Group 1 Language Teaching Methodology

Alex Barbosa Jorge
Amizana Maria Amade Salimo
Egidio Mário Vasco Faera
Joaquim Fernando Marques Mavuque
Jossias Guenzi
Noreste Jairosse Chinhanga
Ofélia Hesioda Sande
Tomé Manejo Mero

An Introduction to Language Teaching Methodology and Activities

Universidade Pedagógica
Chimoio
2015

Alex Barbosa Jorge
Amizana Maria Amade Salimo
Egidio Mário Vasco Faera
Joaquim Fernando Marques Mavuque
Jossias Guenzi
Noreste Jairosse Chinhanga
Ofélia Hesioda Sande
Tomé Manejo Mero

An introduction to Language Teaching Methodology and Activities

Universidade Pedagógica
Chimoio
2015
Table of Contents
1. Introduction 4
2. Language Teaching Methodology and Activities 5
2.1. Activities 6
3. Theories of the nature of language and the nature of language learning 7
4. Approach, design and procedure 9
4.1. Grammar-translation method 9
4.1.1. Principles and techniques 10
4.1.2. Typical Techniques 10
4.1.3. Principles 11
4.2. The Direct Method – Principles and Techniques 12
4.2.1. The principles of the method: 12
4.2.2. The Techniques of the Method 13
4.2.3. Activities characteristic of the method: 14
4.3. The Natural Approach - Krashen and Terrell 14
4.3.1. Theory of Language Learning associated with the Natural approach 15
4.3.1.1. The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis 15
4.3.1.2. The Natural Order Hypothesis 15
4.3.1.3. The Input Hypothesis 15
4.3.1.4. The Monitor Hypothesis 16
4.3.1.5. Preproduction 16
4.3.1.6. Early Production 17
4.3.1.7. Speech Emergence 17
4.3.1.8. Intermediate Fluency 17
4.4. The Audio-Lingual Method 17
4.4.1. The principles of the method are: 18
4.4.2. Variety of drills as part of activities which characterize this method: 18
4.4.3. The behaviourism in the audio lingual method 19
5. Conclusion 21
References 22

1. Introduction
The linguistic theory has changed the long, traditional way of studying language. The nature of knowledge, which is closely tied to human knowledge in general, makes it a logical step to generalise the theory to the study of the relation between language and the world-in particular, the study of truth and reference. In today’s world, the ability to speak foreign languages is necessary for all of us and it is English that has become the most spoken and written language worldwide with some “380 million native speakers. For everybody, it is not only important to choose a language that corresponds to the individual needs but also to choose an institution where to study that particular language. Having found the right school, it is now its task to pick methods and approaches that are believed to be the best and required to be applied by the teachers in their teaching. There are several methods and approaches in foreign language teaching. Some of them are more widely spread and put in practice than the others. The main characteristics of methods and approaches in foreign language teaching, together with their positive and negative aspects etc. were presented to us – as to the future teachers in this ELT research work.

2. Language Teaching Methodology and Activities
Its origins are many, insofar as one teaching methodology tends to influence the next. The communicative approach could be said to be the product of educators and linguists who had grown dissatisfied with the audio-lingual and grammar-translation methods of foreign language instruction. They felt that students were not learning enough realistic, whole language. They did not know how to communicate using appropriate social language, gestures, or expressions; in brief, they were at a loss to communicate in the culture of the language studied. Interest in and development of communicative-style teaching mushroomed in the 1970s; authentic language use and classroom exchanges where students engaged in real communication with one another became quite popular.
In the intervening years, the communicative approach has been adapted to the elementary, middle, secondary, and post-secondary levels, and the underlying philosophy has spawned different teaching methods known under a variety of names, including notional-functional, teaching for proficiency, proficiency-based instruction, and communicative language teaching.
Communicative language teaching makes use of real-life situations that necessitate communication. The teacher sets up a situation that students are likely to encounter in real life. Unlike the audio-lingual method of language teaching, which relies on repetition and drills, the communicative approach can leave students in suspense as to the outcome of a class exercise, which will vary according to their reactions and responses. The real-life simulations change from day to day. Students ' motivation to learn comes from their desire to communicate in meaningful ways about meaningful topics.
Margie S. Berns, an expert in the field of communicative language teaching, writes in explaining Firth 's view that "language is interaction; it is interpersonal activity and has a clear relationship with society. In this light, language study has to look at the use (function) of language in context, both its linguistic context (what is uttered before and after a given piece of discourse) and its social, or situational, context (who is speaking, what their social roles are, why they have come together to speak)" (Richards, 1987).

2.1. Activities
In a communicative classroom for beginners, the teacher might begin by passing out cards, each with a different name printed on it. The teacher then proceeds to model an exchange of introductions in the target language: For example using a combination of the target language and gestures, the teacher conveys the task at hand, and gets the students to introduce themselves and ask their classmates for information. They are responding in German to a question in German. They do not know the answers beforehand, as they are each holding cards with their new identities written on them; hence, there is an authentic exchange of information.
Later during the class, as a reinforcement listening exercise, the students might hear a recorded exchange between two German freshmen meeting each other for the first time at the gymnasium doors. Then the teacher might explain, in English, the differences among German greetings in various social situations. Finally, the teacher will explain some of the grammar points and structures used.
The following exercise is taken from a 1987 workshop on communicative foreign language teaching, given for Delaware language teachers by Karen Willetts and Lynn Thompson of the Center for Applied Linguistics. The exercise, called "Eavesdropping," is aimed at advanced students.
"Instructions to students." Listen to a conversation somewhere in a public place and be prepared to answer, in the target language, some general questions about what was said.
Who was talking?
About how old were they?
Where were they when you eavesdropped?
What were they talking about?
What did they say?
Did they become aware that you were listening to them?
The exercise puts students in a real-world listening situation where they must report information overheard. Most likely they have an opinion of the topic, and a class discussion could follow, in the target language, about their experiences and viewpoints.
Communicative exercises such as this motivate the students by treating topics of their choice, at an appropriately challenging level.
Another exercise taken from the same source is for beginning students of Spanish. In "Listening for the Gist," students are placed in an everyday situation where they must listen to an authentic text.
"Objective." Students listen to a passage to get general understanding of the topic or message.
"Directions." Have students listen to the following announcement to decide what the speaker is promoting.
3. Theories of the nature of language and the nature of language learning
Chomsky 's linguistic theory is based on the following empirical facts: "child learns language with limited stimuli", or the problem of poverty of evidence. The input during the period of a natural language acquisition is circumscribed and degenerate. The output simply cannot be accounted for by the learning mechanism only, such as induction and analogy on the input. The output and input differ both in quantity and quality. A subject knows linguistic facts without instruction or even direct evidence. These empirical facts, "knowledge without ground", are expressed: "Knowledge of language is normally attained through brief exposure, and the character of the acquired knowledge may be largely predetermined."
This predetermined knowledge is some "notion of structure", in the mind of the speaker , which guides the subject in acquiring a natural language of his own. For a subject to know a natural language is for him to have a certain I-language. Language acquiring, in terms of I-language, corresponds to the change of a subject 's mind/brain state.
He makes an important hypothesis that universal grammar (UG). UG is a characterization of these innate principle of language faculty, I-language. He then postulates some detailed structure of UG. It is a system of conditions on grammars, constraints on the form and interpretation of grammar at all levels, from the deep structures of syntax, through the transformational component, to the rules that interpret syntactic structures semantically and phonetically. The study of linguistic universals, which is classified as formal or substantive, is the study of the properties of UG for a natural language. Substantive universals concern the vocabulary for the description of language and a formal linguistic universal involve the character of the rules that appear in grammars and the ways in which they can be interconnected. Language-acquisition device uses primary linguistic data as the empirical basis for language learning to meet explanatory adequacy that is defined in UG, and to select one of the potential grammars, which is permitted by UG.
Lessons are events which are fairly easy to recognise. They take place in a particular setting (e.g., a school or classroom), they normally involve two kinds of participants (the teacher and students), and they normally consist of recognizable kinds of activities (e.g., the teacher lecturing at the front of the class, the teacher posing questions and calling on students to answer them). A lesson is, hence, distinguishable from other kinds of speech events, such as meetings, debates, arguments, or trials.
Like other speech events, however, lessons have a recognizable structure. They begin in a particular way, they proceed through a series of teaching and learning activities, and they reach a conclusion. This pattern of structure or organization is a result of the teacher 's attempts to manage the instructional process in a way which will optimize the amount of learning that can take place in the time available. Wong-Fillmore (1985: 23–4) quoted by Thirumalai observes:
How classes are organised and how instructional events are structured determine to a large extent the nature of the language that students hear and use in the classroom. Two sets of characteristics appear to distinguish classes that work for language learning from those that do not. The first set relates to the way the classes are structured or are organised for instruction, the second to the way language is used in lessons.

4. Approach, design and procedure
Richards and Rogers ' 1982 approach expanded on Anthony’s three-level framework; however, instead of approach, method and technique, they chose the terms approach, design, and procedure. Their concept of approach was similar to Anthony 's, but their design and procedure were of broader scope than Anthony 's method and technique. Their design referred to all major practical implications in the classroom, such as syllabus design, types of activities to be used in the classroom, and student and teacher roles; procedure referred to different behaviours, practices and techniques observed in the classroom. These new terms were intended to address limitations in Anthony 's framework, and also gave them specific criteria by which they could evaluate different "methods". This evaluation process was a key way that their formulation differed from Anthony 's, as Anthony 's framework was intended as purely descriptive.
Despite Richards and Rogers ' efforts to clearly define approach, design, and procedure, their framework has been criticized by Kumaravadivelu for having "an element of artificiality in its conception and an element of subjectivity in its operation". Kumaravadivelu also points to similar objections raised by Pennyworth and by the Routledge Encyclopedia of Language Teaching and Learning. Brown also questions the suitability of Richards and Rogers ' term design; he points out that in English teaching design is usually used to refer specifically to curriculum design, rather than the broad definition Richards and Rogers used. Most current teacher training manuals favour the terms approach, method, and technique.
4.1. Grammar-translation method
The grammar translation method instructs students in grammar, and provides vocabulary with direct translations to memorize. It was the predominant method in Europe in the 19th century. Most instructors now acknowledge that this method is ineffective by itself. It is now most commonly used in the traditional instruction of the classical languages, however it remains the most commonly practiced method of English teaching in Japan.
At school, the teaching of grammar consists of a process of training in the rules of a language which must make it possible to all the students to correctly express their opinion, to understand the remarks which are addressed to them and to analyze the texts which they read. The objective is that by the time they leave college, the pupil controls the tools of the language which are the vocabulary, grammar and the orthography, to be able to read, understand and write texts in various contexts. The teaching of grammar examines texts, and develops awareness that language constitutes a system which can be analyzed. This knowledge is acquired gradually, by traversing the facts of language and the syntactic mechanisms, going from simplest to the most complex. The exercises according to the program of the course must untiringly be practiced to allow the assimilation of the rules stated in the course. That supposes that the teacher corrects the exercises. The pupil can follow his progress in practicing the language by comparing his results. Thus can he adapt the grammatical rules and control little by little the internal logic of the syntactic system. The grammatical analysis of sentences constitutes the objective of the teaching of grammar at the school. Its practice makes it possible to recognise a text as a coherent whole and conditions the training of a foreign language. Grammatical terminology serves this objective. Grammar makes it possible for each one to understand how the mother tongue functions, in order to give him the capacity to communicate its thought.
4.1.1. Principles and techniques
Principles and techniques in Language Teaching have influenced the way thousands of teachers have taught English. This classic guide to developing the way you teach has been an essential resource to new and experienced teachers worldwide focusing on a different teaching approach, describing it being used in the classroom, analyzing what happened, and helping you think how you could apply it to your own teaching.
4.1.2. Typical Techniques
Diane Larsen-Freeman, in her book Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching (1986:13) provides expanded descriptions of some common/typical techniques closely associated with the Grammar Translation Method.
The listing here is in summary form only.
Translation of a Literary Passage (Translating target language to native language)
Reading Comprehension Question (Finding information in a passage, making inferences and relating to personal experience)
Antonyms/Synonyms (Finding antonyms and synonyms for words or sets of words).
Cognates (Learning spelling/sound patterns that correspond between L1 and the target language)
Deductive Application of Rule (Understanding grammar rules and their exceptions, then applying them to new examples)
Fill-in-the-blanks (Filling in gaps in sentences with new words or items of a particular grammar type).
Memorization (Memorizing vocabulary lists, grammatical rules and grammatical paradigms)
Use Words in Sentences (Students create sentences to illustrate they know the meaning and use of new words)
Composition (Students write about a topic using the target language) 4.1.3. Principles
As part of its mission and vision, the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) provides guidance to the profession and to the general public regarding issues, policies, and best practices related to the teaching and learning of languages and cultures. ACTFL is a leading national voice among language educators and administrators and is guided by a responsibility to set standards and expectations that will result in high quality language programs. With those goals in mind, ACTFL has adopted the following general principles that provide the foundation for implementation and expansion of language programs at all levels of instruction:
1. All students should learn or maintain at least one language in addition to English.
2. Learning languages should be a central part of the curriculum at all levels of instruction, from young learners through graduate school and adults (Pre-K through 20).
3. Language learning should be offered in extended, well-articulated sequences that develop increasing levels of proficiency at each level of instruction by teachers who are well qualified in language proficiency, cultural knowledge, and teaching skills.
4.2. The Direct Method – Principles and Techniques
Since the Grammar Translation Method was not very effective in preparing students to use the target language communicatively, the Direct Method was developed initially as a reaction to the grammar-translation approach in an attempt to integrate more use of the target language in instruction (Harmer, 1983).
The Direct Method receives its name from the fact that meaning is to be connected directly with the target language without going through the process of translating into the students’ native language. So it is characterized by the use of the target language as a means of instruction and communication in the language classroom, and by the avoidance of the use of the first language and of translation as a technique. The idea that the teachers should never tell the children anything they can find out themselves was suggested in this method.
The goal of language learning is communication. In order to achieve this goal, students should learn to think in the target language.
4.2.1. The principles of the method:
The initiation of the interaction goes both ways, from teacher to students and from students to teacher although the latter is often teacher-directed, at the same time student-student interaction is used as well;
The native language should not be used in the classroom;
The teacher should demonstrate not explain or translate;
The teacher and the students are more like partners in the teaching/learning process;
It is desirable that students make a direct association between the target language and meaning;
Students should learn to think in the target language as soon as possible;
Vocabulary is acquired more naturally if students use it in full sentences rather than memorizing word lists;
Pronunciation should be worked on right from the beginning of language instruction;
Lessons should contain some conversation activity – some opportunity for students to use language in real contexts;
Students should be encouraged to speak as much as possible;
Oral communication skills are built up questions-and answers exchanges between teachers and students in small intensive classes;
Grammar should be taught inductively;
There may never be an explicit grammar rule given;
The syllabus is based on situations or topics not on linguistic structures;
Learning a language involves learning the behaviour culture of the people living in the target country;
Culture consisting of the history of the people who speak the target language and the geography of the country or countries where the language is spoken and information about the daily lives of the speakers in the target language are studied;
Vocabulary is emphasized over grammar;
Work on all four skills (reading, writing, speaking and listening) occurs from the start, oral communication is seen as basic;
There is no formal evaluation in the class, students have to use the language using both oral and written skills;
The teacher tries to get students to self-correct whenever possible.

4.2.2. The Techniques of the Method
The lessons usually begin with a dialogue using a modern conversational style in the target language. Material is first presented orally or using pictures. The meaning of the words is to be conveyed directly in the target language through the use of demonstration and visual aids, with no recourse to the students’ native language. (Thirumalai, 2002)
For example, in a reading lesson to class V, a new word ‘watch’ occurs. If we associate it with its intermediate in the vernacular, we are teaching the meaning indirectly; but if on the other hand, we associate the word with an actual ‘watch’ or with the picture of a watch, we are teaching the meaning directly. If such a direct association is not possible, the teacher can explain the meaning of new words by giving synonyms, definitions, explanations, or by inference from the context. The preferred type of exercise is a series of questions in the target language based on the dialogue or an anecdotal narrative. Students usually take active part in lesson; they should be much involved. The teacher is very friendly and an excellent speaker to start the discussion.
4.2.3. Activities characteristic of the method:
Reading aloud
Conversation practice
Gap filling exercise
Dictation
Map drawing (The students are given a map with the geographical features unnamed. Then the teacher gives the students directions. (Following the teacher’s instructions the students have to label the map of a country.)
Paragraph writing. (Larsen-Freeman 1986: 1828)

4.3. The Natural Approach - Krashen and Terrell
Stephen Krashen and Tracy Terrell developed the Natural Approach in the early eighties
(Krashen and Terrell, 1983), based on Krashen 's theories about second language acquisition.
The approach shared a lot in common with Asher 's Total Physical Response method in terms of advocating the need for a silent phase, waiting for spoken production to "emerge" of its own accord, and emphasizing the need to make learners as relaxed as possible during the learning process. Some important underlying principles are that there should be a lot of language
"acquisition" as opposed to language "processing", and there needs to be a considerable amount of comprehensible input from the teacher. Meaning is considered as the essence of language and vocabulary (not grammar) is the heart of language.
As part of the Natural Approach, students listen to the teacher using the target language communicatively from the very beginning. It has certain similarities with the much earlier Direct
Method, with the important exception that students are allowed to use their native language alongside the target language as part of the language learning process. In early stages, students are not corrected during oral production, as the teacher is focusing on meaning rather than form (unless the error is so drastic that it actually hinders meaning).
Krashen and Terrell see communication as the primary function of language, and since their approach focuses on teaching communicative abilities, they refer to the Natural Approach as an example of a communicative approach.
4.3.1. Theory of Language Learning associated with the Natural approach
4.3.1.1. The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
Krashen, in his theory of second language acquisition (SLA) suggested that adults have two different ways of developing competence in second languages: Acquisition and learning. "There are two independent ways of developing ability in second languages. 'Acquisition ' is a subconscious process identical in all important ways to the process children utilise in acquiring their first language, ... [and] 'learning ' ..., [which is] a conscious process that results in 'knowing about ' [the rules of] language" (Krashen 1985:1).
The Acquisition-Learning distinction is the most fundamental of all the hypotheses in Krashen 's theory and the most widely known among linguists and language practitioners. Kr ashen believes that "Language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious grammatical rules, and does not require tedious drill." And The way to develop learned competence is fairly easy: analysing the grammar rules consciously and practising them through exercises.
4.3.1.2. The Natural Order Hypothesis
According to the hypothesis, the acquisition of grammatical structures proceeds in a predicted progression. Certain grammatical structures or morphemes are acquired before others in first language acquisition and there is a similar natural order in SLA. The average order of acquisition of grammatical morphemes for English as an 'acquired ' language is given below:

-Ing--------Aux---------Irregular------Regular Past
Plural----->Article---->Past---------->3rd Sing.
"Acquisition requires meaningful interaction in the target language – natural communication - in which speakers are concerned not with the form of their utterances but with the messages they are conveying and understanding."
4.3.1.3. The Input Hypothesis
This hypothesis relates to acquisition, not to learning. Krashen claims that people acquire language best by understanding input that is a little beyond their present level of competence. Consequently, Krashen believes that 'comprehensible input ' (that is, i + 1) should be provided. The 'input ' should be relevant and 'not grammatically sequenced '. The 'input ' should also be in sufficient quantity as Richards pointed out:
"The best methods are therefore those that supply 'comprehensible input ' in low anxiety situations, containing messages that students really want to hear. These methods do not force early production in the second language, but allow students to produce when they are 'ready ', recognizing that improvement comes from supplying communicative and comprehensible input, and not from forcing and correcting production."
"In the real world, conversations with sympathetic native speakers who are willing to help the acquirer understand are very helpful."
4.3.1.4. The Monitor Hypothesis
As is mentioned, adult second language learners have two means for internalising the target language. The first is 'acquisition ' which is a subconscious and intuitive process of constructing the system of a language. The second means is a conscious learning process in which learners attend to form, figure out rules and are generally aware of their own process. The 'monitor ' is an aspect of this second process. It edits and makes alterations or corrections as they are consciously perceived. Krashen believes that 'fluency ' in second language performance is due to 'what we have acquired ', not 'what we have learned ': Adults should do as much acquiring as possible for the purpose of achieving communicative fluency.
The Natural Approach segments the complex process of SLA into four basic levels or stages and details student and teacher behaviours at each one.
4.3.1.5. Preproduction
Students at this stage have anywhere from 10 hours to 6 months of exposure to English and are just beginning to learn the language. In class they may be shy and will mainly listen and respond non-verbally. Many teachers mistakenly push these students to speak English before they are ready. At this level, the teacher should be doing about 90% or more of the talking, and the ELL students should listen and respond non-verbally. In order for the teacher’s speech to be comprehensible, it should include lots of pantomime, body language, facial expressions, and gestures. In addition, the teacher should model rather than just verbally explain tasks and skills, and use lots of pictures and real objects. The teacher’s speech should be simplified, slow, and clear.
4.3.1.6. Early Production
At this level, students have had anywhere from 3 months to a year of English. They can now begin to produce some language, in the form of 1 to 2 word responses along with the same type of non-verbal responses that they depended on in level 1. Teachers must be careful to ask students questions that are appropriate for their level and to use simplified language, avoiding idioms and uncommon vocabulary. Using the reproducible master to categorize students into appropriate levels will help you to remember which questions and strategies you should use for each ELL in your class.
4.3.1.7. Speech Emergence
At this point, somewhere between one and three years of exposure to English, ELL students’ development of proficiency increases exponentially. They use phrases and sentences, and their receptive vocabulary grows to nearly 7,000 words.
4.3.1.8. Intermediate Fluency
A shift occurs at this level, after about 3 to 4 years of exposure to English, because ELLs begin to develop Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency in English (the ability to understand and use English for academic purposes, through texts and discourse).
4.4. The Audio-Lingual Method
The Audio-Lingual Method, which belongs to the cognitive approach of language teaching, was developed in the United States during WW II. There was a great demand for people speaking foreign languages for military purposes. They had to be prepared for their tasks in shortcut intensive courses. Some of the principles used in this method are similar to those of the direct method but many are different, based upon the conceptions of the Grammar Translation Method.
The goal of Audio-Lingual Method is to enable students to use the target language communicatively. In order to do this, students need to over-learn the target language, to learn to use it automatically without stopping to think. This aim can be achieved by students’ forming new habits in the target language and overcoming the old habits of their native language.
4.4.1. The principles of the method are:
The teacher is like an orchestra leader, directing and controlling the language behaviour of her/his students; she provides her students with a good model for imitation;
The target language is used in the classroom not the students’ native language;
A contrastive analyses between the students’ native language and the target language will reveal where a teacher should expect the most interference;
There is student-student interaction in chain drills or when students take different roles in dialogues, but this interaction is teacher-directed because most of the interaction is between teacher-student and is initiated by the teacher;
New vocabulary and structures are presented through dialogues, the dialogues are learnt through imitation and repetition, grammar is induced from the examples given: explicit grammar rules are not provided;
Cultural information is contextualised in the dialogues or presented by the teacher;
The oral/aural skills receive most of the attention, pronunciation is taught from the beginning, often by students working in language laboratories;
Students are evaluated on the bases of distinguishing between words in a minimal pair or by supplying an appropriate word form in a sentence;
Student errors are to be avoided through the teacher’s awareness of where the students will have difficulty;
The syllabus is structure-based.

4.4.2. Variety of drills as part of activities which characterize this method:
Dialogue memorization students memorize an opening dialogue using mimicry and applied role-playing
Expansion-drill (This drill is used when a long dialogue is giving students trouble. The teacher brakes down the line into several parts. Following the teacher’s cue, the students expand what they are repeating part by part until they are able to repeat the entire line. The teacher begins with the part at the end of the sentence and works backward from there to keep the intonation of the line as natural as possible. This directs more student attention to the end of the sentence, where new information typically occurs.)
Repetition drill (students repeat teacher 's model as quickly and accurately as possible).
Chain drill (The teacher begins the chain of conversation by greeting a student or asking him a question. That student responds, then turns to the student sitting next to him and the chain will be continued. The chain drill allows some controlled communication, even though it is limited.)
Single-slot substitution drill (The teacher says a line, usually from the dialogue. Next, the teacher says a word or a phrase- called a cue. The students repeat the line the teacher has given them substituting the cue into the line in its proper place. The major purpose of this drill is to give the students practice in finding and filling in the slots of a sentence.)
Multiple-slot substitution drill (The teacher gives cue phrases, one at a time that fit into different slots in the dialogue line. The students have to recognise what part of speech each cue is where it fits into the sentence and make other changes such as subject-verb agreement.)
Transformation drill (Students are asked for example to transform an affirmative sentence into a negative one.)
Question and answer drill (students should answer or ask questions very quickly).
Use of minimal pairs (The teacher works with pairs of words which differ in only one sound eg. ship – sheep.)
Gap-filling (selected words are erased from a line in the dialogue students must find and insert).
Grammar game (various games designed to practice a grammar point in context, using lots of repetition).”. (Larsen-Freeman 1986: 31-50)
4.4.3. The behaviourism in the audio lingual method
The term ‘Audiolingualism’ was coined in 1964, highlighting the basic belief of structuralism that: ‘speech is primary’. Language is viewed as a set of structures. The behaviourist theory of learning was adopted. Language learning was assumed to involve a chain of stimulus-response-reinforcement; and it was believed that one learnt a language by acquiring a series of stimulus-response chain.
Thus, it becomes clear that this method emphasises teaching through oral presentation prior to written presentation. It believes in the fact that the children learn to speak before they learn to read or write. Thus, the teaching materials, that we prepare, should be based on the ‘primacy of speech.’
B.F. Skinner strongly believes that ‘a language is a set of habits.’ He further adds that “language is verbal behaviour.”
Followers and supporters of this method were extremely influenced by its ‘operant conditioning’ theories. For them, the linguistic behaviour of the child can change as does its social behaviour through the process of habit forming. The kind of thinking introduced mimicry, memorization, and pattern drill into foreign language teaching.
Again, the assumption that ‘a language is what its native speakers say’ prompted the advocates of this method to prepare learning materials with expressions which student would hear around them in the country where the language is spoken. The teaching materials avoided prescriptive school grammars, passages from literary texts, and classics.
Reinforcement is a vital element in the learning process, because it increases the likelihood that the behaviour will occur again and eventually become a habit. To apply this theory to language learning is to identify the organism as the foreign language learner, the behaviour as verbal behaviour, the stimulus as what is might or presented of the foreign language, the response as the learner 's reaction to the stimulus, and the reinforcement as the extrinsic approval and praise of the teacher or fellow students or the intrinsic self-satisfaction on target language use.

5. Conclusion
The nature of language is the realization that, although we can describe some key properties of language, we clearly do not have a totally objective and non-controversial definition of what counts as ‘using language’. We assume that when young human children make language-like noises we are witnessing language development, but when young chimpanzees produce language-like signs in interaction with humans, many scientists are very unwilling to classify this as language-use. Yet, the criteria we use in each case do not seem to be the same.
Language learning is such a complex process that it is impossible to offer a single solution to all our problems. Perhaps the best method is the one which works, and this varies from context to context. Any method which creates conditions for learning to take place is good. It should enable the learner to acquire the strategies of learning rather than merely equipping him with knowledge. What is important for the teacher, therefore, is to find out what approach and what method will enable him to realise a particular objective under a set of particular circumstances.

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