Gramsci's Prison Notebooks
Hegemony, a concept in Gramsci’s (1995) Prison Notebooks is all about winning and being hold of power and the formation (and destruction) of social groups in that process, the ways in which the dominating class establishes and maintains its position. This process includes the ability to impose a definition of the situation, to set terms in which events are understood, to formulate ideas and define morality (Donaldson, 1993). Hegemony basically involves persuasion of the majority of the population, particularly through the media and the social institutions which seem to appear “normal”, “ordinary” and “natural”. The state, through punishment for non-conformers, is vital in this negotiations and enforcement (Connell, 1987). Donaldson (1993) also
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Connell & Messerschmidt (2005) argues that societal expectations of what is required and expected from men (tough, powerful, strong, invulnerable, impenetrable and self-sufficient) challenge the perception of sexual victimisation and victimisation generally. For an example, “real” men are forced to put up their masculine role and keep away from behaviours that are associated with femininity, where male rape victims might be seen to have failed as a “real” man for not fighting the perpetrators (Javaid, 2014). Kupers (2001) for instance illustrates the hierarchy of domination among inmates that emulates relations between men in the free world; “real” men cannot be victims. He also further argues that there is a clear difference between the dominant, powerful men and the weak, powerless “punks”. This is echoed by Connell (2005) who argues that “punks” belong to a subordinate type of masculinity that symbolises powerlessness and weakness. This she says allows the more masculine or “manly” offender to control and execute power over the weaker “punks” through rape. The rape offenders are determined to humiliate, degrade, undermine and weaken the victim’s masculinity by doing so and concurrently enhance the former’s masculinity (Groth & Burgess, 1980). Male rape feminises the weaker victims by eroding his manhood and emasculating him, while the perpetrator reaffirms his hegemonic masculinity (Lees,
Connell & Messerschmidt (2005) argues that societal expectations of what is required and expected from men (tough, powerful, strong, invulnerable, impenetrable and self-sufficient) challenge the perception of sexual victimisation and victimisation generally. For an example, “real” men are forced to put up their masculine role and keep away from behaviours that are associated with femininity, where male rape victims might be seen to have failed as a “real” man for not fighting the perpetrators (Javaid, 2014). Kupers (2001) for instance illustrates the hierarchy of domination among inmates that emulates relations between men in the free world; “real” men cannot be victims. He also further argues that there is a clear difference between the dominant, powerful men and the weak, powerless “punks”. This is echoed by Connell (2005) who argues that “punks” belong to a subordinate type of masculinity that symbolises powerlessness and weakness. This she says allows the more masculine or “manly” offender to control and execute power over the weaker “punks” through rape. The rape offenders are determined to humiliate, degrade, undermine and weaken the victim’s masculinity by doing so and concurrently enhance the former’s masculinity (Groth & Burgess, 1980). Male rape feminises the weaker victims by eroding his manhood and emasculating him, while the perpetrator reaffirms his hegemonic masculinity (Lees,