Lifespan Development Research Paper
wits
Lifespan Development
683323
3/13/2013
This essay will explore the concept of lifespan development - which is a perspective that seeks to understand people and the nature of development and change throughout their lifetime from conception to death- and illustrate the position of how this concept is essential to the understanding of human development (Baltes,1968) .Furthermore two theoretical prepositions characteristic of the lifespan developmental psychology namely multidirectionality and the gain and loss concept will be discussed with evidence that supports our position (Baltes,1968). Subsequently we will critique these characteristics and furthermore link it to a South African context (Baltes,1968).
There are many …show more content…
characteristics that are used to define what lifespan is in relation to human development (Baltes,1968). The first of which is multidirectionality and multidimensionality .By multidirectionality we mean that the development of a specific area does not occur in a linear manner that continuously leads to functional efficacy of a specific modality (Baltes,1968). Instead development may be characterised as having the ability to both decrease and increase in efficacy during ones lifetime –thus numerous areas being developed are multidirectional in nature (Baltes,1968). The second part of the proposition is multidimensionality that describes that development across a lifespan is influenced by a complex interplay of factors, both exogenous and endogenous, and therefore it is not a single criterion that determines development (Baltes,1968).
One specific process related to development is puberty and is a good example of evidence that supports multidirectionality and multidimensionality (Baltes,1968). During puberty there is a period of morphological changes ranging from physical and hormonal changes to social and psychological changes (Brent,1978) . Due to the term puberty encompassing such a variety of areas proves its multidimensional component of this concept (Baltes,1968). The concept of puberty could further be an illustration of multidirectionality as individual areas of development can increase of decrease in their levels of effectiveness (Brent,1978). One such area related to puberty is self regulation which happens to undergo multidirectional changes throughout adolescents (Brent,1978). During the course of childhood, individuals find it difficult to regulate their impulsive behaviours and actions (Baltes,1968). This lack of effective regulation results in individuals behaving in a manner that lacks full consideration of the consequences of one’s actions (Brent,1978). Therefore during puberty neuronal changes try to manage this behaviour by increasing ones ability to regulate their own behaviour (Brent,1978). However this decreases the ability for adults to engage in spontaneous actions which are related to impulse behaviour (Coper & Schulze,1986) .
In addition research conducted on psychometric intelligence shows the value of this concept (Coper & Schulze,1986).Carttell and Horn devised the theory of fluid crystallized intelligence which provides the example that firstly intelligence has subcomponents with fluid and crystallized intelligence being two of the most critical clusters within the theory; the postulate of an arrangement of abilities is an example of multidimensionality (Coper & Schulze,1986). Secondly these ability components are predicted to differ in direction of their development (Elder,1974) . Crystallized intelligence shows the continuation of an incremental function whilst fluid intelligence demonstrates a turning point in adulthood tending towards a decline – proving to be an example of multidirectionality (Coper & Schulze,1986).
Therefore multidirectionality and multidimensionality illustrates my position that lifespan development is imperative in understanding human development as it helps us understand certain behaviours such as why older adults devise various compensatory ways to deal with their increasing memory failures and why adolescents’ spontaneity might change after puberty (Elder,1974). Therefore these concepts aid in dismissing the claim that lifespan development is not essential for human development.
Next we talk about the perspective of historical embeddedness which is essentially made up of two ideas (Coper & Schulze,1986).The first is that there is a link between an individual’s socio cultural setting and their development; and secondly that this socio cultural setting evolves over time (Elder,1974). Baltes believed that the socio cultural environment in which an adolescent developed had a crucial impact on the development of their personality (Baltes,1968). This has been illustrated in numerous studies e.g. Nesselroade and Baltes who illustrated that the direction and level of change in an individual’s (adolescents) personality development was affected as much by the socio cultural setting that the individual was in (the Vietnam War in this case) as they were by age associated factors (Baltes,1968). The study consisted of four different adolescent age groups that displayed very similar personality development -mainly an inclination to be occupied with political, ethical and moral issues rather than cognitive achievement-(Baltes,1968) . Correspondingly ,Elder showed that the development of adolescents and their consequent adult personalities in the time of the Great Depression had been significantly affected, by showing similar personality development across age groups (Elder,1974). This view has been further illustrated by the Southern African Development Community demonstrating through studies that South Africans that have lived through apartheid have deployment a more canister approach to life, carrying animosity and hatred to apposing races (De Lay Rey & Duncan,1999) .
Furthermore, within Baltes’s theory it states that the development of an individual’s intelligence was affected by the historical socio cultural setting (Baltes,1968) . Baltes thought that a few areas were the most important to the development of intelligence, namely, work, education and health. It has been shown that health and education greatly affects the adolescent’s development as a healthy child that is educated effectively will achieve a greater level of intelligence (Baltes,1968). Subsequently Neiss and Rowe have suggested that environmental factors as well as health and education as an equivalent effect on intelligence as inherited intelligence does (Baltes,1968).
The second proposal on historical embeddedness is that the socio cultural settling evolves over time (Pascual-Leone,1998). Thus during the time of adolescents in which intelligence is greatly affected, advances in the areas of education,health and the type of work that is available to adolescents will demonstrate an effect that will continue into adulthood (Denny,1984) . A study conducted by Schaie on individuals only ten years apart in age illustrated this concept –that the effect of intelligence not only changes with time – as people age- but it also varies by the historical time period the individual developed in (Shaie,1979) . Thus the study proved that intelligence levels change by historical time or cohort (Denny,1984).
Historical embeddedness is useful in helping psychologist understand why some people act the way they do (Denny,1984). It provides explanation into how or why some prejudices and stereotypes were formed (Denny,1984). It also gives an idea of how to think ahead, imagining how settings will evolve and assists in the prediction of how people will tend to behave (Denny,1984). It therefore it supports our initial position and as a result it is critically important in the understanding of human development.
However whilst the family of perspectives offer us much insight into developmental psychology, it does have its costs and concerns. Firstly there is a question of scientific imperialism as scholars concerned with lifespan hold the opinion that nothing but the lifespan concept is correct and acceptable (Denny,1984). Therefore to simply conclude that the theoretical propositions made concerning the nature of development shown here have been invented by the numerous scholars or to state that lifespan development is the main domain of developmental psychology would be incorrect (Guthke,1982) . Lifespan developmental psychology is merely one of the many specializations in the developmental scholarship (Guthke,1982). Secondly there seems to be a problem of an excess of theory based information (Pascual-Leone,1998) . By no mean is the metatheory and metamethodoly being belittled, however whatever theory can achieve is fairly limited; for example concerning the concept of development, a cost would be taking one of the family of perspectives to the extreme (Guthke,1982). As for the issue of cohort effects has often been taken to a state of full blown historicism or dialectics, as if there were no constancy to development at all (Pascual-Leone,1998). Unfortunately it seems as if majority of the scholars have disproportionately focussed on adulthood instead of equally focussing on childhood as no firm psychology of life span development can seize to exist without firm research on the earlier phases of life –childhood-.
These critiques put lifespan developmental psychologist at risk and jeopardy, which is serious (Guthke,1982). A simple solution to this problem could be to engage in better communication between quarters of developmental research and to call for more intellectual modesty eventually leading to lifespan scholars taking a more eclectic approach-considering other theories (Guthke,1982). If developmental psychologists can successfully engage in communication without added problems and take a more eclectic approach, the lifespan approach will be much more productive in the future otherwise there will be a network of scholars without any partners and lifespan developmental psychology will be a structure without a firm foundation (Pascual-Leone,1998).
Moreover a specific contemporary concern is from a biological point of view. Boyd and Bee states that “ethology emphasizes genetically determined survival behaviours that are assumed to have evolved through natural selection” (Bee & Boyd,2002) . Ethology makes the assumption that in order to aid in survival certain genetic behaviour is encoded into an individual (Bee & Boyd,2002). However a problem emerges with the biological viewpoint and that is that it does not stress the importance of the environmental. Furthermore these theories are very difficult to test (Guthke,1982).
Another contemporary concern related to the lifespan perspective is that of behaviour genetics (Pascual-Leone,1998).
This standpoint focuses on the effects of heredity and the differences in individuals (Pascual-Leone,1998). Heredity is the passing down of traits and individual characteristics from one relative to the other (Piaget,1972) .Thus heredity is critical to this standpoint as it is believed that some of the same behaviours and characteristics are said to be shared more between related individuals than those that are not related (Pascual-Leone,1998).However problems emerge with judgements made by psychologists bearing certain internal prejudices etc (Guthke,1982).Studying of separated twins however makes easier to study this concept as is allows for a better look at what role environmental factors play in determining the …show more content…
individual.
Lastly we talk about the link between global development and lifespan development. Optimal development is affected to an extent by local and global socio economic factors (Pascual-Leone,1998). It is therefore possible that some of the culturally theoretical ideals for development may be to an extent unacceptable by some global socio economic factors (Guthke,1982). If lifespan development stays grounded firmly in its euro western cultural norms without a sense of other global issues and cultures in development then it may become punitive in its effects, instead of demonstrating a trail to achieving personal well being; and this will happen as soon as we hold out the theoretical goal as a moral necessity, therefore implying shortfalls in people who’s conditions are beyond their control (Guthke,1982).
As a result we should not let human development be continued as a project for spreading euro western values (Pascual-Leone,1998). Nevertheless much of our science like any other may want universal truths. Therefore lifespan development should pay attention to individual experience and we have to accept that what may apply and seem to be in one context may not in others (Pascual-Leone,1998). In order to prevent these theories of lifespan development from becoming regulatory by default we must hold to them loosely (Guthke,1982).It demonstrates that the study of human development methodolically is complex and further states that this discipline is in desperate need of a more extensive debate on the epistemological hardships of operating across and between disciplines in practice and theory (Guthke,1982).
In conclusion this essay has included various characteristics of the lifespan development perspectives with evidence that has concluded that these concepts are valid . In addiction it has proven to be essentially useful in various contexts and even after extensive critiques it proves to be imperative in the understanding of human development dismissing any notion that it is not. Developmental psychologists should therefore continue their studies in lifespan development of human beings; however they should attempt to integrate some of the solutions listed above.
References
Baltes, P.
B. (1968). Longitudinal and cross-sectional sequences in the study of age and generation effects. Human Development, 11, 145-171
Basseches, M. (1984). Dialectical thinking and adult development. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Bee, H.,& Boyd,D. (2002) Lifespan development (3rd ed.). Boston: Ally and Bacon
Brent, S. B. (1978). Individual specialization, collective adaptation, and rate of environmental change. Human Development
Coper, H., Jänicke, B., & Schulze, G. (1986). Biopsychological research on adaptivity across the life span of animals. In P. B. Baltes, D. L. Featherman, & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Life-span development and behavior (Vol. 7, pp. 207-232). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
De La Rey, C.,& Duncan, N.(eds).(1997). Contemporary issues in human development: A South African focus. Johannesburg: International Thomson Publishing.
Denney, N. W. (1984). A model of cognitive development across the life span. Developmental Review, 4, 171-191
Elder, G. H., Jr. (1974). Children of the Great Depression. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Guthke, J. (1982). The learning test concept. An alternative to the traditional static intelligence test. The German Journal of Psychology, 6,
306-324
Pascual-Leone, J. (1983). Growing into human maturity toward a metasubjective theory of adulthood stages. In P. B. Baltes & O. G. Brim, Jr. (Eds.), Life-span development and behavior(Vol. 5, pp. 118-156). New York: Academic Press.
Piaget, J. (1972). Intellectual evolution from adolescence to adulthood. Human Development, 15, 1-12.
Schaie, K. W. (1979). The primary mental abilities in adulthood: An exploration in the development of psychometric intelligence. In P. B. Baltes & O. G. Brim, Jr. (Eds.), Life-span development and behavior (Vol. 3, pp. 67-115). New York: Academic Press.
Lifespan Development
683323
3/13/2013
This essay will explore the concept of lifespan development - which is a perspective that seeks to understand people and the nature of development and change throughout their lifetime from conception to death- and illustrate the position of how this concept is essential to the understanding of human development (Baltes,1968) .Furthermore two theoretical prepositions characteristic of the lifespan developmental psychology namely multidirectionality and the gain and loss concept will be discussed with evidence that supports our position (Baltes,1968). Subsequently we will critique these characteristics and furthermore link it to a South African context (Baltes,1968).
There are many …show more content…
characteristics that are used to define what lifespan is in relation to human development (Baltes,1968). The first of which is multidirectionality and multidimensionality .By multidirectionality we mean that the development of a specific area does not occur in a linear manner that continuously leads to functional efficacy of a specific modality (Baltes,1968). Instead development may be characterised as having the ability to both decrease and increase in efficacy during ones lifetime –thus numerous areas being developed are multidirectional in nature (Baltes,1968). The second part of the proposition is multidimensionality that describes that development across a lifespan is influenced by a complex interplay of factors, both exogenous and endogenous, and therefore it is not a single criterion that determines development (Baltes,1968).
One specific process related to development is puberty and is a good example of evidence that supports multidirectionality and multidimensionality (Baltes,1968). During puberty there is a period of morphological changes ranging from physical and hormonal changes to social and psychological changes (Brent,1978) . Due to the term puberty encompassing such a variety of areas proves its multidimensional component of this concept (Baltes,1968). The concept of puberty could further be an illustration of multidirectionality as individual areas of development can increase of decrease in their levels of effectiveness (Brent,1978). One such area related to puberty is self regulation which happens to undergo multidirectional changes throughout adolescents (Brent,1978). During the course of childhood, individuals find it difficult to regulate their impulsive behaviours and actions (Baltes,1968). This lack of effective regulation results in individuals behaving in a manner that lacks full consideration of the consequences of one’s actions (Brent,1978). Therefore during puberty neuronal changes try to manage this behaviour by increasing ones ability to regulate their own behaviour (Brent,1978). However this decreases the ability for adults to engage in spontaneous actions which are related to impulse behaviour (Coper & Schulze,1986) .
In addition research conducted on psychometric intelligence shows the value of this concept (Coper & Schulze,1986).Carttell and Horn devised the theory of fluid crystallized intelligence which provides the example that firstly intelligence has subcomponents with fluid and crystallized intelligence being two of the most critical clusters within the theory; the postulate of an arrangement of abilities is an example of multidimensionality (Coper & Schulze,1986). Secondly these ability components are predicted to differ in direction of their development (Elder,1974) . Crystallized intelligence shows the continuation of an incremental function whilst fluid intelligence demonstrates a turning point in adulthood tending towards a decline – proving to be an example of multidirectionality (Coper & Schulze,1986).
Therefore multidirectionality and multidimensionality illustrates my position that lifespan development is imperative in understanding human development as it helps us understand certain behaviours such as why older adults devise various compensatory ways to deal with their increasing memory failures and why adolescents’ spontaneity might change after puberty (Elder,1974). Therefore these concepts aid in dismissing the claim that lifespan development is not essential for human development.
Next we talk about the perspective of historical embeddedness which is essentially made up of two ideas (Coper & Schulze,1986).The first is that there is a link between an individual’s socio cultural setting and their development; and secondly that this socio cultural setting evolves over time (Elder,1974). Baltes believed that the socio cultural environment in which an adolescent developed had a crucial impact on the development of their personality (Baltes,1968). This has been illustrated in numerous studies e.g. Nesselroade and Baltes who illustrated that the direction and level of change in an individual’s (adolescents) personality development was affected as much by the socio cultural setting that the individual was in (the Vietnam War in this case) as they were by age associated factors (Baltes,1968). The study consisted of four different adolescent age groups that displayed very similar personality development -mainly an inclination to be occupied with political, ethical and moral issues rather than cognitive achievement-(Baltes,1968) . Correspondingly ,Elder showed that the development of adolescents and their consequent adult personalities in the time of the Great Depression had been significantly affected, by showing similar personality development across age groups (Elder,1974). This view has been further illustrated by the Southern African Development Community demonstrating through studies that South Africans that have lived through apartheid have deployment a more canister approach to life, carrying animosity and hatred to apposing races (De Lay Rey & Duncan,1999) .
Furthermore, within Baltes’s theory it states that the development of an individual’s intelligence was affected by the historical socio cultural setting (Baltes,1968) . Baltes thought that a few areas were the most important to the development of intelligence, namely, work, education and health. It has been shown that health and education greatly affects the adolescent’s development as a healthy child that is educated effectively will achieve a greater level of intelligence (Baltes,1968). Subsequently Neiss and Rowe have suggested that environmental factors as well as health and education as an equivalent effect on intelligence as inherited intelligence does (Baltes,1968).
The second proposal on historical embeddedness is that the socio cultural settling evolves over time (Pascual-Leone,1998). Thus during the time of adolescents in which intelligence is greatly affected, advances in the areas of education,health and the type of work that is available to adolescents will demonstrate an effect that will continue into adulthood (Denny,1984) . A study conducted by Schaie on individuals only ten years apart in age illustrated this concept –that the effect of intelligence not only changes with time – as people age- but it also varies by the historical time period the individual developed in (Shaie,1979) . Thus the study proved that intelligence levels change by historical time or cohort (Denny,1984).
Historical embeddedness is useful in helping psychologist understand why some people act the way they do (Denny,1984). It provides explanation into how or why some prejudices and stereotypes were formed (Denny,1984). It also gives an idea of how to think ahead, imagining how settings will evolve and assists in the prediction of how people will tend to behave (Denny,1984). It therefore it supports our initial position and as a result it is critically important in the understanding of human development.
However whilst the family of perspectives offer us much insight into developmental psychology, it does have its costs and concerns. Firstly there is a question of scientific imperialism as scholars concerned with lifespan hold the opinion that nothing but the lifespan concept is correct and acceptable (Denny,1984). Therefore to simply conclude that the theoretical propositions made concerning the nature of development shown here have been invented by the numerous scholars or to state that lifespan development is the main domain of developmental psychology would be incorrect (Guthke,1982) . Lifespan developmental psychology is merely one of the many specializations in the developmental scholarship (Guthke,1982). Secondly there seems to be a problem of an excess of theory based information (Pascual-Leone,1998) . By no mean is the metatheory and metamethodoly being belittled, however whatever theory can achieve is fairly limited; for example concerning the concept of development, a cost would be taking one of the family of perspectives to the extreme (Guthke,1982). As for the issue of cohort effects has often been taken to a state of full blown historicism or dialectics, as if there were no constancy to development at all (Pascual-Leone,1998). Unfortunately it seems as if majority of the scholars have disproportionately focussed on adulthood instead of equally focussing on childhood as no firm psychology of life span development can seize to exist without firm research on the earlier phases of life –childhood-.
These critiques put lifespan developmental psychologist at risk and jeopardy, which is serious (Guthke,1982). A simple solution to this problem could be to engage in better communication between quarters of developmental research and to call for more intellectual modesty eventually leading to lifespan scholars taking a more eclectic approach-considering other theories (Guthke,1982). If developmental psychologists can successfully engage in communication without added problems and take a more eclectic approach, the lifespan approach will be much more productive in the future otherwise there will be a network of scholars without any partners and lifespan developmental psychology will be a structure without a firm foundation (Pascual-Leone,1998).
Moreover a specific contemporary concern is from a biological point of view. Boyd and Bee states that “ethology emphasizes genetically determined survival behaviours that are assumed to have evolved through natural selection” (Bee & Boyd,2002) . Ethology makes the assumption that in order to aid in survival certain genetic behaviour is encoded into an individual (Bee & Boyd,2002). However a problem emerges with the biological viewpoint and that is that it does not stress the importance of the environmental. Furthermore these theories are very difficult to test (Guthke,1982).
Another contemporary concern related to the lifespan perspective is that of behaviour genetics (Pascual-Leone,1998).
This standpoint focuses on the effects of heredity and the differences in individuals (Pascual-Leone,1998). Heredity is the passing down of traits and individual characteristics from one relative to the other (Piaget,1972) .Thus heredity is critical to this standpoint as it is believed that some of the same behaviours and characteristics are said to be shared more between related individuals than those that are not related (Pascual-Leone,1998).However problems emerge with judgements made by psychologists bearing certain internal prejudices etc (Guthke,1982).Studying of separated twins however makes easier to study this concept as is allows for a better look at what role environmental factors play in determining the …show more content…
individual.
Lastly we talk about the link between global development and lifespan development. Optimal development is affected to an extent by local and global socio economic factors (Pascual-Leone,1998). It is therefore possible that some of the culturally theoretical ideals for development may be to an extent unacceptable by some global socio economic factors (Guthke,1982). If lifespan development stays grounded firmly in its euro western cultural norms without a sense of other global issues and cultures in development then it may become punitive in its effects, instead of demonstrating a trail to achieving personal well being; and this will happen as soon as we hold out the theoretical goal as a moral necessity, therefore implying shortfalls in people who’s conditions are beyond their control (Guthke,1982).
As a result we should not let human development be continued as a project for spreading euro western values (Pascual-Leone,1998). Nevertheless much of our science like any other may want universal truths. Therefore lifespan development should pay attention to individual experience and we have to accept that what may apply and seem to be in one context may not in others (Pascual-Leone,1998). In order to prevent these theories of lifespan development from becoming regulatory by default we must hold to them loosely (Guthke,1982).It demonstrates that the study of human development methodolically is complex and further states that this discipline is in desperate need of a more extensive debate on the epistemological hardships of operating across and between disciplines in practice and theory (Guthke,1982).
In conclusion this essay has included various characteristics of the lifespan development perspectives with evidence that has concluded that these concepts are valid . In addiction it has proven to be essentially useful in various contexts and even after extensive critiques it proves to be imperative in the understanding of human development dismissing any notion that it is not. Developmental psychologists should therefore continue their studies in lifespan development of human beings; however they should attempt to integrate some of the solutions listed above.
References
Baltes, P.
B. (1968). Longitudinal and cross-sectional sequences in the study of age and generation effects. Human Development, 11, 145-171
Basseches, M. (1984). Dialectical thinking and adult development. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Bee, H.,& Boyd,D. (2002) Lifespan development (3rd ed.). Boston: Ally and Bacon
Brent, S. B. (1978). Individual specialization, collective adaptation, and rate of environmental change. Human Development
Coper, H., Jänicke, B., & Schulze, G. (1986). Biopsychological research on adaptivity across the life span of animals. In P. B. Baltes, D. L. Featherman, & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Life-span development and behavior (Vol. 7, pp. 207-232). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
De La Rey, C.,& Duncan, N.(eds).(1997). Contemporary issues in human development: A South African focus. Johannesburg: International Thomson Publishing.
Denney, N. W. (1984). A model of cognitive development across the life span. Developmental Review, 4, 171-191
Elder, G. H., Jr. (1974). Children of the Great Depression. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Guthke, J. (1982). The learning test concept. An alternative to the traditional static intelligence test. The German Journal of Psychology, 6,
306-324
Pascual-Leone, J. (1983). Growing into human maturity toward a metasubjective theory of adulthood stages. In P. B. Baltes & O. G. Brim, Jr. (Eds.), Life-span development and behavior(Vol. 5, pp. 118-156). New York: Academic Press.
Piaget, J. (1972). Intellectual evolution from adolescence to adulthood. Human Development, 15, 1-12.
Schaie, K. W. (1979). The primary mental abilities in adulthood: An exploration in the development of psychometric intelligence. In P. B. Baltes & O. G. Brim, Jr. (Eds.), Life-span development and behavior (Vol. 3, pp. 67-115). New York: Academic Press.