Microbiology Notes

Chapter 1. Microbiology – Diversity of Organisms
Microorganisms- too small to be seen with the unaided eye
“germ”- rapidly growing cell

Microbes in our lives
Pathogenic- disease causing
Decompose organic waste
Producers in ecosystem (photosynthesis)
Produce industrial chemicals such as ethanol and acetone
Produce fermented foods ( vinegar, cheese, bread)
Produce products used in manufacturing (cellulose) and treatment (insulin)
Designer Jeans: Made by Microbes?
Stone washing- Tricoderma
Cotton- Gluconactobacter
Debleaching- mushroom peroxidase
Indigo- e. coli
Plastic- bacterical polyhydroxyalkanoate
Knowledge of Microorganisms (pretty recent)
Allows humans to: prevent food spoilage and prevent disease occurance
Led to aseptic techniques to prevent contamination in medicine and in microbiology labs
Naming and classifying
Linnaeus established system of scientific nomenclature (binomial nomenclature)
Each organism has two names: genus and specific epithet
Are italicized or underlined
Everything is “Latinized”
Genus is capitalized
Species is lowercased
May be descriptive or honor a scientist
Escherichia coli
Honors discoverer Theodor Escherich
Describes bacteriums habitat- large intestine or colon
Staphylococcus areus
Describes the clustered (staphylo) spherical (cocci) cells
Describes the gold-colored (areus) colonies

Scientific Names
After the first use the scientific names may be abbreviated with the specific epithet
Escheria coli and Staphylococcus areus found in human body E. coli is found in the intestine while S. areus is found in the skin
Types of Microorganisms
Bacteria
Archaea
Fungi
Protazoa
Algae
Viruses
Multicellular animal parasites
Bacteria
Prokaryote (before true nucleus)
Peptidoglycan cell walls
Binary fission
For energy use organic chemicals, inorganic chemicals or photosynthesis
Many “swim”
Flagella
Archaea
Prokaryotic
Lack peptidoglycan
Live in extreme environments
Include
Methanogens (found where there is no oxygen)
Extreme halophiles (salt loving)
Extreme thermophiles (found in the deep sea vents in ocean)
Not known to cause disease
Fungi
Eukaryotes (true nucleus)
Chitin cell walls
Use organic chemicals for energy (absorb)
Molds and mushrooms are multicellular consisting of masses of mycelia, which are composed of filaments called hyphae
Yeasts are unicellular
Reproduce sexually or asexually

Protozoa
Eukaryotes
Cellulose cell walls use photosynthesis for energy produce molecular oxygen and organic compounds unicellular or multicellular some can be parasitic
Viruses
Acellular
Consist of DNA or RNA core (never both)
Core surrounded by a protein coat
Coat may be enclosed in a lipid envelope (waxy material)
Replicate only when they are in a living host cell
Considered inert when outside host cell, and a parasite when in a host cell
Multicellular animal parasites
Eukaryotes
Multicellular animals
Parasitic flatworms and roundworms are called helminthes
Microscopic stages in life cycles
Classification of microorganisms
Animal kingdom vs. Plant kingdom (17th cent)
3 domains (Woese in 1978 cell organization)
Bacteria
Archaea
Eukarya
Protists (most versatile)
Fungi
Plants
Animals

Chapter 1 lecture day 2
Brief history of microbiology
Ancestors of bacteria were first life on earth
Ex. Fossils, ancient disease (found in mummies), and acts of god
First microbes were observed in 1763
First Observations
1665- Robert Hooke reported that living things were composed of little boxes or cells
1858- Rudolf Virchow cells arise from preexisting cells
Cell theory- all living things composed of cells and come from preexisting cells
1673-1723 Anton von Leeuwenhoek described live microorganisms
Debate over Spontaneous Generation
Spontaneous generation – living organisms arise from nonliving matter “vital force” forms life
Biogenesis living organisms arise from preexisting life
Evidence pros and cons
1688- Francesco Redi filled six jars with decaying meat
Covered jars- no maggots
Uncovered jars- maggots
Spontaneous generation
1745- John Needham put boiled nutrient broth into covered flasks
Broth heated in flask then sealed after away from flame- microbial growth
Spontaneous generation
1765- Lazzaro Spallanzani bottled nutrient solutions in flasks
Broth placed in flask sealed while heated- no microbial growth
Biogenesis
1861- Louis Pasteur demonstrated that microorganisms are present in air
Broth placed in flask heated and not sealed- microbial growth
Broth placed in flask heated and sealed- no microbial growth
Pasteurs s-shaped flask kept microbes out but left air in
Golden age of Microorganisms
1857-1914
Beginning with Pasteur’s work discoveries included the relationship between microbes and disease immunity and antimicrobial drugs
Pasteur was the scientist of his day
Asked to solve all kinds of problems
Fermentation and pasteurization
Microbes (bacteria and yeasts) are responsible for fermentation the conversion of sugar to alcohol to make beer and wine microbial growth- responsible for spoilage of food bacteria that use alcohol and produce acetic acid spoil wine by turning it to vinegar spoilage bacteria in wine could be killed by heat not hot enough to evaporate alcohol in wine (bad taste) pasteurization is the application of a high heat for a short time (dairy)
Germ theory
1835- Agostino Bassi silkworm disease was caused by fungus
1865- Pasteur another silkworm disease was caused by a protozoan
1840s- Ignaz Semmelweis had washing to prevent transmission of “puerperal fever” from one OB patient to another
1860s- Joseph Jenner inoculated a person with cowpox virus who was then protected from smallpox
Vaccination is derived from vacca for cow
The protection is called immunity
Chemotherapy
Treatment with chemicals
Chemotherapeutic agents used to treat infectious disease can be synthetic drugs or antibiotics
Antibiotics chemicals produced by a bacteria or fungi that inhibit or kill other microbes
First synthetic drugs
Quinine from tree bark was long used to treat malaria
Paul Erlich a “magic bullet” destroy a pathogen without harming the host
1910- Erlich developed a synthetic arsenic derivative (salvarsan) to treat syphilis
1930s- Sulfonamides were synthesized from dyes
A fortunate accident antibiotics
1928-Alexander Fleming discovered the first antibiotic
Observed that pecicillum fungus made penicillin that killed S. areus
1940s- penicillin was tested clinically and mass produced
Modern developments in microbiology
Bacteriology- bacteria
Mycology- fungi
Virology-viruses
Parasitology- protozoa and parasitic worms
Immunology- immunity
Vaccines and interferon’s investigated to prevent/cure viral diseases
Rebecca Lancefield in 1933 classified Streptococci according to serotype
Recombinant DNA technology
Microbial genetics how microbes inherit traits
Molecular biology how DNA directs protein synthesis
Genomics an organisms genes provided new tools for classifying microorganisms
Recombinant DNA DNA made from two different sources in 1960s Paul Berg inserted animal DNA into bacterial DNA and the bacteria produced an animal protein
1941- George Beadle and Edward Tatum showed that genes encode a cells enzymes
1944- Oswald Avery, Colin MacLead and Maclyn McCarty showed that DNA was the hereditary material
1961- Francois Jacob and Jacques Monod discovered the role of mRNA in protein synthesis
Microbial Ecology
Bacteria recycle carbon, nutrients, sulfur, and phosphorus that can be used by plants and animals
Bioremediation
Bacteria degrade organic matter in sewage
Bacteria degrade or detoxify pollutants such as oil and _____
Exxon Valdez oil spill
1989
Biological insecticides
Microbes that are pathogenic to insects
Alternatives to chemical pesticides
Preventing insect damage to agricultural crops and disease transmission
Bacillus thuringienis infections fatal in many insects but harmless to other animals
Biotechnology
Biotechnology the use of microbes to produce foods and chemicals is centuries old
Recombinant DNA technology enables bacteria and fungi to produce a variety of proteins including vaccines and enzymes
Missing or defective genes in human cells can be replaced in gene therapy
Genetically modified bacteria are used to protect crops
Normal microbiota
Bacteria were once classified as plants giving rise to use of term flora for microbes
This term has been replaced by microbiota
Microbes normally present in and on human body are called normal microbiota
Normal microbiota prevent growth of pathogens
Normal microbiota produce growth factors such as folic acid and vitamin k
Resistance is ability of the body to ward off disease
Resistance factors skin stomach acid and antimicrobial chemicals first line of defense
Biofilms
Microbes attach to solid surfaces and grow into masses
They will grow on rocks, pipes, teeth, and medical implants
Infectious diseases
When a pathogen overcomes the hosts resistance disease results
Emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) new diseases and diseases increasing in incidence (number of new cases)
Outbreaks diseases that are not disappearing but coming back periodically and in increasing numbers
Avian influenza A
Influenza A virus (H5N2)
Primarily in water and poultry
Sustained human-to-human transmission has not occurred yet
MRSA
Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus areus
1950s-penicilin resistance
1980s- methcillin resistance
1990s- MRSA resistance to vancomycin reported
VISA Vancomycin intermediate resistant S. aureus
VRSA Vancomycin resistant S aureus
West Nile Encephalitis
Caused by west nile virus
First diagnosed I the west nile region of Uganda in 1937
Appeared in NYC in 1999
Bovine Spongifern Encephalopathy
Caused by a prion
Also causes Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD)
New variant CJD in humans is related to cattle fed sheep offal for protein
Escherichia Coli O157:H7
Toxin-producing strain of E. coli
First seen in 1982
Leading cause of diarrhea worldwide
Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever
Ebola virus
Causes fever, hemorrhaging, and blood clotting
First identified near Ebola River, Congo
Outbreaks every few years
Cryptosporidosis
Cryptosporidium
Protozoa
First reported in 1976
Causes of 30% of diarrheal illness in developing countries
In the U.S. transmitted via water
Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)
Caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
First identified in 1981
Worldwide epidemic infecting 30 million people 14000 new infections every day
Sexually transmitted infection affecting male and female
HIV/AIDS in U.S. 30% female and 75% African American

Chapter 2 Microbiology- Chemical Principles

Chemical Reactions
Involve the making and breaking of bonds.
Endergonic reactions absorb energy and need energy to get started
Exergonic reactions release energy

Synthesis Reactions
Anabolism: Synthesis of molecules
Decomposition: Reverse of synthesis, to break down, break bonds
Catabolism: Decomposition reactions
Exchange: Part synthesis and part decomposition
Reversable: Can occur in either direction

IMPORTANT BIOLOGICAL COMPOUNDS
Inorganic compounds are small, structurally simple, and normally lack carbon. Include water, O2, carbon, and many salts, acids, and bases. -Water: H and OH participate in chemical reactions. Water makes for a great Solvent Polar substances undergo Dissociation Strong hydrogen bonding makes for a good temp buffer -Acid: Substance that disolves into one or more hydrogen ions and one more negative ions (anions). -Base: Dissociates into one or more positive ions (cations) plus one or more negativelt charged hydroxide ions, that can accept or combine with protons. pH 7-14. Contain more OH than H. -Salt: A substance that dissociates in water into cations and anions, neither of which is H or OH. pH 0-7. Contain more H than OH. -pH: Measures the amound of H in a solution by a scale from 0-14. Organic compounds are structurally complex and contain carbon and hydrogen. -Carbon skeleton: chain of carbon atoms in an organic molecule. -Functional groups: responsable for most of the characteristic chemical properties of a particular organic compound. -Small organic molecules can combine into very large molecules c called Macromolecules. -Polymers: large molecules formed by covalent bonding of many repeating small molecules called monomers. -Dehydration synthesis: releasing a molecule of water -Carbohydrates: Large and diverse group of organic compounds including sugars and starches. Made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. -Simple sugars are called Monosaccharides, each molecule contains from 3-7 carbon atoms. -Disaccharides are formed when 2 monosaccharides bond in a dehydration synthesis reaction. Reverse of dehydration is Hydrolysis. Dehydration synthesis -Polysaccharides consist of tens or hundreds of monosaccharides through dehydration synthesis. -Oligosaccharides: consist of 2-20 monosaccharides. Glycogen Cellulose Dextran Chitin Starch -Lipids: Second major group of organic compounds found in living matter. Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Simple lipids contain alcohol called glycerol and fatty acids. Beef fat= saturated; Linsed oil= unsaturated Complex lipids contain phosphorus, nitrogen, and sulfur, in addition to the carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen found in simple lipids. Phospholipids make up membrane. -Steroids: four interconnected carbon rings that are characteristic of steroids. Part of membrane -Proteins are organic molecules that contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Flagella are made up of proteins. -Enzymes are the proteins that speed up a chemical reaction -Transporter proteins help transport certain chemicals into and out of cells. -Toxins produced by some desease causeing microorganisms are also proteins. -Amino Acids are the bulding blocks of proteins. -Amino acids exist in either 2 configuations called Stereoisomers,designated D and L. (D) right handed, (L) left handed, 3 dementional. L most often found. -Peptide Bonds are bonds between amino acids. For every peptide bond formed between 2 amino acids, one water molecules is released. Dehydration synthesis -Levels of protein structure: -Primary structure is when amino acids are linked together to form a polypeptide chain. -Secondary structure is the twisting and folding of the polypeptide chain. Clockwise (helices) and pleated sheets. -Tertiary structure is the overall 3 dimentional structure of the polypeptide chain. -Quaternary structure consists of 2 or mroe individual polupeptide chains that operate as a single functional unit. -Conjugated proteins: consist of amino acids and other organic molecules -Glycoproteins: proteins linked to oligosaccharide chains on cell surface. -Nucleoproteins: linked to nucleic acids -Lipoproteins: proteins linked to lipids in cytoplasm or cell surface. -Nucleic Acids: consist of nucleotides. Pentose, phosphate group, nitrogen. -DNA: Double helix A is always paired with T C is always paired with G -RNA: Single stranded Bases is uracil (U) instead of thymine 3 other bases: A,G,C. -ATP Stores the chemical energy released by some chemical reactions and provides energy for reactions the require energy. Made by dehydration synthesis
Chapter 4A The plasma membrane
Lipid bilayer
Peptidoglycan
Outer membrane
Phospholipid bilayer (only make up 30-40% of membrane mass)
Peripheral proteins (attachment sites)
Integral proteins
Transmembrane proteins
Fluid mosaic model
Membrane is a viscous as olive oil
Proteins move to function
Phospholipids rotate and move laterally
The plasma membrane
Selective permeability allows passage of some molecules
Enzymes for ATP production
Photosynthetic pigments on folding called chromatophores or thylakoids damage to the membrane by alcohols, quaternary ammonium (detergents), and polymyxin antibiotics causes leakage of cell contents ex. Neosporin
Movement of materials across membranes simple diffusion: movement of a solute from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration equilibrium facilitated diffusion: solute combines with a transporter protein (Permease) in the membrane osmosis: the movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane from an area of high water concentration to an area of lower water concentration osmotic pressure: the pressure needed to stop the movement of water across the membrane
Movement of water across membranes through lipid layer aquaporins (water channels)
The principle of osmosis isotonic solution- no net movement of water hypotonic solution- water moves into the cell if the cell wall is strong, it contains the swelling. If the cell wall is weak or damaged, the cell bursts (osmotic lysis) hypertonic solution- water moves out of the cell causing its cytoplasm to shrink (plasmolysis)
(crenation)
Movement across membrane
Active transport- requires a transporter protein and ATP
Uniport
Antiport= Na+/K+ pump
Symport (coupled)= called secondary active transport =Na+/I- symporter
Group translocation: requires a transporter protein and PEP (PhosphoEnolPyruvate)

Chapter 4B Functional Anatomy of Eukaryotic Cells

Prokaryote
One circular, not in a membrane
No histones
No organelles
Peptidoglycan cell walls if Bacteria
Pseudomurein cell walls if Archaea
Binary fission
Eukaryote
Paired chromosomes in nuclear membrane
Histones
Organelles in membrane
Polysaccaride cell walls
Mitotic spindles
The Eukaryotic Cell
Projections: contain cytoplasm anf have plasma membrane around them. ex. Cilia and Flagella Flagella and Cilia -Basal body= microtubules -tubulin -9 pairs + 2 array Prokaryotic flagella= rotating motion Eukaryotic flagella= wave like motion Flagella= Few, longer than cell size Cilia= numerous, short
The cell wall and Glycocalyx
Cell wall -Plants, fungi, alge -Carbohydrates Cellulose (plants, algae, and some fungi) Chitin (Some fungi and crustations) Glucan and Mannan (yeasts)
Glycocalyx=sticky!
-Carbohydrates extending from plasma membrane -Bonded to proteins and lipids inmembrane = Glycoproteins and glycolipids (strength)
The Plasma Membrane
Phospholipid bilayer
Peripheral proteins
Integral proteins
Transmembrane proteins
Sterols= resist lysis only mycoplasma
Glycocalyx carbohydrates= recognition sites or bacterial attachment sites.
Selective permeability allows oassage of some molecules -Simple diffusion -Facilitative diffusion -Osmosis -Active transport
No Group Translocation
Endocytosis
-Phagovytosis: Psudopods extend and engulf particles. -Pinocytosis: Membrane folds inward, nringing in fluid and dissolved substances (virus entry)
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm membrane: Substance inside plasma membrane and ouside the nucleus
Cyrosol: Fluid portion of cytoplasm
Cytoskeleton: Microfilaments intermediate filaments, microtubules -Distribute nutrients in cell -Move Pseudopoda
Prokaryotic= Enzymes Free floating
Eukarytoic= Enzymes on organelles
Cytoplasm Streaming: (EUK ONLY) Movement of cytoplasm throughout cells helps cell move over surfaces.
Ribosomes
Protein snthesis
80S (larger and denser, eukaryotes) -Membrane-bound: Attached to ER (rough) -Free in cytoplasm -2 Subunits made in nuleolous -60S (larger): 3 Molecules of RNA -40S (smaller): 1 Molecules of rRNA
70S (prokaryotes) -In chloroplasts and mitochondria, suggests evolution from prokaryote -10-20 Ribosomes= polyribosome
Organelles- Not all cells have same types
Nucleus: Contain chromosomes
ER: Transport network
Golgi Complex: Membrane formation and secretion (fed ex)
Vacuole: Brings food into cells and provides support
Depends on specialization, age, and level of activity! (nutrients available)
The Eukaryotic Nucleus
Spherical or oval
Double membrane called envelope
Nuclear pores for communication with cytoplasm
Nucleoli= condensed regions of chromosome (where rRNA is being made)
Histones= Proteins= 165 base pairs/ 9 histones= nucleosome
Chromatin= Not dividing (gelatin) DNA (Interphase)
Chromosomes= Thicker, rod-like bodies of DNA (Mitosis/Cytokinesis)
Enoplasmic Reticulum
Flattened membranous sacs or tunules called Cisterns
Continuous with nuclear envolope
Rough ER in eukaryotic cells
Cisterns withere glycoproteins and glycolipids are made
Smooth er more diverse- make lipids, cholesterol, release glucose, uptake of ions
Golgi Complex
Ribosome protein= packing
3-20 cisterns (pita bread)= cup- shapped 1.) Rough ER= Transport vesicles 2.) Become transfer vesicles in golgi ( proteinchange) 3.) Leave secretory vesicles= exocytosis 4.) Some become storage vesicles (lysosomes)
Lysosomes and Vacuoles
Vacuole= Single membrane: Tonoplast storage, transport, generic uses
Lysosomes= Single membrane; powerful enzymes for digestion
Organelles
Mitocondrian: Cellular respiration
Chloroplast: Photosynthesis
Peroxisome: Oxidation of fatty acids; destroys H2O2 Mitocchondria Double membrane Number varies Giardia= none Liver= 2000/ cell Matrix= semifluid High surface area on inner membrane produce ATP 70S ribosomes and own DNA Chloroplasts Membrane encloses Pigment Chlorophyll and enzymes for photosynthesis ( plants and algae) Thylakoids= Flattened membranes with chlorophyll Stacks of thylakoids= Grana Peroxisomes and Centisomes Peroxisomes= smalled than lysosomes; divid; oxidize amino acids and fatty acids normally. Contain Hydrogen peroxide Centrosomes= Located near the nucleus 2 components: Pericentriolar area- region of cytosol with dense protein fibers (makes mitotic spindle fibers and microtubules for nondividing cells) Centrioles- Cylindrical stuctures, 9 clusters of 3 microtubules( triplets), Circular pattern (9+0 array)
Endosymbiotic Theory
The origin of Eukaryotic cells from Prokaryotic calls
Larger bacteriaal cells (Nucleoplasm) lost their cell walls- engulfed smaller bacteria
Symbiotic relationship
Ex: Mitocondria and chloroplasts (own DNA)

QUESTIONS!!
Which three organelles are not associated with the Golgi complex? What does this suggest about their origin?
Compare and contrast prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell walls and glycocalyxes
Differentiate prokaryotic and eukaryotic flagella
Compare and contrast prokaryotic and eukaryotic plasma membrane
Compare and contrast prokaryotic and eukaryotic cytoplasms
Compare the structure and funtion of eukaryotic and prokaryotic ribosomes.

Basic shapes
Bacillus-(rod-shaped)
-Scientific name: Bacillus -Shape: Bacillus(b)
Coccus-(spherical)
Spiral -Vibrio= curved rods -Spirillum= rigid cork screw with flagella -Spirochete= use axial filaments (flexable external sheath)
Unusual shapes
Haloarcula: Salt bacteria (rectangular shaped)

Arrangements PAGE 78
Pairs: Diplococci, diplobacilli
Clusers: Staphylococci
Chains: Steptococci,streptobacilli

The External Stucture of a Prokaryotic Cell
Glycocalyx
Outside cell wall
Usually sticky
Capsul: Neatly organized
Slime layer: unorganized and loose
Extracellular Polysaccharide (and polypeptide) allows cells to attach
Capsules Prevent phagocytosis

Apendages= 2 types
Flagella and axial filiments
Attachment or channels
Flagella
outside cell wall
Made chains of Flagellin
Attached to a protein hook
Anchored to the wall and membrane by the Basal body= (rod and rings)
Chemotaxis (+ or -)
Phototaxis (light)
Motile Cells: Clockwise direction -Repelants cause tumples -Attractants cause runs Arangements of Bacterial Flagella
Peritrichous= all over
Monotrichous= one flagella at one pole
Lophotrichous and polar= tuft at one pole
Amphitrichous and polar= both poles
Axial Filaments
Also called endoflagella
In spirochetes
Anchored at one end of cell
Rotation causes cell to move Frimbriae
Fimbriae allow attachment protein pillin= helically arranged around a core
At poles or evenly ditributed
Few several hundered
From biofilms and attach to epithilial surfaces
When absent= no pathology Pili
Longer than fimbriae (pilin potein) -Facilitate= transfer of DNA from one cell to another= conjugation (sex) pili. -Glididng motility= mechanism not known! (move through soil, low water content) -Twitching motility= "Grappling hook model" (Psudomonas, gonorrhoeae)

The Cell Wall
Prvents osmotic lysis
Made of peptidoglycan (in bacteria)

Peptidoglycan
Polymer of disaccharide: (NAG) and (NAM)
Gram postitive cell wall thick peptidoglycan teichoic acids -Lipoteichoic acid links to plasma membrane -Wall teichoic acid links to peptidoglycan thin periplasmic space
May regulate movement of cations (bc neg charge)
Polysaccharides provide antigenic variation
2 ring nasal body (flagella)
Distributed by lysosomes
Penicillin sensative
Gram negative cell wall
Thin peptidoglycan outter periplasmic space
4 ring basal body (flagella)
Exotoxin
Tetracycline sensative Outter Membrane
Lipopolysaccharide: (In outter cell membrane) -O Polysaccharide -Core Polysaccharide -Lipid A
Porin Protein: (Make channels, decide which cations go thru, outter cell membrane)
Periplasm
Lipoprotein
Forms the periplasm

Gram Stain Mechanism
Crystal violet- iodine crystals form in cell
Gram Positive -Alcohol dehydrates peptidoglycan -CV-I crystals do not leave
Grame negative -Alcohol dissolves outter membrane

Gram Variable
When Gram positive cells look Gram negative -All cells are dead -Old culture *Bacillus sp. (Lactobacillus) *Clostridium perfringens
Atypical Cell Walls
Acid fast cell walls -Look like gram- positive -Waxy lipid (mycolic acid) bound to peptidoglycan -Hot carbolfuchsin binds to cytoplasm- resists acid- alcohol -Mycobacterium -TB and Leprosy -Thought to be virus -Nocardia -Pathogenic -Lipids give resistance to chemicals and dyes
Mycoplasmas
-Lack cell walls -Plemorphic= filamentous, cocci or dough-nut shaped -Sterols in plasma membrane (like eukaryotes)- add to media -CM acts as barrier/ transport and for support

Archaea -Walls of pseudomurein (lack NAM and D- amino acids) -Look G-b/c mostly polysaccharide and protein in CW

Damage to the Cell Wall
Lysosomes digests disaccharide in peptidoglycan
Penicillin inhibits tetrapeptide bridges in peptidoglycan
Protoplast in a Wall-less gram- positive
Spheroplast in a wall-less gram-negative cell -Still has OM present -Both are susceptable to osmotic lysis
L forms (L-phase varients) are wall-less cells that swell into irregular shapes (ex. proteus)
Natural CW gene mutation= no CW = chronic infections

Internal Stuctures of Prokaryotic Cells:
Cytoplasm: The substance inside the plasma membrane; less rigid and phospholipids!
70-80% water
Sugars, aa, organic molecukes and salts!
Present
1) Nucleoid 2) Ribosomes 3)Inclusions
No cytoskeleton -Protein (actin and tubulin) give rise to rod like and helical shapes
No cytoplasmic streaming

The Nucleoid
Aggregate of bacterial chromosome attached to PM
Single, long, continuous thread of dsDNA
20% of cell volumes
No envelope
Looks granular or fiberous
Shapes
-Spherical -Elongated -Dumbbell
May have (circular dsDNA) or many= extra chromosomal= 5-100 genes
4 functions -Atibiotic resistance -Tolerance to a toxin -Able to produce a toxin -Synthesising different enzymes

Ribosomes
Sites of protein synthesis
Actively growing cell= more
Prokaryotes= 10000+ -Cells look granular -Smaller less dense molecules in prokaryotes -70S ribosomes only (30S +50S)
Anitibiotics that inhibit protein synthesis: (kill bt) -Steptomycin (30S) -Gentamicin (30S) -Erthromycin (50S) -Chloramphenicol (50S)

Inclusions for Storage!
Help with osmotic pressure issues and can be used for ID
Single layer membranes
Metachromatic granules (colutin)= Phosphate reserves
Polysaccharide granules= Energy reserves (Starch/ glycogen presence) = no single layer membrane!
Lipid inclusions= Energy reserves (Sudan dyes)
Sulfur granules= Energy reserves (Thiobacillus)
Carboxysomes= Ribulose 1.5-diphosphate carboxylase for CO2 fixation (Photosynthetic bt.)
Gas vacuoles = Protein- covered cylinders (buoyant)
Magnetosomes= Iron oxide (destroys H202)

Endospores
Resting Cells
Resistant to desiccation, heat, chemicals, radiation
Bacillus Clostridium (SOIL)
Sporulation: Endospore formation (green)
Germination: Return to vegetative state (red)
Deplation of aa= Sporangium
Placement varies by species -Terminally: at one end (C. tetani -Subterminally: near one end -Centrally: In middle
Water eliminated by the time sporulation complete -No metabolic activities (dormant for 1000 years)
Inside endospore -DNA, small amts of RNA, ribosomes, enzymes and dipicolinic acid (was in cytoplasm) -Calcium triggers germenation= damages spore coat; starts enzymes (small amt of water)
1 endospore= 1 vegetation cell ( not reproductive)
Different from (Euk) fungal, algal spores (reproductive)

Formation of Endospores by Sporulation PAGE 98!!!!!
KNOW CYCLE AND HOW GERMINATIONIS TRIGGERED