Abstract
Harmful algal blooms cause a wide range of negative effects on aquaculture. These effects are come from the complexity of harmful algal species; the toxins they create and morphology they have adapted. Science still lacks a full understanding of factors that are envolved in blooms formation. Aquaculture and harmful algal blooms are directly related because it is one of many anthropogenic factors that unintentionally produce the conditions that promote harmful algal blooms. The methods of production, feeds used, waste produced can lead to nutrient loading and eutrophic conditions by releasing essential nutrients into water that are necessary for algal growth. Phosphorus and nitrogen compounds are two of the main byproducts or aquaculture that are associated with bloom formation. To minimize the effects of harmful algal blooms on aquaculture you must understand the diversity and complexity of harmful algal blooms and their relationship with aquaculture.
Abstract
Harmful algal blooms cause a wide range of negative effects on aquaculture. These effects are come from the complexity of harmful algal species; the toxins they create and morphology they have adapted. Science still lacks a full understanding of factors that are envolved in blooms formation. Aquaculture and harmful algal blooms are directly related because it is one of many anthropogenic factors that unintentionally produce the conditions that promote harmful algal blooms. The methods of production, feeds used, waste produced can lead to nutrient loading and eutrophic conditions by releasing essential nutrients into water that are necessary for algal growth. Phosphorus and nitrogen compounds are two of the main byproducts or aquaculture that are associated with bloom formation. To minimize the effects of harmful algal blooms on aquaculture you must understand the diversity and complexity of harmful algal blooms and their
Bibliography: Anderson, D. M. (1994). Red Tides. Scientific American Vol. 271, No.2, 52-58. Anderson, D. M., Glibert, P. M., & Burkholder, J. M. (2002). Harmful Algal Blooms and Eutrophication: Nutrient Sources, Composition, and Consequences . Estuaries Vol. 25, No. 4b, 704-726. Anderson, D., Andersen , P., Bricelj, V., Cullen, J., & Rensel, J. (2001). Monitoring and Management Strategies for Harmful Algal Blooms in Coastal Waters. Paris: UNESCO. Bonsdorff, E., Blomqvist, E. M., Mattila, J., & Norkko, A. (1997). Coastal Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences and Perspectives in the Archipelago Areas of the Northern Baltic Sea. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science Vol. 44, Sup. A, 63-72. Bonsdorff, E., Blomqvist, E., Mattila, J., & Norkko, A. (1997). Coastal Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences and Perspectives in the Archipelago Areas of the Northern Baltic Sea. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science Vol. 44. Burkholder, J., & Glasgow, H. (1997). Trophic Controls on Stage Transformation of a Toxic Ambush-Predatior Dinoflagellate. Journal of Eukaryotic and Microbiology Vol. 44, Issue 3, 200-205. Carstensen, J., Henriksen, P., & Heiskanen, A.-S. (2007). Algal Blooms in Shallow Estuaries: Definition, Mechanisms, and Link to Eutrophication. Limnology and Oceanography, Vol. 52, No. 1, 370-384. Chorus , I., & Bartram, J. (1999). Toxic Cyanobacteria in Water: A guide to their public health consequences, . London: E & FN spon . Diersing, N. (2009). Phytoplankton Blooms: The Basics. Florida keys: NOAA. Gerssen, A., Pol-Hofstad, I. E., Poelman, M., Mulder, P. P., Van Den Top, H. J., & Boer, J. (2010). Marine Toxins: Chemistry, Toxicity, Occurrence and Detection,. Toxins Vol. 2, 878-904. Gilbert , P. M., & Burkholder, J. M. (2006). The Complex Relationships Between Increases in Fertilization of the Earth, Coastal Eutrophication and Proliferation of Harmful Algal Blooms. Ecological Studies Vol.189, 331-354. Hallegraeff, G. M. (1993). A Review of Harmful Algal Blooms and their Apparent Global Increase*. Phycologia Vol.32 No.2, 79-99. Hallegraeff, G. M. (1993). Global Increase of Harmful Algal Blooms. Phycologia 32(2). Hallegraeff, G. M., Anderson, D. M., & Cembella, A. D. (1995). Manual on Harmful Marnie. Paris: UNESCO. Hallengraeff, G. M. (1995). Harmful Algal Blooms: A Global Overview. In G. M. Hallegraeff , D. M. Anderson , & A. D. Cembella, Manual on Harmful Marine Microalgae. Paris: UNESCO. Hegaret, H., Shumway, S., Wikfors, G., Pate, S., & Burkholder, J. (2008). Potential Transport of Harmful Algae via Relocation of Bivavle Molluscs. Marine Ecology Progress Series Vol. 361 , 169-179. Hoagland, P., Anderson, D. M., Kaoru, Y., & White, A. M. (2002). The Economic Effects of Harmful Algal Blooms in the United . Estuaries Vol. 25, No. 4b, 819-837. Islam, S. (2005). Nitrogen and Phosphorus Budget in Coastal and Marine Cage Aquaculture and Impacts of Efflent Loading on Ecosytem: Review and Analysis towards Model Development. Marine Pollution Bulletin Vol. 50. Karakassis, I., Pitta, P., & Krom, M. (2005). Contribution of Fish Farming to the Nutrient Loading of the Mediterranean. Science Maria Vol. 69. Keyhani, N., & Roseman, S. (1998). Physiological Aspects of Chitin Catabolism in Marine Bactria. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) General Subjects Vol. 1473 Issue 1, 108-122. Kroger, N., & Poulsen, N. (2008). Diatoms—From Cell Wall Biogenesis to Nanotechnology. Annual Review of Genetics Vol. 42, 83-107. Lansberg, J. (2002). The Effects of Harmful Algal Blooms on Aquatic Organisms . Reviews in Fisheries Science Vol.10, No.2, 113-390. Leverone, J. R. (2007). Comparative Effects of the Toxic Dinoflagellate, Karenia brevis, on Bivalve Molluscs from Florida. Graduate School These and Dissertation , University of South Florida, Biological and Oceanography. Lewitus, A., Horner, R., Caron, D., Garcia-Mendoza, E., Hickey, B., Hunter, M., et al. (2012). Harmful algal blooms along the North American west coast region:. Harmful Algae 19, 133-159. Li, S.-C., Wang, W.-X., & Hsieh, D. P. (2002). Effects of toxic dinoflagellate Alexandrium. Marine Environmental Research Vo.53, 145-160. Matsuyama, Y., & Shumway, S. (2009). Impacts of Harmful Algal Blooms on Shellfish Aquaculture. Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing . Merkel, R., Hamm, C. E., Springer, O., Jurkojc, P., Maire, C., Prechtel, K., et al. (2003). Architecture and Material Properties of Diatom Shells Provide Effective Mechanical Protection. Nature Vol 421, 841-843. Nehring, S. (1993). Mechanisms for Recurrent Nuisance Algal Blooms in Coastal Zones: Resting Cycst Formation as Life-Strategy of Dinoflagellates. Proceedings of the International Coastal Congress ICC Kiel 192. (pp. 454-467). Berlin: Peter Lang Publishing. Paerl, H. W. (1988). Nuisance Phytoplankton Blooms in Coastal, estuarine, and Inland Waters. Limnology and Oceanography, Vol. 33, No.4, Part 2, 823-847. Paerl, H. W. (2009). Controlling Eutrophication alng the Freshwater-Marine Continuum: Dual Nutrient (N and P) Reduction are Essential. Estuaries and Coasts Vol. 32, 593-601. Pelley, J. (1998). What is causing Toxic Algal Bloom? Anvironmental Science & technology Vol. 32, No. 1, 26-30. Pinckney, J. L., Millie, D. F., Vinyard, B. T., & Paerl, H. W. (1997). Environmental Controls of Phytoplankton Bloom Dynamics in the Neuse River Estuary, North Carolina, U.S.A. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences Vol. 54, 2491-2501. Sellner, K. G., Doucette, G. J., & Kirkpatrick, G. J. (2003). Harmful Algal Blooms: Causes, Impacts and Detection. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol Vol. 30, 383-406. Sheng, Z., Jinghong, L., Shiqiang, W., Jixi, G., Dingyong, W., & Ke, Z. (2006). Impact of Aquaculture on Eutrophication in Changshou Reservoir. Chinese Journal of Geochemistry. Silver, M., Kudela, R., & Roberts, K. (2006). Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs). California: Center for Integrated Marine Technologies (CeNCOOS). Smayda, T. J. (1997). Harmful Algal Blooms: Their Ecophysiology and General Relevance to Phytoplankton Blooms. Limnology and Oceanography Vol.42 No. 5, 1136-1153. Smayda, T. J., & Reynolds, C. S. (2001). Community Assmbly in Marine Phytoplankto: Application of Recent Models to Harmful Dinoflagellate Blooms. Journal of Plankton Research Vol. 23, No. 5, 447-461. Soto, D., & Mena, G. (1991). Filter Feeding by Freshwater Mussel, Diplodon Chilensis, as a Biocontrol of Salmon Farming Eutrophication. Aquaculture Vol. 171, 65-81. Tacon, A., & Forster, I. (2003). Aquafeeds and the Environment: Policy Implications. Aquaculture Vol. 226. Thouzeau, G., Chauvaud, L., & Paulet, Y.-M. (1998). Effects of Environmental Factors on the Daily Growthrate of Pecten maximus Juveniles in the Bay of Brest (France). Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology Vol.227 Isu. 1, 83-111. Tran, D., Haberkorn, H., Soudant, P., Ciret, P., & Massabuau, J.-C. (2010). Behavioral Responses of Crassostrea gigas Exposed to the Harmful Algal Alexandrium minutum. Aquaculture Vol. 298 Issues 3-4, 338-345. Van Dolah, F. M., RoeIke, D., & Greene, R. M. (2001). Health and Ecological Impacts of Harmful Algal. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: Vol. 7, No.5, pp, 1329-1345. Van Dolah, F. M. (2000). Marine Algal Toxins: Origins, Health Effects, and Their Increased Occurrence. Environmental Health Perspectives Vo. 108, No. 1, 133-141. Villareal, T. (1988). Positive Bouyancy in the Ocean Diatom Rhizosoenia debyana H. Peragallo. Deep-Sea Research. Part A. Oceanographic Research Papers Vol. 35, No. 6, 1037-1045. Walsby, A., & Bleything, A. (1988). The Bimensions of Cyanobacterial Gas Vesicles in Relation to their Efficiency in Providing Buoyancy and Withstanding Pressure. journal of General Microbiology Vol.134, No. 10, 2635-2645. Wayne, L., Vandersea, M., Kibler, S., Madden, V., Noga, E., & Tester, P. (2002). Life Cyle of the Heterotrophic Dinoflagellate Pfiesteria piscicida (Dinophyceae). Journal of Phycology Vol. 38, No.3, 442-463. Xie, Y., Hu, B., Wen, C., & Mu, S. (2011). Morphology and Phagocytic Ability of Hemocytes from Cristaria plicata. Aquaculture Vol. 310 Issues 3-4, 245-251. Zingone, A., & Enevoldsen, H. O. (2000). The diversity of harmful algal blooms: a challenge. Ocean & Coastal Management.