In What Ways Is The Human Primate Unique?

1) The subfields of anthropology seem quite diverse in their specific subjects and methods. Why, then, are they all considered parts of the single discipline of anthropology? What ties them together?

Anthropology is divided up into four sub-fields of study (Park, 2014). The four sub-fields are biological anthropology, cultural anthropology, linguistic anthropology, and archaeology (Park, 2014). Together, all four sub-fields make up the discipline of anthropology. Each sub-field studies humans and their evolution, but with different approaches (Park, 2014). Although each subfield focuses on a different aspect, the focus of all fields of study is the human species (Park, 2014). Anywhere from fossil records, genetics, biology, evolution or cultural
differences make up the different focal points of study, however, the main focus is always the human species (Park, 2014). The reason that all fields are considered a single discipline is because together, they provide a holistic view (Park, 2014). For example, a physical anthropologist is focused on humans as far as evolution is concerned (The Writing Center, 2014). Linguistic anthropologists are focused on the historical development of human culture and language (The Writing Center, 2014). Archaeologists investigate different cultures through the process of examinations and tangible evidence; and cultural anthropologists examine entire groups or civilizations (The Writing Center, 2014).
References
Park, M. A. (2014). Introducing Anthropology: An Integrated Approach (6th ed.). New York, NY: Mcgraw-Hill Education.
The Writing Center.
(2014). Anthropology. Retrieved from http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/anthropology/

2) In what ways is the human primate a typical primate? In what ways is the human primate unique?

One of the ways that a human primate is considered typical is due to the fact that all primates share a few physical and behavioral characteristics. For example, compared to other mammals, human DNA is closer to that of a lemur, monkey, or ape (Smithsonian.com, 2012). When looking at the physical characteristics, both the eyes of a human and a primate are forward facing and sit close together which is beneficial in depth perception (Smithsonian.com, 2012). Other mammals such as a cow or a giraffe have widely spaced eyes which hinders their perception of depth (Smithsonian.com, 2012). Humans and primates also share a great ability in dexterity. Both primates are able to manipulate objects with their hands in many ways that are not possible in other mammals (Smithsonian.com, 2012). This is possible through the use of the opposable thumbs (Smithsonian.com, 2012). The amount of fingers and toes is also identical (Smithsonian.com, 2012). Another common factor that ties humans to primates is the size of litters (Smithsonian.com, 2012). Typically, both humans and primates only have one offspring at a given
time. Although humans share many physical and behavioral characteristics, there are still many differences that make the human primate unique.
For example, even though humans are not completely hairless, the density of hair is much greater in other primates (MetaPrimate.com, 2013). This lack in hair density put humans at an environmental disadvantage compared to other primates (MetaPrimate.com, 2013). Because humans lack the amount of hair compared to apes, the skin is not protected from the different elements of the natural environment such as the sun, cold, and wind (MetaPrimate.com, 2013). Unlike the typical primate, humans are able to branch out and colonize just about anywhere on earth (MetaPrimate.com, 2013). One of the most important characteristics that make the human a unique primate is the ability to create written commutation (MetaPrimate.com, 2013). Unlike the typical primate, humans are able to communicate to other humans without physical contact (MetaPrimate.com,
2013).
References
MetaPrimate.com. (2013). Unique to Humans. Retrieved from http://www.metaprimate.com/unique-to-human/
Smithsonian.com. (2012, October 29). Why are Humans Primates? Retrieved from http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/why-are-humans-primates-97419056/?no-ist
3) Distinguish between members of genus Australopithecus and Paranthropus in terms of time, location, and physical features.

Members of genus Australopithecus Anamensis emerged approximately 4.0 million years ago (Columbia.edu, 2002). This species was found in the Lake Turkana region in Kenya in 1965 during a Harvard University expedition (Columbia.edu, 2002). About 3.9 million years ago, this species evolved into Australopithecus Afarensis (Columbia.edu, 2002). Remains of this find indicated that this species was the first to walk upright (Columbia.edu, 2002). Males were larger than females (Columbia.edu, 2002). Male and female height ranged from about four to five feet (Columbia.edu, 2002). The approximate weight of this species was between 70 to 110 pounds (Columbia.edu, 2002). The jaws and teeth shared a resemblance to that of a chimpanzee (Columbia.edu, 2002). The more distinctive characteristics of this species was a low forehead, boney ridge over the eyes, a flat nose with no chin, humanlike teeth, pelvis and leg bones similar to that of modern man (Columbia.edu, 2002). Currently, there are three species of genus Paranthropus: Paranthropus boisei, Paranthropus robustus, and Paranthropus walkeri (Australian Museum, 2009). This series of species lived approximately 1.0 to 2.7 million years ago (Australian Museum, 2009). This species was first found in South Africa in 1959 by Mary Leakey (Australian Museum, 2009). More recent fossils have been located in Ethiopia and Tanzania (Australian Museum, 2009). All three species of Paranthropus have similar characteristics (Australian Museum, 2009). It has been determined that the males were much larger that the females (Australian Museum, 2009). This species had a large lower jaw to compliment a strongly constructed cranium (Australian Museum, 2009). However, the brain was small in comparison to the size of the skull (Australian Museum, 2009). Skull features were very much ape-like (Australian Museum, 2009). Compared to the molars, the front teeth were considerably smaller (Australian Museum, 2009). The legs were very similar to modern man and suggested that they were used for walking (Australian Museum, 2009). However, their arms were longer than their legs.
References
Australian Museum. (2009). Paranthropus genus. Retrieved from http://australianmusem.net.au/paranthropus-species
Columbia.edu. (2002). The Genus Australopithecus. Retrieved from http://www.columbia.edu/itc/anthropology/v1007/2002projects/web/australopithecus/austro.html
4) Explain why variation in skin color is of no use in defining human races. Variation is skin color is of no use in defining human races because skin color is actually an evolutionary adaptation of the human species as they moved closer to the equator (Park, 2014). Being that skin color is only a geographical adaptation, it has carries no weight on the species collectively (Park, 2014). One of the biggest challenges that early humans faced as they moved from colder climates to warmer environments was the ability to stay cool (Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, 2014). Over time, adaptation to these warmer environments caused to these humans to lose body hair to allow for more efficient perspiration that would better cool the body (Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, 2014). However, with less hair, the skin was now more exposed to a much stronger sun (Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, 2014). These humans once again had to adapt to their environment. This adaptation involved the skin to become permanently darker for the purpose of providing protection to the harmful effects of the sun (Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, 2014). Diet is also a determining factor in one’s skin color. For example, diets rich in vitamin D such as seafood, affects skin color (Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, 2014). Humans that live near the coast tend to also have darker skin due to a diet rich in vitamin D (Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, 2014). This also means that people that live near or around arctic coastal waters also tend to have darker skin due to a seafood diet which is high in vitamin D (Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, 2014). Having darker skin in these cold environments also helps these humans during the summer when strong ultra-violet rays reflect off the snow and ice (Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, 2014).
References
Park, M. A. (2014). Introducing Anthropology: An Integrated Approach (6th ed.). New York, NY: Mcgraw-Hill Education.
Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. (2014, July 31). Human Skin Color Variation. Retrieved from http://humanoirgins.si.edu/evidence/genetics/skin-color/modern-human-diversity-skin-color