others/faq/faqdetail/tabid/211/newsid/53534/seo/How-to-Promote-Gender-Equality-in-the-Workplace/language/vi-VN/Default.aspx.
➢ http://www.worldvision.org.vn/worldvision/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=53&Itemid=33.
➢ http://www.unifem.org/attachments/products/GenderEqualityNow.pdf.
➢ http://www2.ilo.org/public/english/region/asro/bangkok/child/trafficking/downloads/promotionofgenderequality/part1-3.pdf.
➢ http://www2.unescobkk.org/elib/publications/Role_of_Men_and_Boys/Role_of_Men_and_Boys.pdf.
➢ http://wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/GenderEquity_1.pdf.
➢ http://www.chinhphu.vn:80/portal/page/portal/English/strategies/strategiesdetails?categoryId=30&articleId=3061.
➢ http://www.vietnam.vn/plan-to-promote-gender-equality-c1069n20110805165814281.htm.
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[1] http://www.phunu.hochiminhcity.gov.vn/hoidap/kb/default1.aspx?pt=d&qid=170
[2] Documents (Project "Promoting community management model in Vietnam"
[3] http://www.unicef.org/education/bege_61657.html
[4] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_equality
[5] http://www.unicef.org/media/media_66187.html
[6] http://www.unicef.org/media/media_66187.html
[7] http://www.acdi-cida.gc.ca/acdi-cida/ACDI-CIDA.nsf/En/JUD-31192610-JXF
[8] Geeta Sharma, Editor, Learningchannel.org Gender inequality in education and employment
[9] David A. Cotter, Gender Inequality at Work http://www.bsos.umd.edu/socy/vanneman/papers/Cotter_etal.pdf
[10] David A. Cotter, Gender Inequality at Work http://www.bsos.umd.edu/socy/vanneman/papers/Cotter_etal.pdf
[11] Anne Mikkola and Carrie A. Miles Development and Gender Equality- Consequences, Causes, Challenges and Cures http://ethesis.helsinki.fi/julkaisut/eri/hecer/disc/159/developm.pdf
[12] Report of National Committee for the Advancement of Women in Vietnam, 2011.
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References: ➢ Hyde, J. S. (2005). The Gender Similarities Hypothesis. American Psychologist, 60, 581-592 (doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.60.6.581). ➢ Rosabeth Moss Kanter. "Some Effects of Proportions on Group Life: Skewed Sex Ratios and Responses to Token Women" American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 82, No. 5 (Mar., 1977), pp. 965-990. ➢ Report of National Committee for the Advancement of Women in Vietnam, 2011. ➢ Report on the situation of gender equality in the planning, recruitment, appointment of civil servants, the Ministry of the Interior,2007 ➢ Report of Ministry of Education and Training, 2007 ➢ Report “Council of the title of professor, Department of Education and Training through the years”, 2010 ➢ Survey of labor and employment dated 1/8/2007 of the GSO
DEPARTMENT OF INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION
READING ASIGNMENT
TOPIC 6
GENDER EQUALITY
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GROUP 6
STUDENTS: Nguyen Linh Dan (leader)
Truong Thi Thuy Dung
Vu Thi Dang
Nguyen Thu Hang
HaNoi, October 30, 2012
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 3
I. OVERVIEW OF GENDER EQUALITY 4
1. History of gender equality 4
2. Actual situation of gender equality all over the world 7
3. Reasons of gender inequality issues 10
4. The impact of gender inequality in education and employment on economic growth in developing countries 12
4.1 Education 12
4.2. Employment 14
4.3. The impact of education and employment on economic growth 16
II. PROMOTING GENDER EQUALITY IN VIET NAM 17
1. Status of gender equality in VN 17
1.1 Sex Ratio at Birth (SRB) 17
1.2 Gender inequality in politics 18
1.3 Gender inequality in education 19
1.4 Gender inequality in economic, labor and employment. 20
2. Achievements and restrictions of building gender equality in VN: 22
3. Key principles and strategies for promoting gender equality in VN 24
3.1 Key principles for the promotion of gender equality 24
LIST OF REFERENCES 28
INTRODUCTION
Gender inequality has long been a burning issue facing mankind. It is posing serious challenges in all aspects of social life. Women have been, are and definitely will be an intrinsic part of civilization. No society or country can progress without an active participation of women in its overall development. However, men and women have not been treated fairly and squarely in all matters. Women have been particularly discriminated against in that they have often been denied basic education, voting rights and even the right to have their own property. Although this trend has been strongly counteracted over the last 100 years, in a lot of areas including in some developed countries, the pace of progress on gender equality is limited.
Taking this problem seriously, Vietnam in recent years has followed strict national policies with a view to changing the status of gender inequality. Our paper will focus on in-depth analysis of gender inequality in Vietnam, its causes and consequences. In addition, we will mention the achievements and limitations in promoting gender equality in Vietnam.
The paper has 2 main parts: * Overview of gender equality
* Promoting gender equality in Vietnam.
We would like to sincerely thank our English teacher for helping our group complete this assignment.
OVERVIEW OF GENDER EQUALITY
1. History of gender equality
- Details definition: Gender equality, also known as sexual equality, is the objective of making women 's rights equal to men 's and also making men 's rights equal to women 's. This objective stems from a belief in the injustice of numerous forms of sex inequality.
According to "Guidelines for gender mainstreaming in planning and implementation policy" by the National Committee for the Advancement of Women in Vietnam, published in 2004, "Gender equality is recognized and treated equally characteristic similarities and differences between women and men.”[1]
According to Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW): “Gender Equality: is the status (living conditions, activities, etc.) in which women and men enjoy the position as the same together, they have an equal opportunity to access and use the resources to benefit yourself, discover and develop potential of each gender in order to contribute to the development of national and benefit from this one.”[2]
- Starting time and place of the issue:
The idea of equality of the sexes has a relatively short history. Until the end of the nineteenth century, women were treated as the inferior sex and were excluded from taking part in public life including politics, education and certain professions. The suffragette movement of the late - 19th century in Western countries is supposed to be the first movement towards gender equality. Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony in the US and the Suffragettes led by the Pankhursts in England were the key pioneers of ‘first-wave feminism’, a period in which women organized themselves into public and high –profile advocacy groups, campaigning for equality in property, economic and voting rights. Beginning with New Zealand in 1898, women were granted the right to vote and within half a century, enjoyed suffrage in a majority of countries across all continents: the US in 1919 and Britain in 1928.
The second-wave of feminists campaigning for gender equality targeted new objectives from their ‘first wave’ sisters. In the 1960s, a more general movement for gender equality developed based on women 's liberation and feminism. Having achieved suffrage and equality in property rights, feminists after WWII broadened their objectives to tackling discrimination in employment opportunities, pay and education, reproductive rights and the role of women in the family and household. The slogan and battle-cry of the second wave was coined by Carol Hanisch: "The Personal is Political." The second wave deconstructed and criticized for the first time power relations between men and women in the realm of the personal as well as the public: culture, sexuality, and political inequalities were intimately intertwined, subjecting women to discrimination that only self-realization of these power relations could overcome. Key feminists of this period include Germaine Greer and Betty Friedan. Their works explored the origins and contours of women’s inequality, breaking the silence over the false myth of the domestic and docile ‘bliss’ of housewives and breaking taboos over female sexuality. [3]
This period also saw international committees and conferences dedicated to promoting gender equality. The United Nations established a Commission on the Status for Women in 1946 whose mission was “to raise the status of women, irrespective of nationality, race, language or religion, to equality with men in all fields of human enterprise, and to eliminate all discrimination against women in the provisions of statutory law, in legal maxims or rules, or in interpretation of customary law”
In its first decade, the Commission passed the following conventions aimed at promoting gender equality: Convention on the Political Rights of Women, adopted by the General Assembly (1952); the Convention on the Nationality of Married Women, (1957), the Convention on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage and Registration of Marriages (1962); and the Recommendation on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage and Registration of Marriages (1965).[4]
Under the auspices of the various UN agencies responsible for gender equality, the first world conferences on women were held, first in Mexico (1975), Copenhagen (1980), Nairobi (1985) and Beijing (1995). In 1980, in the middle of the UN Decade for Women, the Convention for the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) came into force on 3 September 1981, signed initially by 64 countries.
By the late 1980s, the campaign for gender equality entered the ‘third wave’. In response to what was seen as the predominantly ‘white’ and middle class agenda of the second wave, feminists called for greater awareness of the specific equality concerns of other female identities previously marginalized in second wave discourses for gender equality: women from black and minority backgrounds, bisexual, lesbian and transgender women, the ‘postcolonial’ voice and lower social classes. The third wave criticizes the second wave’s “conformism”. An important shift in the past two decades has occurred in the approach to gender equality issues. While certain academics have criticized this shift as cosmetic, that is another way of referring to ‘women’ or an attempt to lend legitimacy to the study of women. The shift does have strong epistemological justifications.
2. Actual situation of gender equality all over the world
As mentioned above, there have been a lot of efforts to fight against gender inequality. The current situation is as follows:
World bodies have defined gender equality in terms of human rights, especially women 's rights, and economic development. UNICEF describes that gender equality "means that women and men, and girls and boys, enjoy the same rights, resources, opportunities and protections. It does not require that girls and boys, or women and men, be the same, or that they be treated exactly alike."
The United Nations Population Fund has declared that women have a right to equality. "Gender equity" is one of the goals of the United Nations Millennium Project, to end world poverty by 2015; the project claims, "Every single Goal is directly related to women 's rights and societies where women are not afforded equal rights as men can never achieve development in a sustainable manner."
Thus, promoting gender equality is seen as an encouragement to greater economic prosperity. For example, nations of the Arab world that deny equality of opportunity to women were warned in a 2008 United Nations-sponsored report that this disempowerment is a critical factor crippling these nations ' return to the first rank of global leaders in commerce, learning and culture.[5]
In 2010, the European Union opened the European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE) in Vilnius, Lithuania to promote gender equality and to fight sex discrimination.
It is also worthy to note that gender equality is part of the national curriculum in Great Britain and many other European countries for English, Religious Studies and P.S.H.E have topics about gender equality and is considered a very serious subject with extensively discussion.
Despite all of the above efforts, we can see that the human rights of women are still systematically denied in some parts of the world, particularly in the countries throughout the Middle East and North Africa with a diversity of political systems. Many governments routinely suppress civil society by restricting freedom of the press, expression, and assembly. These restrictions adversely affect both men and women; however, women are subject to a host of additional gender-specific human rights violations.
Here are five of the most extreme examples of gender inequality you can find currently practiced, often state-sanctioned, in the world today.
The first example of gender inequality is that women are forbidden from driving. In Saudi Arabia, women aren’t allowed to drive, or even ride bikes, and men aren’t allowed to drive women they are not closely related to. The kingdom is currently dealing with the dilemma of how to get 367,000 girls to school on buses that can only be driven by men. The logical question at this point is this: If no men are allowed to come in contact with schoolgirls, and women aren’t allowed to drive, who will be driving the school buses?[6]
Secondly, gender inequality is expressed in clothing requirements for women. In 2001 a militant group called Lashkar-e-Jabar demanded that Muslim women in Kashmir wear burqas, head to toe garments that cover their clothes, or risk being attacked. Men threw acid in the faces of two women for not covering up in public. The group also demanded that Hindu and Sikh women dress so as to identify themselves: they said that Hindu women should wear a bindi (the traditional colored dot) on their foreheads, and Sikh women should cover their heads with saffron-colored cloth.
Next, women’s unequal legal rights increase their vulnerability to violence. In many countries in the region, no specific laws or provisions exist to penalize domestic violence, even though domestic violence is a widespread problem. Domestic violence is generally considered to be a private matter outside the state’s jurisdiction. Battered women are told to go home if they attempt to file a complaint with the police. Few shelters exist to protect women who fear for their lives. Spousal rape has not been criminalized; husbands have an absolute right to their wives’ bodies at all times. Penal codes in several countries in the region also contain provisions that authorize the police and judges to drop charges against a rapist if he agrees to marry his victim.
Besides, travel right is also a reliable evidence about gender inequality. For example, husbands in Egypt and Bahrain can file an official complaint at the airport to forbid their wives from leaving the country for any reason. In Syria, a husband can prevent his wife from leaving the country. In Iraq, Libya, Jordan, Morocco, Oman and Yemen, married women must have their husband’s written permission to travel abroad, and they may be prevented from doing so for any reason. In Saudi Arabia, women must obtain written permission from their closest male relative to leave the country or travel on public transportation between different parts of the kingdom.
Lastly, custody rights are the typical problem of gender inequality. You can see that in Bahrain, where family law is not codified, judges have complete power to deny women custody of their children for the most arbitrary reasons. Bahraini women who have been courageous enough to expose and challenge these violations in 2003 were sued for slander by eleven family court judges.
3. Reasons of gender inequality issues
There are many reasons for gender inequality. Our group found 4 main causes of this problem.
Researchers said that the first reason is structural marginalization
Gender inequalities often stem from social structures that have institutionalized conceptions of gender differences.
Marginalization occurs on an individual level when someone feels as if they are on the fringes or margins of their respective society. This is a social process and displays how current policies in place can affect people. For example, media advertisements display young girls with easy bake ovens (promoting being a housewife) as well as with dolls that they can feed and change the diaper of (promoting being a mother). When women are not the stereotypical housewife and mother, they have to face the consequences that come along with that.
The politics of NGOs is the second.
Non-governmental organizations (NGO 's) have the ability to create change. Certain NGO 's, such as the Kiva promote women entrepreneurs. Currently, Kiva distributes loans to approximately 400 more women than men. However, even when women work at NGO 's in order to create a voice and a space for women 's empowerment; there are still gender discrepancies amongst the women. For example, in Uttar Predash in India, there is a NGO where women work. Marginalized because of their caste and religion, this organization has the opportunity to provide a voice to the voiceless and expose the issues that are happening. However, women from a higher caste still have issues eating the food of women from a lower caste. This tension shows that there are still fundamental gender inequality issues that working at an NGO cannot readily solve.
Next, gender stereotypes also cause gender inequality.
Cultural stereotypes are engrained in both men and women and these stereotypes are a possible explanation for gender inequality and the resulting gendered wage disparity. Women have traditionally been viewed as being caring and nurturing and are designated to occupations which require such skills. While these skills are culturally valued, they were typically associated with domesticity, so occupations requiring these same skills are not economically valued. Men have traditionally been viewed as the breadwinner or the worker, so jobs held by men have been historically economically valued and occupations predominated by men continue to be economically valued and pay higher wages.
The last reason is sexism and discrimination
Gender inequality can further be understood through the mechanisms of sexism. Discrimination takes place in this manner as men and women are subject to prejudicial treatment on the basis of gender alone. Sexism occurs when men and women are framed within two dimensions of social cognition.
Discrimination also plays out with networking and in preferential treatment within the economic market. Men typically occupy positions of power within the job economy. Due to taste or preference for other men because they share similar characteristics, men in these positions of power are more likely to hire or promote other men, thus discriminating against women.
Discrimination against men in the workplace is rare but does occur, particularly in health care professions. Only an estimated 0.4% of midwives in the UK are male and according to CBS only 1% of all trainee nurses and only 2% of Secretaries are male.[7]
Discrimination against women in the workplace also occurs. Only an estimated 1% of roofers in the US are female.
4. The impact of gender inequality in education and employment on economic growth in developing countries
4.1 Education
Enhancing public education about gender inequality may lead to a reduction in child mortality rate as well as growing awareness of future generations.
Educating girls and women is one of the best investments a society can make. An educated woman has enough necessary skills, knowledge, and self-confidence in order to become a better parent, worker, and citizen. However, in families with many children, tuition fees, cost of textbooks, uniforms, transportation and other expenses typically exceed the income of the family; girls are the first to be denied schooling.
Girls’ lack of access to education isn’t always related to scarcity of places in schools. It also emerges from expectations, attitudes and biases in communities and families. Economic costs, social traditions, and religious and cultural beliefs limit girls’ educational opportunities. Whatever the underlying reasons, having large number of girls outside the formal schooling system brings developmental challenges to both current and future generations. Individuals, families, communities and nations are affected. Inability to read, write and calculate complicates a girl’s efforts to engage in both market-focused production and household activities as effectively and efficiently possible. This affects her family’s welfare and diminishes her potential contribution to the development of the household, local and national economy.[8]
Despite reported progress, there is still a persistent gap between women and men’s access to education. Combating the high rate of illiteracy among women and girls remains an urgent global need. According to the UNESCO Institute of Statistics, it is now estimated that two-thirds of the world’s 875 million illiterate adults are women. In Southern Asia, nearly three in five women are illiterate and it is estimated that half of all women in Africa and in the Arab region are still illiterate.
Educational Variation in Labor Force Participation: 1950-2000[9]
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Women of all educational levels increased their labor force participation steadily from 1960 to 1990 (Table 4). However, all groups saw a decline in participation from 1990 to 2000. There was also a decline among college women in the 1950s. Only among high school dropouts was there a noticeable growth in labor force participation in the 1950s. However, because education levels were lower then, their increases dominated the declines among college women so that the overall change was an increase (Figure 1). Since the 1950s however, labor force participation rates among high school dropouts, always the lowest, have grown more slowly than for other women so the gap between high school dropouts and those with at least a high school diploma has grown since 1970. For women, education has become an increasingly important predictor of labor force participation
4.2. Employment
Gender gaps in education might automatically lead to gender gaps in employment, where employers will prefer educated workers and thus will not consider applications of uneducated women. Conversely, if there are large barriers to female employment or gender gaps in pay, rational parents (and girls) might decide that education of girls is not as lucrative which might therefore lead to lower demands for female education and resulting gender gaps in education. While nearly 9 out of 10 men are in the labor force, only 3 out 4 women are working. In addition, women and men continue to be highly concentrated in typically female and typically male jobs, respectively. Women continue to earn substantially less than men for the work they do such that women still earn just 73 cents for every dollar men earn. Gender gaps in education and employment are closely related to each other.
Median Annual Earnings by Gender and Age.
Source: 2000 PUMS, 1%, employed full-time year-round.
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The gender difference in earnings is dramatically larger among older workers than among younger workers. In 1999, the average 25 year old woman earned 90% of what the average 25 year old man earned. But 55 year-old women earned only 65% of what 55 year-old men earned. In what are usually the post-retirement years, the gender difference diminishes somewhat so that the age relationship is curvilinear. However, the growing gender gap in 1999 between 16 year olds and those in their late fifties does not mean that the gender gap increases over people’s careers. When the same individuals are studied over time, the gender earnings gap between the average woman and the average man is quite stable across their work lives. Women earn less than men throughout their careers, but the disadvantage for the average woman doesn’t change much after working many years. The age differences in Figure 11 occur for two other reasons, one a “cohort effect,” the other an “out of labor force effect”. First, the older workers in 1999 were born before the end of World War II; gender gaps for this generation have been higher than for any generation before or after (see below). Second, women interrupt their careers for childcare and family responsibilities more often than men do. This time out of the labor force puts older women at a disadvantage when they return to work. By age 55, the typical woman has accumulated fewer years of work experience than a man. If we compare men and women with the same years of work experience (something we cannot do with Census data), the earnings difference between the average man and the average woman remains fairly constant over their work lives.[10]
4.3. The impact of education and employment on economic growth
Gender inequality in education has a direct impact on economic growth through lowering the average quality of human capital. In addition, economic growth is indirectly affected through the impact of gender inequality on investment and population growth. Point estimates suggest that between 0.4-0.9 % of the differences in growth rates between East Asia and Sub Saharan Africa, South Asia, and the Middle East can be accounted for by the larger gender gaps in education prevailing in the latter regions.
Noble-laureate Amartya Sen (1999) found that increasing GDP by itself should not be the ultimate goal of efforts to help poor countries. Rather, what aid should hope to maximize are the freedoms associated with wealth: freedom to exchange goods and labor, freedom to make choices and influence one’s life, freedom to live longer, freedom to get an education. He suggest that restrictions on an individual’s right to own property, save, borrow, become educated, make labor contracts or to control the products of one’s own labor would qualify as disincentives to growth, while freedom to exercise these activities would be associated with economic growth. Given that roughly half of the population of any country is female, it is reasonable to postulate that a society’s failure to provide such freedoms or resources to them would be reflected in failures at the macroeconomics level as well.[11]
PROMOTING GENDER EQUALITY IN VIET NAM
Status of gender equality in VN
1.1 Sex Ratio at Birth (SRB)
- The sex ratio is often measured as the number of infant boys per a hundred infant girls.
- This rate is considered normally to range from 105 to 108 boys per every 100 girls.
- In Vietnam, the sex ratio at birth has been increased rapidly in recent years as follows
SRB in Viet Nam, 2005 – 2009.
|Year |Source |Time |SRB |
|2005 |Annual rate |1/4/2005 |106.0 |
|2006 |Annual rate |1/4/2006 |110.0 |
|2007 |Annual rate |1/4/2007 |111.6 |
|2008 |Annual rate |1/4/2008 |112.1 |
|2009 |Annual rate |1/4/2009 |110.5 |
1.2 Gender inequality in politics
Today, women not only take care of the kitchen but also go out to work in order improve their lives. At the office, if the woman strives for the high position, the issue of gender equality will be a natural barrier or a problem that the woman must strive to pass. To assert themselves in positions of leadership and management, firstly, the women themselves have to be capable, to be qualified, trusted colleagues. In fact, many women are capable and qualified. Men also confirmed women capacity and qualifications. However, due to the perception that women leaders are not effective, the ratio of women getting high positions is limited, which is expressed in the following tables:
The proportion of women involved in the People 's Assembly course 2004 - 2011
Source: National Committee for the Advancement of Women in Vietnam, 2011.[12]
Percentage of female officials in the People 's Committees at all levels (%)
(2004 - 2011)
Source: Report on the situation of gender equality in the planning, recruitment, appointment of civil servants, the Ministry of the Interior.
Percentage of female political officers in our country is very lower than that in men, the proportion of women in the National Assembly of Vietnam term of 12 accounted for 25.8% with 127 participants. This reflects that the opportunity to get ahead in politics of women is much lower than that of men. In other words, inequality still exists in politics.
1.3 Gender inequality in education
There are four types of non-formal education, mainly for adults, including women. These programs are creating opportunities for women for learning far more than ever before. Aware of the situation and the importance of women, especially the role of education to society, the Department of Education & Training has done a relatively good job in promoting gender equality.
Table 7: Percentage of female students in colleges and universities (%)
| |2004-2005 |2005-2006 |2006-2007 |
|University |46,95 |47,23 |54,99 |
|Colleges |50,98 |53,09 |53,88 |
|Both kind of university and colleges |47,79 |48,49 |53,32 |
Source: Ministry of Education and Training
At the national level, the gender inequality gap between men and women are stretched wider in postgraduate courses. The proportion of women with postgraduate qualifications in Vietnam was higher than 30%, only by 1/2 compared to men. In particular, at a higher level of education, the level of gender inequality is bigger.
Percentage of men and women keep the titles and scientific degrees
Source: Council of the title of professor, Department of Education and Training through the years
1.4 Gender inequality in economic, labor and employment.
Vietnam is one of the countries with the percentage of women participating in economic activities at a high level (83% vs. 85% men). Women play an increasingly important role in the national economy as a whole, participating more and more in non-agricultural sector, especially in high tech industries and economic sectors.
Percentage of female employees (aged 15 and over) (%)
| |Women |Men |
|Agriculture, forestry, and fishery |51,6 |48,4 |
|Mining |31,1 |68,9 |
|Industrial processing, manufacturing |51,7 |48,3 |
|Production and distribution of electricity, gas, hot water, steam ... |27,4 |72,6 |
|Trade, repair of motor vehicles... |61,5 |38,5 |
|Hotels and restaurants |71,6 |28,4 |
|Finance, credit, banking, insurance |52,5 |47,5 |
|Science and technology |34,0 |66,0 |
|Business assets, administrative services, counseling support |42,2 |57,8 |
|State management of security and defense, social security, etc. |24,7 |75,3 |
|Education and training |69,2 |30,8 |
|Health and social relief activities |59,6 |40,4 |
|Cultural and sports activities |48,8 |51,2 |
|Working in international organizations |51,4 |48,2 |
|Total |49,4 |50,6 |
Source: Survey of labor and employment dated 1/8/2007 of the GSO
In general, the structural distribution of men and women in occupations shows that men still accounts for a higher rate in the group of workers, leadership, personal service, technical expertise and resources armed.
Achievements and restrictions of building gender equality in VN:
There have been a number of real accomplishments in gender equality in the East Asia Pacific region, including in Vietnam. It is worth noting that Vietnam has a strong track record of promoting gender equality and women’s empowerment. Our efforts are shown in our legislative framework. The Constitution of Vietnam protects the principle of gender equality, and specifically prohibits the violation of women’s rights. In regard to legal rights, the position of Vietnamese women has improved over the past decades. The framework was strengthened with the passage of two laws, the 2006 Law on Gender Equality and the 2007 Law on the Prevention and Control of Domestic Violence. Nevertheless, the establishment of the legal policies remains a challenge. There exist big hurdles in public education, reporting, gender analysis, collection of sex-disaggregated data and monitoring. In truth, our country has achieved remarkable progress in narrowing gender gaps, but serious challenges remain in some areas.
One good example is the issue of inheritance. Vietnam’s Civil Code provides men and women with equal opportunities to write a will or benefit as an heir. Nonetheless, certain inequalities can still be observed. If a person dies without a will, the law requires an equal distribution of property among the next of kin. In practice, the general custom is for the eldest son to inherit the parental home and the largest portion of the family property, particularly land. Younger sons will often inherit some land or other assets of value, while daughters receive only some small symbolic items. There is a relatively popular practice in Vietnam that among people in rural areas or ethnic people, when their daughters get married, and in most of the cases, daughters cannot inherit properties of their parents.
Another serious disparity that remains is the rate at which girls and women die relative to men. Worldwide, excess female mortality after birth accounts for an estimated 3.9 million women each year in low- and middle-income countries. About two-fifths of girls are never born due to a preference for sons; a sixth die in early childhood; and over a third die in their reproductive years. In Vietnam, however, the general situation is getting better. The mortality rate of Vietnamese female child in 1997 is 13, 4 per 1000, which is three times higher than that in 2006 (4, 1 per 1000). The mortality rate of Vietnamese female adult (between the ages of 15 and 60) in 1960 is 356, 25 per 1000, which is four times higher than that in 2010 (89, 04 per 1000).
Disparities between boys and girls in primary education have closed in almost all countries, including in Vietnam. Among developing countries, girls now outnumber boys in secondary schools in 45 countries, and there are more young women than men in universities in 60 countries. In Viet Nam, enrolment rates for girls are slightly lower than for boys at both primary and secondary school level, although attendance rates are virtually equal, according to UNICEF (94% at primary level, and 77% for boys / 78% for girls at secondary level).
Although gaps in labor-force participation have narrowed, gender gaps in earnings remain stubbornly unchanged. Despite having one of the highest female economic participation rates in the world (78% in 2006), Vietnamese women continue to earn less than men with a wage gap of around 87% to 88% of men.
The position of women varies considerably among Vietnam’s 54 official ethnic groups. Harmful practices such as the marriage of young girls and marriage of a widow to her deceased husband’s brother are prevalent among some groups, despite being prohibited by law since 2000. Public life is still traditionally viewed as a predominantly male domain, while women remain responsible for unpaid work in the household. This is particularly true in rural areas and in the highlands, where women also face limited education and employment opportunities, and access to healthcare.
At the national level, Vietnam has set some explicit goals including having the number of women involved in Party organizations in the 2016-2020 term reach 25 percent or more, and women representing 25 percent of trained rural workers under 45 years old by 2015 and 50 percent by 2020. Vietnam now belongs to the group of developing countries that has been internationally praised in the Gender-related Development Index (GDI) compared to other Southeast Asian and Asian Pacific nations at the same development level.
All in all, Vietnam has made some genuine progress in promoting gender equality, and yet more needs to be done.
Key principles and strategies for promoting gender equality in VN
3.1 Key principles for the promotion of gender equality
3.1.1 Striving for gender equality is the responsibility of everyone.
Formerly, those fighting for gender equality were mostly women. The notion that this subject only concerns women and not men, however, is fallacious. Fortunately, there is growing consensus that gender equality requires contributions and inputs from both women and men. Without the male active involvement, a gender equitable society will neither be achievable, nor be sustainable.
3.1.2 Promoting gender equality will benefit everyone
There exists a fear that advancing the position of women means that something is taken away from men. Nonetheless, the promotion of equality between women and men is actually enabling both men and women to take part fully in social and economic life and leading to a win-win situation, in which arbitrary inequalities of all kinds are rejected. Such inequalities, as we have known, produce staggering economic health and social costs. In New Zealand, for example, the cost of family violence in 1993 was more than $1.2 billion – more than its wool export earnings.
3.1.3. Gender inequalities are deeply rooted in the social, economic, cultural and political fabric of societies and therefore need to be addressed in all development fields and at all stages of the programming cycle.
3.1.4. Address practical and strategic gender needs
The needs of men and women are generally not the same.
In order to formulate strategies which promote gender equity, two kinds of needs are usually identified: * Practical needs refer to needs related to basic livelihood such as food, water, shelter, income, clothing and healthcare. Fulfilling practical needs is necessary but gender equality cannot be achieved without addressing strategic needs. * Strategic needs refer to the needs related to the promotion of the equal and meaningful participation of men and women in their family and community. As women are usually in a subordinate position when compared to men in their societies, satisfying strategic needs typically means working towards the empowerment of women, which involves a slow and gradual process of changing attitudes and practices in societies. For instance, strategic needs concern equality issues such as enabling women to have equal access to job opportunities and training, sharing of family responsibilities, equal pay for work of equal value, rights to land and other assets, prevention of sexual harassment at work and domestic violence etc.
* Strategies for the promotion of gender equality
In order to facilitate the establishment of the above principles, the following strategies can be used: * Conducting a gender study with the view to recognizing gender inequalities that need to be dealt with. * Providing equal chances to everyone and carrying out gender-specific actions whenever inequalities are pronounced, targeting girls or women exclusively, men or boys exclusively, or boys and girls, women and men together in order to redress existing gender inequalities and discrimination * Stimulating a process of institutional reform in procedures - incorporating primary gender concerns into the planning, programming, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of all programs and activities * Giving women a voice alongside men by increasing their participation in programs, organizations and in decision-making processes with a view to ensuring that their interests and perspectives are taken into account in development
CONCLUSION
Gender equality and women 's liberation is the principal target which has been clearly set in the Constitution as well as in many documents and resolutions of the Central Party, State Government, political and social organizations, and has been institutionalized in most legal documents, thereby providing a legal basis for the fairness between men and women in every field such as politics, economy, culture, etc. Gender inequality is both a cause of poverty and a formidable barrier to sustainable development, hence having a negative impact on all members of the society. As a matter of fact, the higher the level of gender equality, the higher the economic growth rate, since everyone in the society will have the opportunity to fully develop themselves and enjoy the resultant development of their society. Although many women still encounter considerable difficulties and pressures in certain sectors of the global community, their plight is currently being brought to the attention of the world. Women have come a long way in the past 100 years, despite the efforts which still need to be made on behalf of them. Our study, we fervently hope, will be one of these efforts and will raise public awareness about gender inequality issues, thus giving a hand in removing an enormous obstacle for the sustainable development of our society.
LIST OF REFERENCES
I.Over view of gender equality
1.History of gender equality: ➢ http://www.phunu.hochiminhcity.gov.vn/hoidap/kb/default1.aspx?pt=d&qid=170 ➢ Documents (Project "Promoting community management model in Vietnam" ➢ http://www.unicef.org/education/bege_61657.html ➢ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_equality. ➢ http://wHYPERLINK "http://www.history.ac.uk/ihr/Focus/Gender/articles.html"wHYPERLINK "http://www.history.ac.uk/ihr/Focus/Gender/articles.html"w.history.ac.uk/ihr/Focus/Gender/articles.html. ➢ http://arthsabi.hubpages.com/hub/Gender-equality-as-a-result-of-womens-integration-into-nation-building-and-early-political-history. ➢ http://hrba.undp.sk/index.php/terms-and-concepts/gender-mainstreaming/gender-and-inequality-and-the-history-and-of-gender-mainstreaming. ➢ http://www.wikigender.org/index.php/History_of_the_Movement_for_Gender_Equality# Situation.
2. Actual situation of gender equality all over the world: ➢ http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/eiro/2004/08/feature/sk0408101f.htm.
➢ http://www.unicef.org/media/media_66187.html
➢ http://www.gender.cdnee.org/index.php?option=com_contentHYPERLINK "http://www.gender.cdnee.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=14:gender-equality-all-across-eastern-europe&catid=10:articles&Itemid=4"&HYPERLINK "http://www.gender.cdnee.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=14:gender-equality-all-across-eastern-europe&catid=10:articles&Itemid=4"view=articleHYPERLINK "http://www.gender.cdnee.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=14:gender-equality-all-across-eastern-europe&catid=10:articles&Itemid=4"&HYPERLINK "http://www.gender.cdnee.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=14:gender-equality-all-across-eastern-europe&catid=10:articles&Itemid=4"id=14:gender-equality-all-across-eastern-europeHYPERLINK "http://www.gender.cdnee.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=14:gender-equality-all-across-eastern-europe&catid=10:articles&Itemid=4"&HYPERLINK "http://www.gender.cdnee.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=14:gender-equality-all-across-eastern-europe&catid=10:articles&Itemid=4"catid=10:articlesHYPERLINK "http://www.gender.cdnee.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=14:gender-equality-all-across-eastern-europe&catid=10:articles&Itemid=4"&HYPERLINK "http://www.gender.cdnee.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=14:gender-equality-all-across-eastern-europe&catid=10:articles&Itemid=4"Itemid=4.
➢ http://listverse.com/2008/11/20/10-extreme-examples-of-gender-inequality/
➢ Ebook: Intergrating gender equality dimensions into public financial management reform
➢ Ebook: National strategy on gender equality and domestic violence.
➢ Ebook: WORKING FOR AN EQUAL FUTURE - UNICEF Policy on Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Girls and Women
1. Reasons of gender inequality issue ➢ http://www.acdi-cida.gc.ca/acdi-cida/ACDI-CIDA.nsf/En/JUD-31192610-JXF ➢ http://filipspagnoli.wordpress.com/2008/05/09/human-rights-facts-10/. ➢ http://ec.europa.eu/justice/gender-equality/gender-pay-gap/causes/index_en.htm. ➢ http://www.nyu.edu/classes/jackson/causes.of.gender.inequality. ➢ Hyde, J. S. (2005). The Gender Similarities Hypothesis. American Psychologist, 60, 581-592 (doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.60.6.581). ➢ Rosabeth Moss Kanter. "Some Effects of Proportions on Group Life: Skewed Sex Ratios and Responses to Token Women" American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 82, No. 5 (Mar., 1977), pp. 965-990. ➢ Analyzing the Persistence of Gender Inequality: How to Think about the Origins ➢ Joan N. Huber. "Reproductive Biology, Technology, and Gender Inequality: An Autobiographical Essay" Annual Review of Sociology, Vol. 34 (2008) : 1-13 (doi: 10.1146/annurev.soc.34.040507.134654) ➢ Sharon Smith. "Engels and the Origin of Women 's Oppression" International Socialist Review Issue 2, Fall 1997 ➢ Brines, Julie. 1994. “Economic Dependency, Gender, and the Division of Labor at Home.” American Journal of Sociology 100(3): 652-689.
4.The impact of gender inequality in education and employment on economic growth in developing countries ➢ http://mpra.ub.unimuenchen.de/685/1/MPRA_paper_685.pdf. ➢ http://ethesis.helsinki.fi/julkaisut/eri/hecer/disc/159/developm.pdf. ➢ Gender inequality in education and employment by Geeta Sharma, Editor, Learningchannel.org. ➢ http://genderpolicyforum.files.wordpress.com/2012/02/gender_policy_forum_outcome_report21.pdf.
II/ Promoting gender equality in Viet Nam:
1.Status of gender equality in VN:
➢ Report of National Committee for the Advancement of Women in Vietnam, 2011.
➢ Report on the situation of gender equality in the planning, recruitment, appointment of civil servants, the Ministry of the Interior,2007
➢ Report of Ministry of Education and Training, 2007
➢ Report “Council of the title of professor, Department of Education and Training through the years”, 2010
➢ Survey of labor and employment dated 1/8/2007 of the GSO
2. Achievements and restritions of building gender equality in VN.
➢ http://vietnamnews.vnagency.com.vn/social-issues/218730/gender-equality-improves-in-east-asia-pacific-region.html
➢ http://vietnam.unfpa.org/public/lang/en/pid/10257 http://english.vovnews.vn/Home/Seminar-on-Vietnams-international-commitments-on-gender-equality/20123/135408.vov
3. Key principles and strategies for promoting gender equality ( gender equity) in VN:
➢ http://genic.molisa.gov.vn/others/faq/faqdetail/tabid/211/newsid/53534/seo/How-to-Promote-Gender-Equality-in-the-Workplace/language/vi-VN/Default.aspx.
➢ http://www.worldvision.org.vn/worldvision/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=53&Itemid=33.
➢ http://www.unifem.org/attachments/products/GenderEqualityNow.pdf.
➢ http://www2.ilo.org/public/english/region/asro/bangkok/child/trafficking/downloads/promotionofgenderequality/part1-3.pdf.
➢ http://www2.unescobkk.org/elib/publications/Role_of_Men_and_Boys/Role_of_Men_and_Boys.pdf.
➢ http://wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/GenderEquity_1.pdf.
➢ http://www.chinhphu.vn:80/portal/page/portal/English/strategies/strategiesdetails?categoryId=30&articleId=3061.
➢ http://www.vietnam.vn/plan-to-promote-gender-equality-c1069n20110805165814281.htm.
-----------------------
[1] http://www.phunu.hochiminhcity.gov.vn/hoidap/kb/default1.aspx?pt=d&qid=170
[2] Documents (Project "Promoting community management model in Vietnam"
[3] http://www.unicef.org/education/bege_61657.html
[4] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_equality
[5] http://www.unicef.org/media/media_66187.html
[6] http://www.unicef.org/media/media_66187.html
[7] http://www.acdi-cida.gc.ca/acdi-cida/ACDI-CIDA.nsf/En/JUD-31192610-JXF
[8] Geeta Sharma, Editor, Learningchannel.org Gender inequality in education and employment
[9] David A. Cotter, Gender Inequality at Work http://www.bsos.umd.edu/socy/vanneman/papers/Cotter_etal.pdf
[10] David A. Cotter, Gender Inequality at Work http://www.bsos.umd.edu/socy/vanneman/papers/Cotter_etal.pdf
[11] Anne Mikkola and Carrie A. Miles Development and Gender Equality- Consequences, Causes, Challenges and Cures http://ethesis.helsinki.fi/julkaisut/eri/hecer/disc/159/developm.pdf
[12] Report of National Committee for the Advancement of Women in Vietnam, 2011.
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References: ➢ Hyde, J. S. (2005). The Gender Similarities Hypothesis. American Psychologist, 60, 581-592 (doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.60.6.581). ➢ Rosabeth Moss Kanter. "Some Effects of Proportions on Group Life: Skewed Sex Ratios and Responses to Token Women" American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 82, No. 5 (Mar., 1977), pp. 965-990. ➢ Report of National Committee for the Advancement of Women in Vietnam, 2011. ➢ Report on the situation of gender equality in the planning, recruitment, appointment of civil servants, the Ministry of the Interior,2007 ➢ Report of Ministry of Education and Training, 2007 ➢ Report “Council of the title of professor, Department of Education and Training through the years”, 2010 ➢ Survey of labor and employment dated 1/8/2007 of the GSO
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