Philippine Society

PART I: INTRODUCTION: THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
MAN IN THE WORLD
A. The Social Nature of Man
 Man is “social by nature”: he relates himself to other men with the same naturalness as a fish takes to water
 Man is entirely dependent on others for everything
 Aristotle said, “every man feels naturally like a friend to other men. “
The natural feeling of man towards other men is friendliness
 Being unfriendly is like an afterthought, not something spontaneous
 Only when he starts thinking he may find reasons for not being friendly. This is found across all cultures
 It is natural and spontaneous for men to form societies
End goal of society is for the good of every man In the society (common good). It is for every man, not just for the majority
B. Natural Societies
Those that arise spontaneously without any new inclination of the will
I. Family
II. Civil Society
 Most basic and necessary societies for human activity and development
C. Man and History
 History (Greek word meaning chronicle)  happenings in the life of man
 History is a specific human phenomenon flowing from the rationality of man. “History is the teacher of life”
I. History of a person
 A biography which can be related to the history of mankind as a whole
 Although the body of man decays, the human soul is spiritual and can be cultivated II. Social History
 Life of societies, nations, countries, or certain human activities
 Results of the social nature of man: arise from the fact that some persons have to come together to reach a certain end, and in pursuit of that end a collective history has risen
 Cause of history: persons with their free activity, which results to:
 Progress – when man invents something which will improve agriculture or medicine
 Tradition – when man transmits such to all future generations
 History does not show a constant pattern of progress or decline, however freedom of man is always involved
D. Human Work
Work is flowing from human nature  a human action which consists in producing something.
Example: giving perfection to a being which it did not have before
Agere (“activity derives from this verb”)  the moral implication of human work: its motivation in relation to the last end
Facere  actual making; the production
Work perfects both the object and the subject or agent since in both cases there is an actualization of potentiality  The perfection from facere is only relative perfection.
 Join facere and agere to achieve absolute perfection
E. Sanctification of Work
Work sanctifies man:  to sanctify work, be sanctified by work, and sanctify other through work

It is done for God
Should be done with technical perfection
Human work  flows from human intelligence and will, so that man imprints his own stamp on the things outside himself, and thus brings them up to his own level. In this sense, he spiritualizes them.
F. Participation in the Divine Action
Man does not “create” the good of those things, but rather helps them to reach their good, according to the principle of subsidiary
I. Man may know in the material universe the truth that leads to the creator
II. Man may act upon the material universe with his intelligence and will and thus feeding himself. Only if he uses his spiritual powers can he dominate nature
III. Man may govern part of creation, thus being the agent of divine providence
 These highlight the greatness of man and the dignity of the human person

INTRODUCTION
Filipino worldview
 There is no full attention on man’s idea of the world around him. Most articles are about folk arts, folk songs, cuisine television and radio dramas.
 To understand the rationale of Filipino behavior. (i.e. how we perceive our surrounding world, what this world means, how we respond or adapt to it, how do these concepts and meanings of the universe affect Filipino way of life?)
The Notion of worldview
Worldview- the way people characteristically look upon the universe
**The way we look and respond to our surrounding world.
 To create awareness that makes ideas and events real to human experience
 Including: nature, society and self => CULTURE
Worldview and Culture
Worldview is the core of any culture. – the way we see, feel, relate and do things.
Consists of the internal models (mental images, feelings and how we look at others and ourselves) of external realities.
Worldview is the essence of our way of life, it gives meaning to what we do—these should be experienced/ happen in everyday life.
Culture: “A system of symbols and meanings people use to organize their ideas, interpret their experiences, make decisions and guide actions”
1. Pattern of life within a community—activities and social arrangements characteristics of a particular human group.
2. Organized system of knowledge and belief
3. Shared information encoded in a system of symbols
4. Pattern of shared basic assumptions—to teach new members the correct way to perceive, think and feel in relation to problems.
5. Set of values, behavior, and norms which tell people what to do, how to do it and what is acceptable and unacceptable.
Central to the concept of culture- Shared knowledge
 The way they relate to nature, to other humans, supernatural forces and spirits
 Religious, social and political beliefs
**Intellectual, emotional, relational, ethical and moral attitudes about human life and how such life should be experienced and lived within its particular environment.
Worldview and Language

Language- Medium through which events and things cultural are made explicit, communicated and experienced. (can either be oral or written)
When meanings are attached to these sounds or words, they become symbols that form the bases of communication—to express ideas, feelings and actions.
We can show what we feel via arts such as paintings, dance, architecture, cuisine etc. but we have to gather these feelings into categories to show what we mean with what we say or intend to do. (we look, we label, we see)
Through linguistic labels, we can describe things or events as they are from our POV or specify how we want other people to understand what these ideas and events are, how they should be understood and handled an in what way.
Worldview and Religion
Communicate our image of the world through religion (religious rituals and ceremonies)
Our identity- status, role in the society, relation with others (Physically observed and emot ionally experienced) Images can change once certain religious rites are performed on us.
 Marriage
 Baptism
 Water- symbol of the Holy Water (sacred and cannot be used in other activities)
Give objects a complex set of meanings that are capable in changing one’s beliefs, attitudes, feelings, and actions.
Meanings- links to the sacred part of the surrounding world.
Worldview and Customary Practices
Customary practices- rights of interaction and understand people’s behaviors.
 Overt or explicit manifestations of our inner thoughts, feelings, views of the external world— our internal image of things—our worldview.
 Shaking hands, beso, bowing heads, kissing, etc.
Example: Used in medical practice wherein doctors wear a stethoscope around his neck and nurse wears white. For professionalism. For patient’s confidence and positive psychological outlook on what the see/ experience.
Ethnographic Base of Worldview
-How Filiinos pictures the surrounding world
-How they respond to it
-Explain the events they experience in their environment through the beliefs and practices.
Ethnography- “Thick Description” Description of a culture. Through verbal – long narrative and what they do in actual activities.
Focus of the study
Rural sectors of Filipino society- many traditions beliefs and practices have remained intact in these places But many of the rural beliefs and practices are also found in urban centers like, Cebu and Manila. (i.e.
Quiapo, Binondo Churches—sell medicinal plants, amulets and healing prayers)
Karma/ Suwerete (luck)- Many urban dwellers as well as in rural places practice this. Such as doing the sign of the cross, give charity to increase goo karma, praying the rosary, going to Mt. Banahaw.
Miracle healings.
Kapalaran (fate or destiny)- Exists even among intellectuals, the academicians and the social elites.
When faced with uncertainty they seek Manghuhula / palm readers to explain the future or why they are miserable now. Go on pilgrimages, spiritual guidance,, moral strength and inner peace.
Awang (witches) and the multo (ghosts)- Nocturnal beings that have the power to change themselves into any form.






Balete drive
Suberb communities in metro manila
Old buildings
Hospitals, churches, big houses

Urban dwellers are just as sensitive as their rural counterparts.
 fistfights and killings are provoked by hard stare
 Respect- kissing the hand or the forehead of the elderly, slight bow of the head and extension of the hands.
** Superstitions
DATA GATHERING
Fieldwork
Interviews and observations
In rural villages, slum districts of manila and first class subdivisions
To preserve the people’s point of view and keep the original meanings and contexts of the local concepts. The use of English language- to reach a wider audience
Make local ways coherent and rational
Limitations
Culled from unpublished field notes and previously published articles and books
Organization of the Book
Organized according to what we think constitutes the specific dimensions of worldview:












natural biological communal social normative personal (self) ethical moral aesthetic teleological ideological Language
Tagalog-based national language terms are used and answers are edited very little to preserve the nuances of traditional culture and/ or the logic of local knowledge.
The Social Order
I. The Centrality of the Human Person
 Individual men are necessarily the foundation, cause, and end of all social institutions
 Man is the center, and the purpose of all economic and social life o The following should be respected and promoted:
 Dignity and complete vocation of the human person
 Welfare of the society as a whole
 Man is the primary route the Church must travel in fulfilling her mission o He is the primary and fundamental way for the Church o The way leads invariably through the mystery of the Incarnation and the Redemption
 The foundation and goal of the social order is the human person – as a subject of inalienable rights o Inalienable rights – Rights that cannot be surrendered, sold, or transferred to someone else o Inalienable rights are not conferred from the outside, but arise from the person’s very nature II. Society Founded on Truth
 A civic society is to be considered well ordered, beneficial, and in keeping with human dignity if it is grounded on truth. o This will be accomplished when each one duly recognizes both his rights and obligations towards others.
 The supreme good and moral good meet in truth: o The truth of God, the Creator, and Redeemer, and the truth of man, created and redeemed by Him (God). o Only upon this truth is it possible to construct a renewed society, solve weighty societal and totalitarianism problems, so as to make way for the authentic freedom of the person.
 Rules in governing the relations between States o Elimination of every trace of racism o Consequent recognition of the principle that all States, by nature, are equal in dignity
III. Solidarity
 Solidarity is not a feeling of vague compassion or shallow distress at the misfortunes of so many people. It is a firm and persevering determination to commit oneself to the common good. o Desire for profit and thirst for power – Solid convictions that hinder development
 In the spirit of solidarity, we learn: o Respect for every human person o Respect for the true values and cultures of others o Respect for the legitimate autonomy and self-determination of others o To look beyond ourselves in order to understand and support the good of others o To contribute to our own resources in social solidarity for the development and growth that come from equity and justice o To build structures that will ensure social solidarity
 Social solidarity is not only for individual persons, but also for nations.
 In order to overcome today’s widespread individualistic mentality:

o




Concrete commitment to solidarity and charity
 Beginning in the family with the mutual support of husband and wife
 Care which the different generations give to one another
(In this sense, the family can be called a community of work & solidarity)
Principle of Solidarity - One of the fundamental principles of the Christian view of social and political organizations
Solidarity helps us the see the “other” as our “neighbor, helper, a sharer” in the banquet of life to which all are equally invited by God.

IV. Subsidiarity
 A community of a higher order should not interfere in the internal life of a community of a lower order. o Rather, the higher should support the lower in case of need and should help to coordinate its activities with the activities of the rest of society, always with a view to the common good.  The Principle of Subsidiarity is opposed to all forms of collectivism o Collectivism – The practice or principle of giving a group priority over each individual in it. o It sets limit for state intervention. It aims at harmonizing the relationships between individuals and societies. It tends toward the establishment of true international order.
V. Participation
 The two aspirations (To equality and to participation) seek to promote a democratic type of society.  It is essential for every human being to have a sense of participating, of being part of the decisions and endeavors that shape the destiny of the world.
 It is a strict duty of justice and truth not to allow fundamental human needs to remain unsatisfied
 All citizens have the right to participate in the life of their community.
 Two forms of man’s dignity and freedom: The aspiration to equality and the aspiration to participation  The dignity of the human person involves the right to take an active part in public affairs and to contribute one’s part to the common good of the citizens.
VI. Alienation and Marginalization
 Alienation – Loss of the authentic meaning of life. Found also in work, when it is organized as to ensure maximum returns and profits with no concern whether the worker grows or diminishes as a person
 There can be no morality without freedom: o “It is only in freedom that man can turn to what is good” o “Genuine freedom is an outstanding manifestation of the divine image in man. For God willed to leave a man ‘in the power of his own counsel’”
 Freedom is the measure of man’s dignity and greatness
 Freedom is not simple the absence of tyranny or oppression. Nor is freedom a license to do whatever we like. Freedom has an inner “logic” which distinguishes it and ennobles it: Freedom is ordered to the truth, and is fulfilled in man’s quest for truth and in man’s living in the truth. o Detached from the truth about human person, freedom deteriorates into license in the lives of individuals, and, in political life, it becomes the caprice of the most powerful and the arrogance of power.
VII. Social Freedom





Relations between States should be based on freedom, that is to say, that no country may unjustly oppress others or unduly meddle in their affairs. o All should help to develop in others a sense of responsibility, a spirit of enterprise, and an earnest desire to be the first to promote their own advancement in every field.
The inseparable connection between truth and freedom – which expresses the essential bond between God’s wisdom and will – is extremely significant for the life of persons in the socioeconomic and socio-political sphere.

VIII. Culture
 At the heart of every culture lies the attitude man takes to the greatest mystery: The mystery of
God. Different cultures are basically different ways of facing the question of the meaning of personal existence. When this question is eliminated, the culture and moral life of nations are corrupted. IX. Genuine Human Development
 Increased possession is not the ultimate goal of nations nor of individuals. It is essential if man is to develop as a man, but in a way it imprisons man if he considers it the supreme good, and it restricts his vision.
 Integral human development – the development of every person and of the whole person, especially of the poorest and most neglected in the community – is at the very heart of evangelization. X. The Common Good
 “The sum total of social conditions which allow people, either as groups or s individuals, to reach their fulfillment more fully and more easily”
 Common good concerns the life of all.
 In consists of three essential elements: o Respect – public authorities are bound to respect the fundamental and inalienable rights of the human person. Society should permit each of its members to fulfill his vocation o Social well-being and development – Development is the epitome of all soc ial duties.
Should have access to what is needed to lead a truly human life: Food, clothing, health, work, education, culture, suitable education, right to establish a family, etc. o Peace – Stability and security of a just order
 The social order requires constant improvement. It must be founded on truth, built on justice, and animated by love.
XI. Social Sin
 Each individual’s sin in some way affects others. Some sins, however, by their very matter constitute a direct attack on one’s neighbor and, more exactly, in the language of the Gospel, against one’s brother or sister.
 The term “social” applies to every sin against justice in interpersonal relationships, committed either by the individual against the community or by the community against the individual.  Social is every sin against the common good and its exigencies in relation to the whole broad spectrum of the rights and duties of citizens.

I.

The Centrality of the Human Person

Men
-

Social by nature and raised to an order of existence that transcends and subdues nature
The source the center and the purpose of all economic and social life.
Not merely the subject of social, cultural and historical conditioning
To tend towards the changing conditions of his existence
No human power may obstruct (obstruct meaning: hinder, prevent, block) the realization of man as a person Dignity and complete vocation of the human person and the welfare of society as a whole are to be respected and promoted.
Writes personal history through bonds, contracts, situations and social structures linking with other men
Primary and fundamental way for the Church, the way traced out by Christ himself, the way that leads invariably through the mystery of incarnation and the redemption.
The foundation and goal of the social order- Human Person (subject of inalienable rights- from the person’s very nature)
II.
Society Founded on Truth
Civic Society
- Well ordered
- Beneficial
- Keep human dignity
= Before a society can be considered well-ordered, creative, and consonant with human dignity, it must be based on truth
= And when each one duly recognizes both his rights and his obligations towards other.
The society should be based on truth of God that is of supreme good and morally good. Given this fact, totalitarianism can be abolished to make way for the authentic freedom of a person. If society would not be based on this truth, the self-interest of the groups of people would set them in opposition with one another. The first point to be settled is that mutual ties between States must be governed by truth.
Truth eliminates: racial discrimination; and recognize all States are by nature equal in dignity.
- Each of them accordingly has the right: to exist, to develop, to possess the necessary means and accept a primary responsibility for its own development
- Each is also legitimately entitled to its good name and to the respect, which is its due.
This is how we know what love is: Jesus Christ laid down his life for us. And we ought to lay down our lives for our brothers and sisters.
Solidarity flows from Christian communion with Christ through faith by the action of the Holy Spirit.
Solidarity is a Christian virtue because it is closely tied with the charity, the distinguishing mark of
Christ’s disciples.
III.

Solidarity

Solidarity- Ethical response to our experience of interdependence. We live within a system, which determines how we relate to each other in the social, economic, political, cultural and religious spheres of our existence. The experience of interdependence calls for collaboration with others. The moral response to experience of interdependence is solidarity.
When interdependence becomes recognized in this way, the correlative response as a moral and social attitude, as a virtue, is solidarity.

Solidarity helps us see other people and nations as our neighbors. This part of Catholic teaching challenges us to redefine our concept of neighbor, remembering always that every person, regardless of how different they might seem to be from us, is also a child of God, and therefore our brother or sister.
We are called to overcome barriers of race, religion, gender, nationality, ethnicity, and economic status and to work for global peace and justice. We are one, human family and we must go beyond our differences. We can show solidarity on many levels. As we go about our daily routine, we can show solidarity by making an effort to get to know a new student (or a student who is avoided or picked on by others) or by something as simple as not participating in office or neighborhood gossip. We show solidarity in our local communities whenever we work to solve problems that don’t directly affect us.
On the global level, solidarity helps keep people living in rich nations from being indifferent to the poverty and lack of basic human rights experienced by people living in other nations. Solidarity is determination to commit oneself to the common good, because we are all one family and we are responsible for each other.
IV.
Subsidiarity
This principle holds that human affairs are best handled at the lowest possible level, closest to the affected pesons. When the principle of subsidiarity is ignored, governments often overstep their bounds in managing matters best handled on a more local or individual level. Typically this decreases economy, efficiency, liberty and the personal character of the social order.
Principle of subsidiarity oppeses to all forms of collectivism. It sets limits for state intervention. Aims to harmonize the relationships between individuals and societies. To establish true international order.
Excessive intervention by the state can threaten personal freedom and initiative. The teaching of the
Church has elaborated the principle of subsidiarity, according to which "a community of a higher order should not interfere in the internal life of a community of a lower order, depriving the latter of its functions, but rather should support it in case of need and help to co- ordinate its activity with the activities of the rest of society, always with a view to the common good." 7
Regulating the movement from marginalization to participation for the sake of the common good is the principle of subsidiarity. This principle warns about the tendency of the state and other large-scale institutions to usurp authority to control persons, thereby destroying individual liberty and initiative. The notion of subsidiarity is that activities or functions ought to be accomplished by the most local of smallest grouping possible, rather than be assumed by the larger groups or collectivity
The main effect of this principle is to limit the role of the state and other large-scale institutions while empowering local efforts. But those needs which cannot be effectively addressed at a local level should be referred to at the next highest level of organization. This principle was initially used to protect individuals and groups, but more recently it has been employed to define the relationship between particular nation-states and worldwide public authorities.
Purpose is to create, on a world basis, an environment in which the public authorities of each state, its citizens and intermediate associations, can carry out their tasks, fulfill their duties and exercise their right with greater security.
Rerum Novarum- Just resforms which can restore dignity to work as the free activity of man.
Society and State both have the responsibility especially in protecting the worker from the nightmare of unemployment

Indirectly- (principle of subsidiarity) by creating favorable conditions for free economic activities= abundant opportunities for employment and sources of wealth
Directly- (principle of solidarity) by placing certain limits on the autonomy of the parties who determine working conditions, ensuring the mimnimum support for the unemployed worker V.

Participation

Democratic type of society
- Equality
- Participation
Man builds his destiny within a series of particular groupings for their development (the political society).
All particular activities must be placed in a wider society=takes the dimension of the common good.
Every human being
- Have a sense of participation
- Being part of the decision and endeavors that shape the destiny of the world.
Deprivation of the right to shape their own lives and the basic right to participation in the choices of the society is denied= Violence and injustice
Fundamental human needs have to be satisfied. Help needy people to acquire expertise, develop their skills= enter the circle of exchange and make the best use of their resources and capacities
All citizens (no discrimination) should be able to participate freely and actively in establishing the constitutional bases of a political community, governing the state, choosing leaders, etc. Authorities hindering the citizens= BEWARE; Citizens should not take advantage.
All citizens have the right to participate in the life of their community. Corruption or favoritism= obstructs the legitimate sharing in the exercise of power, prevents people from benefitting equally from community assets and services (everyone has a right)
Scientific and Technological progress= people grow stronger (being well informed and better educated).
Aspiration to equality and participation= man’s dignity and freedom.
Dignity of a human person= right to take an active part in public affairs and contribute to the common good of the citizens.
Social Order’s subject, foundation and end is the HUMAN BEING
VI.

Alienation and Marginalization

Reality= Alienation and the loss of the authentic meaning of life.
Consumerism where people are given false information (superstitions) instead of experiencing life in an authentic and concrete way.
Alienation in work. Doesn’t matter if the worker grows or diminishes as a person, as long as there is profit. Worker is only a means to an end. 
Christian vision of reality= a reversal of means and ends.
When man does not realize the grandeur of the human person= deprives himself of possibility of benefiting from his humanity and entering into that relationship of solidarity and communion with others.
(for which God created him)
Man today= under threat due to his works and intellect and even his will. Man’s creations turns against man himself through consequences
No freedom= No morality

With freedom= man can be good
But he should not abuse it. Genuine freedom= manifestation of the divine image in man and seek
God in his own will. Man is in search of truth and has the right to be given respect but each has a moral obligation (to seek the truth and to adhere to it once it is known)
To disregard human nature which is made for freedom= ethically wrong and impossible to do so.
Society=> so organized
Result: society becomes progressively disorganized and goes into decline.
Freedom- measure of man’s dignity and greatness. Challenge to man’s spiritual growth and moral vitality of nations.
Freedom- not the absence of oppression; not a license to do whatever we like.
Has an inner “logic”: ordered to the truth and is fulfilled in man’s quest for truth and in man’s living in the truth
If detached from truth about the human person, freedom deteriorates into license in the lives of individuals. It becomes the caprice of the most powerful and the arrogance of power 
VII.

Social Freedom

Social freedom- not an ideology; it recognizes that human life is realized in history (diverse and imperfect) Dignity of a human person= respect for freedom
Relations between States should be based on freedom
No country can oppress the other or unduly meddle in their affairs
On the contrary, they should have a sense of responsibility, a spirit of enterprise and earnest desire to be the first to promote their own advancement in every field.
Truth and Freedom are inseparable = God’s wisdom and will
Extremely significant in a person’s socio economic and socio political life.
VIII.

Culture

Salvation and human culture
CULLTURE- (according each epoch) God revealing Himself to His people through Jesus Christ.
The Church use different cultures (examine it and understand it more deeply) so she may preach, spread and explain the message of Christ to all nations and in varied life of the community of the faithful. Church= everyone is welcome.
PART II: GEOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF PHILIPPINES
CULTURE
THIS VERY BEAUTIFUL PEARL OF THE ORIENT
-the Philippines is one of nature’s glories
-1898, Mabini thought that that the US wanted to covet the Philippines because of the richness of its physical resources and its potential as a colony.
>Nature’s Terrors
 Typhoons regularly swirl out of the Pacific





Typhoon Uring (Thelma)-1991
July 1990 Northern Luzon was devastated by an Earthquake
June 9, 1991 Mount Pinatubo; magnitude was so great that the entire world’s average temperatures were lowered by some degrees for several years as Pinatubo’s ash blocked sunlight.
 For Filipinos, the painful reality is that nature is both brutal & bountiful.
>Physical Environment
 7,107 islands
 500,00 square miles
 land area of 114.672 square miles and stretches 1,150 miles
 land area is approximately same as Italy
 3 stars symbolizes: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao
 Water not only atomizes the country it also dominates life cycle
 Prawn farming has become a major new industry; new protein source and export product
 Almost all of the coral reefs have been damaged by cyanide dumped into water to force fish to the surface; also depleted rich stock in the Philippine waters
 Monsoons: rains come from June to November; cool: December to February; hot: March to May
>Wet Rice
 Rice is the symbol of life
 Staple food for Filipinos
 Wet rice cultivation is a form of hydroponics
 The rice paddies are basins that hold the seed, fertilizer, and water required for growth
 It is possible to double or even triple one calendar year when there is sufficient fertilizer, a controlled and adequate supply of water, and a means to store and transport the rice to the market
 The Philippines became an importer of rice in the 19th century in order to feed a population spurt created by modern technology
 Modernization reduced the infant mortality rate, extended life expectancy of the average
Filipino, and eliminated some of the natural plagues that had previously limited growth
 The population explosion over the past century has forced generations of governments to devote constant attention to food production
 International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) developed a the “miracle rice”: the resulting hybrid had shorter stem that prevented it from falling over when new fertilizers create a bigger seed


Sugar, Hemp and Coconut
Sugar helped enrich mestizo planter community, financing a new respectability and solidifying their position in society
 Negros became a new center of wealth and power
 Export of sugar became the biggest business in the Philippines
 Much of the modernization of the Philippines took place around this export crop
 Development of deep-water ports, railroad and telegraph lines, and harbor facilities followed the demands of this bulk crop and its movement
 Tariff policy: critical determinant of profit in export industry like sugar
 Although free trade generated a constant surplus for the insular treasury and made fortunes for people involved in agricultural export, it ignored future economic consequences
>Land ownership and the distribution of rural wealth
 When Spaniards arrived they altered the existing usage of land by establishing the European concept of private ownership—prior to their arrival land had been owned communally
 Taxes imposed by Spaniards:


1.
2.
3.
4.





















Polo—forced labor obligation of 40 days for all males between 16-60
Tributo—head tax; tithe to the Church
Donativo de Zamboanga—special levy to help the Muslims
Vandala—forced delivery system by which goods had to be delivered to the government at set prices th 19 century, Spaniards restructured the tax base, urban and industrial taxes were created but Spanish were unwilling to impose taxes because of friar opposition
Friars owned vast percentage of land and were unwilling to fund the colonial treasury’s needs
Friars gave concessions to inquilinos to clear and improve the land; they allowed a certain number of years rent-free and where thereafter charged a rent-in-kind by friars
Inquilinos in return, sublet their concessions to share croppers (kasama) for about 50% of each sharecropper’s yield
In practice, the system was frequently abused, and the peasant sharecropper often paid to the inqulinos far more than the theoretical 50 percent
Friars failed to reform the repressive quality of this institution and to realize that his brutal landholding system was defeating their purpose in the Philippines
When American came they thought that Philippines needed to be self-financing and that through collection procedures and new taxes, sufficient revenues could be generated to fund the necessary infrastructure to generate growth
Americans hope that their expansion in the Philippines would generate the economic capital required, while also solving the entrenched problems of tenancy and sharecropping
The US negotiated with the Vatican for sale of friar lands to be given to the actual tenants whom were majority poor
Americans however failed to recognize that homesteading in an Asian, wet-rice, peasant society was something uniquely social, political, and economic
The Americans never imposed a policy land reform, because of political reasons
The Americans made a deal with the elite to maintain existing social patterns in exchange for collaboration U.S. land policy failed to redress the inequalities of the Philippine land system
Population growth, a longer life expectancy, fragmentation of ownership through inheritance, rural usury, an increase in absentee-landlordism, the collapse of the traditional landlord-tenant relationship in favor of impersonal economic obligations, and a growing peasant awareness of economic inequalities because of education, political agitation, and the media have combined to make land reform one of the sensitive issues for Philippine society.
Tropical rainforests of the Philippines are one of the country’s key sources of export income
Logging and timber industry created serious problems of soil erosion
Philippines has the world’s largest deposits of chromite and 6th largest producer of gold in the world Philippine hemp known for its strength and suppleness
MANILA
 Gleaming skyscrapers and superhighways, it is also a complex network of peasant villages  The water supply system is woefully inadequate for the population’s needs
 Urbanization is stretching around Manila Bay
 Life-style of people is far more sophisticated; crime rates are much greater

Part III: HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PHILIPPINE SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS AND FORMAL ORGANIZATIONS
Formal Organization  actual groups of people, rather than systems of norms and values, who coordinate their efforts to achieve some very clearly defined goal
Social Institutions  systems of norms, values, and structures that help a society identify and meet certain goals
Five basic social institutions and their functions:
1. The Family
 Regulation of sexual behavior
 Replacement of members from generation to generation through reproduction
 Care and protection of children, the infirm, and the elderly
 Socialization of children
 Fixing social placement and establishing status, passed on through social inheritance
 Economic society provided by the family as the basic unit of economic production and consumptions 2. Educational
 Providing preparation for occupational roles
 Serving as a vehicle for the transmission of cultural heritage
 Acquainting individuals with various roles in society
 Preparing individuals for certain expected social roles
 Promoting change through involvement in scientific research
 Strengthening personal adjustment and improving social relationships
3. Religious
 Assistance in search for moral identity
 Providing interpretations to help one’s physical and social environment
 Promotion of sociability, social cohesion, ad group solidarity
4. Economic
 Production of goods and services
 Distribution of goods and services along with distribution of economic resources (labor and equipment)  Consumption of goods and services
5. Govenmental
 The institutionalization of norms through laws or rules passed by the legislative bodies of government  The enforcement of laws that have been passed
 Resolution of conflicts existing upon members of society
 Establishment of services such a health care, education, welfare, and so on
 Protection of citizens from attack by other nations and maintenance of civil alertness to danger
Transfer of functions when:
1. An institution fails to meet a given need
2. Two or more institutions are capable of meeting a need
Characteristics of institutions:
1. Primary objective: the satisfaction of specific social needs. Each institution has multiple functiosn to perform 2. Embody the ultimate values that are shared by their members
3. Relatively permanent
4. Their activities occupy a central place in the society
5. Each individual institution is highly structured and organized

6. Its ideals are generally accepted by the great majority of the members of a society
Institutional traits  smallest units of an institution
i. Cultural symbols  ex. Flag, logo, crucifix, Jewish star, cathedral ii. Codes of behavior  ex. Hippocratic Oath of doctors iii. Ideology  system of independent ideas that is shared by a group.
Institutionalization  development of a regular system of circumscribed norms, statuses, and roles that are accepted by the society.
INDIGENOUS SOCIETY





Islas del Poniente-the Islands of the setting sun
Mar de damas or Ladies’ sea to the Pacific Ocean- calm with a favoring wind
Antonio Pigafetta-recorded Magellan’s voyage to the Philippines
People of Leyte were more cultured and socially aware

 Coming upon a cultured society
 Promised to return in 4 days with more food
 “very pleasant and conversable”
 In Humunu (today Homonhon)
 Found 2 springs called “the Watering Place of Good Signs”
 Saw many built houses upon logs
 Europeans came upon a cultured society
 Cebuanos did not use gold for commercial exchange but for personal adornment
>A pre-hispanic arms industry
 Martin de Goiti found fortress, forge for making weapons
 Sin policia or with no common or central government
 Lived in small groups linked by blood ties
 Good relationship with those they made kasi-kasi or blood compact with
 Ideal form of warfare among Filipinos was to lay tricky ambuscades and attack without undue risk to oneself
>Social ranks: chiefs and non-chiefs
 “chiefs” and “non-chiefs”
 high chiefs (rajahs or datus)
 low chiefs (tumao, timawa, maharlika)
 non-chiefs (sakop, gintubo), partial slaves (bihag), and full slaves (sirot, lupig)
 kinship groups led by the datu; he ruled both barangay (nagdaratao) and a dolohan (barrio)
 originally meant “boat”
 the land they occupied was the bayan or settlement
 oldest son inherited datu’s authority
 duty to govern and lead the people in battle
 below datus were free timawa had their own followers and did not pay a tribute to serve the datu  Military service distinguished the Tagalog maharlika
 Below second level: alipin. Could be demoted to chattel slavery or lose rank when he or she committed a heinous crime and was saved from execution. Gintubo were children of alipin
 Alipin: rights to land and lived apart from master called alipi namamahay (householder) and one without called alipin saguiguilid (hearth slave)

>Tributes and gits of wine
 Namamahay: free but status not secure; became one by inheritance, demotion from high rank, promotion from low rank
 Namamahay also called nunuwis
 He paid tribute: half of the harvest
 Sagigilid dependent on the master could buy his freedom in gold
 Alipin class included all illegitimate children, criminals with commuted death sentences, captives taken during raids and wars, and ransomed slaves who have been marked sacrifice  Had rights to food, shelter, and work
 Among the Visayans: datu’s called ginaopan or gindolohan
 People’s houses called gamoro, longsor, or bongto, which meant people, not houses
 Below Visayan datu was free tumao: someone manly without taint of slavery, servitude, or witchcraft
 Belonged to the nobility usually former datus’ descendants from whom datu chose his officials  Atubang sa datu (face to face with the datu) and Sandag sa datu (datu’s support)
 Visayan timawa offspring of concubines (called binokot)
 Upon datu’s death they were freed and called ginoo meant tribute payer
 Tagalog alipin was oripun—they served and supported the datus
 They were “non-persons” destined for live burial at their master’s death; or they were among those laid on the shore when their master’s new boats were launched
>A datu by inheritance
 Visayan lower social ranks: tumataban, tumaranpok, horohan
 Ayoey or hayohey lowest slaves; served the lord’s house 3 out of 4 days
 Tuhey free after marriage
 Lubus nga oripun hand over entire harvest to the master
 Social ranking was loose
 Became datu through inheritance, but consolidate position through personal skill, daring, prowess in battle, and wealth in the form of fighting men and slaves
 Could lose their position to a stronger pretender
 Slavs could also rise and be leaders
 Chiefs had rights to service and tribute from his followers
 Matanda sa nayon (community elder)
 Umalohocan announce new measures
 Tradition dictated penalties
 3 ways to catch a thief:
 1) suspects dove with their spears into the deepest part of a river or lake. First to surface guilty
 2) pick up a stone from cauldron of boiling water, one who refused guilty
 3) lighted candle, first candle dead=guilty
 murder was avenged by death
 aggrieved parties agreed to accept gold as compensation
 datu himself executed the murderer or other chief speared him to death
 Slavery was mild.
 Masters treated their slaves as members of their household
 Depending on one’s parents, once could be a whole, half, or quarter slave
 Marriage arranged between families
 Dowry went to bride’s parents not to bride

 People generally monogamous, considered polygamy only for Muslims
 Property was shared between husband and wife, only legitimate children inherited
 Oldest succeeded to the father’s position
 If no direct male heir, nearest male relative
> worshipping one’s ancestors
 Own religion
 Ancestor worhip and strong belief in afterlife
 Muslims in Mindanao (shrines or langa)
 Present tagalog word simba meant “to make a vow” or “to adore”
 Worship took place anywhere
 Own moral ideals
 Good person described as banal
 Virtue was cabanalan
 With the arrival of Christianity either called coros or padipa (arm stretch)
> Hardwood coffins for the rich
 coffins for powerful and rich usually of hardwork
 inside coffin dead person’s weapons and personal possessions
 heroic people buried on promontories
 coffin left on highest part of the house
 left food for dead person’s journey
> a priestly caste
 hereditary priestly caste of twelve ranks
 highest katalonan or babaylan
 mankokolam lower rank—power to inflict diseases
 aswang—feasted on flesh
 bayogin—male transvestite
 good were rewarded and bad punished
 good and bad spirits
>a long list of gods and idols
 lakambini—god of throat
 bibit—god of the sick
 lakapati—god of fields
 Bathala Maykapal—Tagalog
 Laon—Visayan
 Tigmamanukin
 Maylupa—lord of earth
 Nono—venerable old one
 Passed areas recited a prayer and apologized for their boldness in venturing close
>a boat without nails
 trade flourished in Southeast Asia long before the Europeans came
 local pottery industry was killed by foreign products
 also wine industry
 artisans made containers for these spirits
 boatbuilding was one of the most important needed for interisland trade and travel
 they learned to make boats without nails, first huge boat, then built a smaller one, and even smaller one inside
 previously called biroco, biray, barangay or balanghai or binitan
 first took out and sell the smallest boat

> the only way to go
 boat=almost the only means of travel
 layag (to sail) or sakay (to ride and sail)
 carved out of a single tree trunk
 barangay or balanghai
 caracoa
 balanghai traveled so fast tha nobody could keep his footing while rowing
 sailing meant more than just shipbuilding
 sailors had to be skillful navigators
 Visayans observed the skies and their color; predicted typhoons
 Color, shape, and thickness of clouds=predicted direction and force of winds
 Chinese compass or padaloman (place for the needle)
> a striped turban for seven kills
 Clothes reflected one’s wealth and social position
 Men wore loincloth and putong (turban)
 Red turban to those who has killed at least once
 People wove textiles from local plants—abaca, piña, and cotton
 Tattooing was widespread
 Men and women pierced their ears for beauty
> vegetable and mineral wealth
 “vicious fertility”
 early Filipinos did not need anything from foreign lands to eat, dress themselves, and lie abundantly  coconut: fruit is edible; trunk for building houses; shell into ladles and spoon; burned into charcoal > medicine from plants
 common root crops: camote and ubi
 number of medicinal herbs were also abundant
>two bamboo tubes of gold
 bamboo and rattan were the most versatile of Philippine plants
 bamboo used to contain water and serve as boat masts
>pretty parakeets and venomous snakes
 many tame and wild fowl in the Philippines resembled those in Europe and Mexico
> cows and ducks from China
 freshwater and saltwater fish were abundant
> prisons with flimsy walls
 villages were built along rivers or seacoasts for easier access to transportation and food and for security  structures were flammable and easily destroyed by the first strong gust
 people moved from place wherever they found ripe fruits or ready nourishment
 impossible to say for certain how thick or sparse the population was at the time of the conquest
> differences among the regions
 Spaniards realized there are various regional differences in the country
 Generally men and women all over the country were good-looking
> waiting to be spoken to
 Beauty meant black hair washed with fragrant herbs and tree bark
> bathing at sundown
 Bathing was common and frequent
 Jesuit missionary “are raised in the water”






Sundown was the usual time for bathing
Spaniards scarcely mentioned people washing their clothes
Circumstances of birth normally dictated what the name would be
Practice of baptism, children were named in honor of the Christian saints who served as models on earth and helpers in heaven
>a highly musical people
 Hardly any mention of games and other forms of recreation in the early Spanish records
 Own forms of music and dance
 Kinds of music: kundiman, kumintang, balitaw, salona, and talindaw
 “conversed through their music”
> keeping time by the sun
 people wrote mainly to keep business records
 day was divided by the position of the sun
 pre-Hispanic syllabary had only 14 consonants
 hardly any group among the various regions that did not know how to read or write
> a dark prediction
 found people with distinctive pre-Hispanic culture
 there was education among people
 syllabary and writing for business purposes
 young were taught to fish or hunt properly, to shoot arrow, and to build houses
 taught loyalty to the leader, obedience to traditional customs, worship and veneration of ancestral heroes  because teachings were not written they quickly disappeared after the conquest
 priestess predicted
 foreboding tones the land’s dark future
ORGANIZING A COLONY
First Spanish City in the Far East  Santisimo Nombre de Jesus in Cebu
Manila  became Intramuros (inside walls)
 The seat of colony
 Filipinos lived outside the city walls (exramuros)
Land Trusts with Spanish Colonies
 At the start, Spaniards lived in cities and native inhabitants lived in towns
 the only Spaniards many people knew were the priests
 To organize a new colony  Legaspi distributed 98 encomiendas or land trusts to the first
Spanish colonies
 The future Philippines did not use money and the people supported themselves by farming. This was the main reason for establishing the encomienda:
Land (not as private property) with inhabitants was granted to an encomendero for the services he gave to the king.
 Encomendero has to resettle the original inhabitants to permanent communities, establish a just government for them and teach them the Christian religion
 First terms of encomiendas was only until one lifetime and later on was granted to many life times of the following generations
 Through the years, many encomienderos dies or returned to Spain. Most encomiendas were reverted to the government



There were also royal or Crown encomiendas whose tributes belonged exclusively for the government  Used to government expenses and to support hospitals and colleges
 Funded by tributes from royal encomiendas and from polo

How Settlements were organized
 Encomenderos initial task was to resettle the people with the following conditions:
 Accessible to water, wood, away from wind, 5 km from the residential sector, each family has a house and farm close by
Every village or settlement should:
 Have a church and public land (realengo)
 Elect a gobernadorcillo (petty governor) assisted by a teniente (deputy) on New Year’s Day with the presence of a village priest
 No Spaniard or trader was allowed to live in the settlement to protect the people
 Encomendero must visit his people at least 4 times a year, only then can he live among them.
Overnight, then leave the next morning
 Merchants could only stay while selling their goods
 Settlements had to center around a rectangular plaza:
One side for each: Church, tribunal, school, prominent residents
 Cordel y a regla – straight and properly measured streets at right angles where houses are lined up; patterned from the Romans
 At first, Filipinos were difficult to persuade for resettlement.

New Communities, new relatives
 They learned
 The use of araro (plow)
 Grew Mexican mahis (corn) aside from rice and kamote (sweet potatoes)
 Set aside good seed for future planting: steady food supply and stopped migrating
 Specific planting and harvesting seasons: more time for rest and leisure because they don’t have to hunt and fish the whole year
 Among the community members, they developed a mutual exchange of services and specialized social roles, leading to mutual dependence and help in the community
New System of Governance
Age-old traditions were maintained provided they did not violate the Christian gospel
Example: Datu still lead the barangay but he became the cabeza de barangay (Barangay head)
 His morale suffered but still enjoyed the community’s respect
 Exempted from tribute and polo (forced labor). Family is part of principalia (privileged local aristocracy)  Given the title “Don” when he received the gobernadorcillo’s staff of authority and chaqueta negra (black coat)
Change was hard to accept because there was no guarantee that a blood relative would be chosen as the leader Town Life Reorganized
 Town proper (poblacion or casco) where the people resided was not where they raised crops
 Certain structures were built for specific functions: school for teaching, marketplace for buying and selling, church for worship, tribunal for admin purposes



Sitios and barrios – those that continued to live apart from the poblacion. Were isolated and became a problem for civil government. Havens of criminals.

The Payment of Tribute
Before Spaniards: pagdatu  share of harvest paid to datus for his leadership
During Spaniards:
Tribute  was paid as a form of submission to the Spanish crown
 paide by the Filipinos and Chinese
 Can be cash of kind
 Collected by the encomienderos and later on by the cobrador de tribut os (tribute collector) with the help of the cabeza
 ¼ was aside in a caja de cuartas (cashbox of fourths) for the hospitals and later on, missions of priests  Should not exhaust family’s means of support and savings and should not be more than the pagdatu  Exemptions: principalia, oldest son of cabeza, sick, church workers
 Used for: defensive walls, galleys, security, colonial navy against Muslim raiders
 Arrangement of names: The town chooses the first letter of family name for organization
 Tribute lists: (Philippine social ranking)
1. Principalia – exempted
2. Married tribute payers – full
3. Widowed and unmarried male adults – half
 Later on, tribute was changed to cedula personal or head tax – paid according to one’s income; everyone is required
Statute Labor for 40 Days
 Male Filipinos between 18-60 were required of statute labor (polo)
 Later was reduced to 15 days and not always physically strenuous
 Polista or polo worker was supposed receive daily wage and food rations
 Encomenderos had the right to choose polistas and polistas had the right to choose whom to serve
 root of abuse
 Obligation of every healthy male including Spanish and Mestizos
 Decrees covering the polo were well-meaning but contradictory, and they were seldom observed.
 Several tried to avoid it by paying the alcalde mayor a fee called topa  root of abuse
Problems:
 An enormous public debt
Polistas received 8 rials a mnths but needed 40 rials to stay alive
Salaries were not fully paid  Pampangos rose in revolt and the leaders were executed
However, this time was too early for uprising for political independence.
 Very low Spanish population in the Philippines
 Spanish expected gold, but agriculture became the main source and it was exhausted: prices of commodities shot up.
 Spaniards who did not wish to stay in the colony were forced to do so. The king refused to let go of the colony. Religion was still the major excuse.
 Spain and Philippines was too far apart to cover abuses
 Royal Council of the Indies – advisor of the Crown on colonial matters
*Viceroy (alternate king) – in charge of a specific area and divided it to several kingdoms
* Gobernador (ruler) – ruled the kingdoms
* Audencia – advisory council of viceroy and functioned as a Supreme Court

*Viceroyalty – supervised by viceroy and entrusted to a subordinate. Called a captaincy general
*Presidency – 2 distinct units of administration:
1. Viceroy as president of the audiencia headed the sessions
2. Audiencia with its own government  Case in Manila
Three Titles For the Highest Official
 Governor-general – president of the audiencia  had political and military powers
 Triple title: governor-general – political leadership over the people president – judicial powers in the audiencia and acted as representative of the king. The oidores make the decisions. There were 3 Oidores in the Phil. captain-general – as he is under the Mexican general who directly reports to the king
Managing the Colony’s Finances
 Colonial treasurer – to whom colonial funds were entrusted
 Hacienda publica – Treasurer’s office. It was later on organized and entrusted to: a. Factor
(cashier), b. Contador (accountant), c. tesorero (treasurer)
 None of the three can receive an encomienda but they were in charge of the collection of the tribute  Viceroyalties were subdivided into smaller unites of govt with the heads called:
Alcalde Mayor, later the gobernador; and
Corregidor  governed a frontier area not totally conquered. A military officer.
*both acted as governor, judge, and provincial treasurer at the same time
*Abusive because he used the polo to his own personal needs.
*Allowed to trade as long as he will pay the license (indulto de comercio)  but the abuse worsened *Royal law  process of resettlement should never harm the people
 Datu as a pure Filipino still holds the power of the local government. No one of mixed blood is allowed.
Old Privileges Retained
 Filipino Chiefs or principalia still retained the status they had before baptism or resettlement
 Filipino chiefs could still receive voluntary pagdatu as long as tribute is still paid
 Principalia could not ask a tribute from the daughters of their followers, nor impose death sentences or mutilation
 Colony was powerless to stop what looked likes slavery  people harvesting crops, do chores, and perform services for principalia
 Residencia  trial to examine the conduct of colonial officials while in office. Juez de residencia is the head.
 Governor-general was tried by his successor
 Shipbuilders were also subject to residencia because galleons were he colony’s link to the crown  Corregidor or provincial head appeared only to one oidor
 Audiencia notifies the royal court about the officials who were finishing their terms. Oidores name the juez de residencia. Everyone is invited to submit accusations to the court. Anonymous charges were denied of hearing and old crimes were not revived.
The end of the residencia
 Royal Council of the Indies  has the power to acquit or convict
*Audiencia of Manila – tried cases involving up to P1000




*Tribunal de cuentas (accounting board) – handled financial matters
19th Century  residencies no longer existed. Instead, outgoing officials were investigated in
Madrid.
Missionaries  played the role of the protector de Indios unofficially, that is, to protect the people from the abuses of the colonial officials

The royal paper trail
 The colonial offices were linked with the Crown through royal orders and derivatives. These were several kinds, depending on their legal validity and force.
 The Royal Cedula  royal disposition issued through the council of the Indies: usually a command, reward of a grant, favorable answer to a petition
 The Royal Pragmatic  decision made by the king and printed for a wider audience
 The Royal Provision  message from the throne issued in the Corwn’s name by the viceroy or the audiencia and authenticated by the royal seal
 Carta abierta (letter patent)  a royal reward; The interested party has to present this document to claim such reward
 Auto  judicial decision of local officials to solve urgent cases
*One copy should reach the throne through the annual galleon trade.
Spanish arms and tactic prevail
 Pre-Hispanic Filipinos had their own weapons
Chinese  introduced artillery pieces
Filipinos  obtained artilleries and weapons through barter trade and local traders
 Muslims indulged in slavery and raiding. Legaspi’s arrival did not stop slavery but diminished intergroup fighting
 Lack of military resources  one problem of the colony
 The first military barracks was built in Manila.
 The soldiers lodged with the civilians. They had poor health, and food rations were low. Male populations were low. So they abused the defenseless Filipinos
 Military problems went worse when the Kind of Spain became the King of Portugal. The same military has to protect both the Spice Islands and the Philippines.
The Walled City
 Intramuros  walled city where the Spaniards ruled the Philippines
  Contained palace of the governors-general, Civil govt officials, Archbishop’s palace, mother houses of religious orders, schools and other institutions that ran the colony
  This site was good to provide shelter from typhoons in the Pacific
 Former rajas and their people were moved to Bagumbayan
 Structures included: government, religious educational, military, and mansions of Spaniards engaging in galleon trade.
 Mother houses of religious orders: Augustinians, Jesuits, Capuchins, Dominicans, Recollects,
Franciscans
 British captured the Philippines throug the South of Intramuros in 1792
 Luneta  execution site of the offenders of the Spanish regime: Gomburza & Rizal
 Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo  led Filipinos in 1898 in laying siege to Intramuros
 Spaniards surrendered to American authorities in the sacristy of San Agustin Church
 Moat was reclaimed as gold course and tennis courts
 Religious, govt, and military org. stayed within Intramuros





New govt center: Bagumbayan alogn Taft ave. and residential areas: Malate and New Manila, erode the primacy of Intramuros
1945  Japanese overtook Intramuros. Bombed it and leveled the grounds. Walls were the only ones left. Only San Agustin Church was left standing
1979  Intramuros Administration was formed to devlop the walled city through orderly reconstruction in Spanish colonial mode.

Social Acceptance Reconsidered
Evaluation and Values
 Urge that lies within us, tendency to censure and correct, to rate and score, to prune, crop, trim, and transplant
 Expression of a basic and essentially human faculty
 Sign that we are human: only humans make this critical response to their environment
 Measure of response will be the system of values which are a part of the culture
 Total value system is his standard for decision
No Values Uniquely Filipino
 American: achieves peace frequently by agreement to disagree
 Filipino: blurring of the difference, agreement not to disagree – at least openly
 American rates integrity (“let your speech express your mind exactly”) higher than interpersonal tranquility  Filipino: sees no reason why conflict should be courted when silence or evasive speech will preserve the peace
Identifying Values and Themes
Four-fold test of Robin Williams
1. Extensiveness of the value in the total activity of the system
2. Duration of the value
3. Intensity
4. Prestige of value carriers
Purpose and Context
Aims:
1. To be accepted by one’s fellows for what one us, thinks oneself to be, or would like to be, and be given the treatment due to one’s station
2. To be economically secure, at least to the extent of ordinarily being free of debt
3. To move higher on the socioeconomic scale
-

Social acceptance, economic security and social mobility: basic aims that motivate and control an immense amount of Filipino behavior

Theme of Social Acceptance
 Enjoyed when one is taken by one’s fellows for what he is, and is treated in accordance with hi status  Negatively: when one is not rejected or improperly criticized by others
 Social acceptance vs. social approval: latter includes a positive expression of liking
-

Tagalog proverb: Hindi baleng huwag mo akong mahalin; huwag mo lang akong hiyain

-

Report of apparitions, miracles, and signs are accepted by most Filipinos with a casual equanimity that mazes the individual (Filipino or non-Filipino) who was brought up in a more drab and less authoritarian manner
Desirability of social acceptance is for the modal Filipino, an implied postulate but a cultural theme nonetheless

Amor Propio
 Sensitivity to personal affront
Smooth Interpersonal Relations
Pakikisama
 Giving in, following the lead or suggestion of another
 Concession
 Yielding to the will of the leader or majority
Euphemism
 Stating of an unpleasant truth, opinion, or request as pleasantly as possible
Go-between
 Another common means of preserving or restoring smooth interpersonal relations
 Embarrassing request, complaint, or decision is often communicated through a middleman, to avoid the shame of a face-to-face encounter
 Used to remedy an existing state of conflict or tension
 Americans: serious argument between two private citizens involves only the principal pair
 Contained by a cultural code of nonintervention
-

Small community: can cause considerable and possibly long-lasting damage to the social, political and economic life of the residents

Sensitivity to Personal Affront (Amor Propio)
 More restricted in scope and functions to protect the individual against loss of social acceptance or to rouse him to regain it once it has been lost or diminished
 Hoya Is a universal social sanction
 Self-esteem: which is sensitivity to personal affront
 Serves rather than to retain the acceptance one already has
 Stimuli that set it off are only those that strike at the individual’s most highly valued attributes
______________________________________________

RECIPROCITY IN THE LOWLAND PHILIPPINES
Reciprocity  a principle of behavior wherein every service received, solicited or not demands a return
 It is a consideration in Philippine culture because people are so concerned about getting along with others.
 Voluntary initiation of the action is extremely important
Classifications of Reciprocities:
1. Contractual

2. Quasi Contractual
3. Utang na Loob (Debt of Gratitude)
1. Contractual
 reciprocal acts are equivalent, their amount and form having been explicitly agreed upon before hand
 It involves a minimum of effective sentiment or emotions
 Characteristics: The reciprocation terminates that particular relationship, leaving the participants in a state of equilibrium
 Ex.: Bolhon – practiced in Cebu wherein a group of farmers agree to take turns plowing one another’s fields
2. Quasi Contractual
 The terms of repayment are implicit, not explicitly stated before the contract is made
 Terms are implicit in situations, which the culture recognizes and defines as calling for these terms  Reciprocity comes into play automatically. Repayment is made in a mechanical, almost nonaffective manner
 Characteristics: It utilizes both forms of the principle of equivalent in the return payment. The things exchanged may be concretely different but should be equal in value. Exchanged should be concretely alike either with respect to the things exchanged or the circumstance under which they are exchanged.  Ex. Giving abuloy to a bereaved family and the bereaved family keeps a list of donors with amounts on them. He will give the same amount of money if a family member of the donor dies.
3. Utang na Loob
 Transfer of goods and services takes place between individuals belonging to two different groups  Recipient is compelled to show his gratitude properly by returning the favor with interest to be sure that he does not remain in the other’s debt. This type of debt created in the recipient is called utang na loob or sense of gratitude.
a. One-sided utang na loob relationship  (may kaya) There is an obligation nto pay with interest. There in uneasiness being in the indebted side
b. Permanent superordinate-subordinate relationship  (walang kaya) There should be recognition an admission of debt. When subordinate fails to make partial payment should cause “hiya”
Hiya  a universal social sanction that regulates the give and take of reciprocity. If you don’t follow reciprocity, you will feel “hiya”
Part IV: GLOBALIZATION AND ITS IMPACT
Globalism vs. Globalization
Globalism- the reality of being interconnected
Globalization- captures the speed at which these connections increase (or decrease)
Globalism seeks to explain nothing more than a world which is characterized by networks of connections that span multi continental distances.
Globalism
Globalization
-

Describe and explain a world which is characterized by networks and connections To understand and explain all the inter-

-

Increase and decline in the degree of globalism Forces, dynamism or speed of changes
Dynamic shrinking of distance on a

-

connections of the modern world
Underlying basic network
With ancient roots
Not how old but how Thick or Thin it is. large scale

The Silk Road: (“Thin” globalism)
The Silk Road: (“Thin” globalism)
- Economic and cultural link between
Globalization- Thin to Thick globalism (how ancient Europe and Asia fast we get there—rate of globalization)
Process by which globalism becomes increasingly thick/ intense
“Thick” globalism: What’s new
“Thick” globalism: What’s new
Different relationships of interdependece Does not imply neither equity—nor intersect more deeply at more different points. homogenization. Does not imply universality—may be more Likely to amplify differences—or atleast make strongly felt in some parts of the world than in people more aware of them. others. Economic dimensions of globalism—and Economic globalization beyond Low-wage production in Asia for US and European
Four distinct dimensions of globalism: markets.
Economic, Military, Environmental and Social.
Economic flows, market and organization all go
 Long-distance flows of goods and together services and capital and the information and perception (market exchange)
**Based on the historic evidence, we should expect that globalism will be accompanied by continuing uncertainty. **Both globalism and globalization are all too often defined in strictly economic terms, as if the world economy such as defined globalism. (other forms are equally important.
The Environmental Dimension
Environmental Globalism- Long-distance transport of materials in the atmosphere or oceans or of biological substances that affect human health and well-being
The Military Dimension
Military Globalism- Long-distance networks in which force, and the threat or promise of force, are deployed.
“Balance of terror” (between US and Soviet
Union)- a strategic interdependence that was both acute and well- recognized. The scale and speed of the potential conflict arising from interdependence were so enormous

The Environmental Dimension
Environmental Globalization- depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer (as a result from ozonedepleting chemicals). Or the spread of AIDS virus from central Africa around the world.
The Military Dimension
Military Globalization- In the September 11 incident.geographical distances were shrunk as the lawless mountains of Afghanistan proved the launching pad for attacks on New York and Washington.

**We should not fear that globalism will lead to homogenization. Instead, it will expose us to the differences that surrounds us.
Social and Cultural Globalism
Social and Cultural Globalism
Social and Cultural Globalism- movements of Social and Cultural Globalization ideas, information and images and of people.
Present
Ex. Movement of religions
- Driven by the internet
Past- often followed by military and economic
- Reduces cost globalism. - Globalizes communication
- Make the flow of ideas independent of other forms of globalization.

Why are these divisions useful?
Divisions are inevitably somewhat arbitrary. Changes in the various dimensions of globalism do not necessarily go together.
Ex. 1850- 1914 ∧Economic globalism; 1914-1945 ∨Economic globalism.
But ∨economic globalism= ∧military globalism= ∧Social globalism
Ex. Worldwide influenza
Based on the historic evidence, we should expect that globalism will be accompanied by continuing uncertainty. Entering a world of uncertainty
There will be a continual competition between increased complexity and uncertainty on the other hand.
It will expose us more frequently and in more variation to the differences that surround us.

Filipino Diaspora: Identity in the Global Age
The migration dividend
- Short-term overseas
 Irreversibly shaped the Philippine economy
 Modified bureaucracy
 Transformed Filipino family
 Relations between spouses and between parents and their children
- Altered nature of consular work abroad
- Made new demands on foreign policy
- Liberated Filipino women contract workers from traditional bondage to the men in their families
Global travel and the attendant exposure to other culture
- Brought our nation into the heart of the postmodern and global age
- Phenomenon and sum total of its effects: Filipino Diaspora
 Collection of experiences arising from “doubled relationship or dual loyalty that migrants, exiles, and refugees have to places their connections to the space they currently occupy and their continuing involvement with ‘back home’”
From exiles to rebels
“Indios Bravos”

-

Clear attempt to subvert the pejorative meaning of the term “Indio”
Example set by these first Filipino exiles was replicated by the young men and women who
 Escaped from martial law
 Wages sustained struggled against Marcos dictatorship and American imperialism from abroad 1998
- Marking of centennial of the declaration of its independence from Spain
- Encourages Filipinos from all over the world to come home and revisit the nation’s history
- Reflect on collective possibilities that await us, as one nation, in the next millennium
Waves of Philippine Migration
First wave: “pensionados”
- Young promising Filipinos singled out by American colonizers to study in the US Universities
Second wave
- Hardy peasant youths recruited to work in pineapple farms and apple orchards of Hawaii and
California in 1930s
- Lived in isolation
- Explicitly prohibited from marrying American women
Third wave
- Filipino professionals doctors, nurses, engineers
- Last wave defined pattern of Filipino outmigration for about two decades thereafter
- New migrants were professionals with young families and their main destination: US
Oil Factor
Philippines needed to pay for its oil supply
- Cost quadrupled because of the oil crisis
- Foreign exchange had to be generated to pay for the country’s mounting oil receipts
- Led to deployment of 1st batch of Filipino contract workers to construction sites in the Middle
East
- Simple barter transaction: Filipino labor for oil
- Stop-gap measure to alleviate domestic unemployment and to help country pay for its oil imports
 Became a lucrative industry for recruiters
- Radical shift in preference from construction workers to domestic helpers, from engineers to nurses, office workers, and sales personnel
- Occupational shift was as much a gender shift: from male OCWs to female OCWs
Feminization of Labor
Gender shift most revolutionary event in the history of the Filipino family
- Filipino women were homebound, institutionally deprived of the opportunities for a high education, professional career and a life of their own
OCW program
- Tradition crumbled and millions of women were suddenly released from their obedience to the males in their families
Teenage Muslim girl, Sarah Balabagan

-

Kept in a prison in Dubai
Killed the man who raped her

Phenomenon (sarah) triggered outmigration of Filipino women
- Corollary route was intercultural marriage
- Promoted by “mail-order-bride” or match-making agencies
The Filipino Identity in a globalizing world
Aspect of nation building is cultivation of an ideal Filipino identity
- Sense of belonging and loyalty to an imagined historical community
- Feeling of pride and security in what one is supposed to be
- Consciousness of one’s roots: makes things familiar and other strange
- Nostalgia: ability to relate one’s own personal experiences to the saga of an entire community
In a Borderless world
World in which the power of the state to control and regulate activities within its boundaries is daily being challenged by global entities
- International Monetary Fund
- Transnational corporation
- Currency traders
- Wielders of global pension funds
- Telecommunications conglomerates
- Internet
Emigration, Identity and the State
Struggling nation like ours cannot even provide minimum safety nets to sectors of economy tha t global competition will surely sweep away because of the fundamental weakness of our community and the absences willful political leadership
“Filipino” as identity at home and abroad
Filipino abroad
- Rootless nomad
- Wandering refugee from economic hardship
Filipino at home
- Part of a community: consistently failed to uplift lives of its poorest members
- Graft is routinely regarded as an integral part of the nation’s political life
- Young girls trained at an early age to become a go-go dancers
If national identity refers to those salient aspects of our being
- These distinguishing marks only serve as reminders of the failure of the Filipino nation-state
Traditions have to explain themselves, to become open to interrogation or discourse”
- Traditions no longer command automatic respect, as they used to in an earlier age
When National Identity is Insufficient
Nationalism or patriotism
- Terms were synonymous with freedom and emancipation from colonial bondage
Post-colonial generation

-

Someone needs to define what the value content of a nationalist commitment might be today
Can’t continue to preach the virtues of a nationalist consciousness to a generation that is no longer fighting a war of national emancipation
Can no longer expect a new generation to automatically embrace or prefer Filipino traditions and customs just because they are Filipino

Today’s children are no longer engaged in a voyage of discovery of the past. Their project instead is one of creation and invention
Young Filipinos are expressing and creating identities for themselves instead of having these totally defined by tradition or inherited cultures
An Electric Culture Reinventing Itself
The point: does it become less authentic when a culture assimilates some foreign element
- No, the Filipino does not appear about to vanish in the margins of a borderless world, nor is she about to be crushed by the juggernaut of globalization
- One thing is clear: the Filipino is re-inventing herself
Solidarity with other minorities
Filipinos seem unable to find common cause with other minorities who find themselves in the same circumstances of being exploited and socially excluded
- In many place: pernicious and shameless identification with the dominant culture in its rejection of the alien
Summary








Globalization compresses time and space
Creates a new reality that is far too elusive for the sovereign nation-state and its cultural and technocratic planners to manage
National identity: promoted by sovereign states melts into irrelevance
Global age: identities are no longer hostage to tradition
Tradition: just one more vocabulary
Self: freed from the mold of tradition; pieced together from fragments of multiple affiliations
From such varied affiliations – new Filipinos at home or abroad will draw the basis for new emancipatory solidarities and alliances

Cultural Malaise
Main problem is the general absence of civility as a value in our lives
Civility




-

Art of living with others
Assuming responsibility for the community in which we live
Taking pride in employing our individual talents in order to advance the lives of others
Not a function of economic development
Laws cannot take the place of good sense and civility
Strict law enforcement cannot make up for defective citizenship

Cultural Malaise




Culture






-

Condition which afflicts not just the public sector but the private sector as well
Never think of this as an unalterable feature of our race, or an incurable defect in our national character Imperfections of our generation evolved as aspects of cultural adaptation: not permanent

Culture of improvisation and mediocrity
Adopted the rule of the minimum
Embraced the ethic of profit-seeking
Valued evasion of duty
Way of life appropriate to the colonial condition or any other situation of enslavement
Treat our country as if it were not our own
National discipline cannot come from fear of the law and the police: should be built on uncoerced self-respect Only a profound self-worth can motivate us to be better than we are

PART V: PHILIPPINE SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
A. THE FAMILY
Traditional Kinship and Family Organization: The Notion of Kinship
Idea of Kinship
 It is familistic and egocentric
 It permeates the entire social system
 The social character of kinship is embodied in the concept of being relatives. Being a relative is a social condition, a metaphor of perceived structural connection
 Kinship functions as the cognitive map of Filipino society: The blueprint for individual and group behavior; “the grand plan of society” – It sets the range and defines the limits of possible interactions. Biological Basis of Kinship
 This is what links individuals together as a group of people “sharing the same blood”
 This “blood-link” is inherited from both the father and the mother
 The expression “nasa dugo” documents this perceived biological basis of kinship – The basis of extended families
Cultural Basis of Kinship
 The phenomenon of birth is a cultural concept. It is the by-product of a series of decisions
1. Two individuals have to agree (a sociocultural decision) to get married or just live together (another sociocultural decision)
2. They must agree to have or not to have children (sociocultural decision)
 Descent – Biogenetic fact of birth becomes enmeshed with the symbolic system of the society.
That a child is born to individuals he calls parents is all there is to biology.
 Legitimacy or illegitimacy has nothing to do with biology. These are socio-legal norms that define the status, rights, obligations, and privileges of descent. An illegitimate/adopted child is considered a blood relative.
Ritual Basis of Kinship





Marriage
Adoption
Compadrazgo (Through the rite of sponsorship in Church ceremonies of marriage, baptism, and confirmation, a non-kin is included in the kinship group as a quasi kinsman)

Status of Kinship Relations
 Two ways of looking at kinship-based relations: o Permanent
 Even when parents, siblings, relatives die, the relationship stays the same.
Descent cannot be terminated by annulment, divorce, or legal separation of parents. Children have no choice in choosing their parents. o Fragile
 Marriage is fragile and easily terminated. Compadrazgo can also be terminated without difficulty. The compadres or the godchildren may choose not to have anything to do with one another anymore. Relations establish through legal adoption is difficult to terminate because of the law that binds them together.

B. EDUCATION
SCHOOLS FOR THE ELITE
 Evangelization was the first formal program of education in Spanish Philippines. The missionaries usually chose boys – sons of community leaders – who were given special training and then assigned as catechists. Church musicians, scribes etc.
 The Franciscans (1577) were probably the first to establish this practice. The carefully chosen boys were taught Spanish, and basic academic skills, church Music and liturgy, and the Christian catechism. Franciscans teach around the islands
 All Franciscans missions were required to open schools where children could learn prayers, reading, writing, counting, singing, assisting at mass and the administration of the other sacraments.  The sons of the leading families and others who may be good were chosen for the choir, service of the church and the convento.
 Part of the missionary’s duty was to visit the school, check how classes were conducted, and test the pupils’ ability to do sums.
 Children recited the doctrina, prayers and tocsohan (set of questions and answers on the catechism.)  Colonial law obliged both the conquistador and the missionary to teach the Castilian language and the Christian religion using the gentlest means.
 The sacristans were substitutes for the priests to teach reading, writing and the doctrina for which they were required to use Spanish. Families wanted their boys to become part of the priest’s group of sacristans and sacristans were exempted from tribute and the polo.
The Jesuits educate the Manilans
 Jesuits (1581) were asked to build schools, seminary for Filipino boys and college for Spanish students but at that time there were not enough Jesuits to teach or funds to support the project.
 1595, nine Jesuit missionaries arrived and they were assigned to teach moral theology to those studying to be priests and grammar to Spanish boys.








The Jesuit scholastics studying for priesthood were housed in a college, soon named College of
Manila.
In 1595, two schools were opened: the College of Manila (University of San Ignacio) for the scholastics and the College of San Jose for the sons of Spaniards in the city.
A boarding school and classes were held at the Jesuit residence itself. The Jesuits earned money form a ranch in Taytay and some property leased to Chinese gardeners in Quiapo but it was not enough to expand.
Esteban Rodriguez de Figueroa, one of the richest encomenderos in the Philippines, wanted to finish the Jesuit church and residence, and donate P21, 000 that could earn P1, 500 in yearly investments to finance a college – to be named in honor of Saint Joseph – where sons of the
Spanish families would study. A third of the four-fifth of his estates was to endow a school.
Near the Jesuit compound, a school and seminarios (boarding school for boys who wished to become priests) were built.

A reward for priests-to-be
 The Jesuits passed a petition wherein they wanted to reward those who, after the arts course, would continue to study theology in order to become priests and not propose to set up a university in the traditional sense, studium generale, which offered courses in philosophy, theology, law, and medicine. A higher academic degree would serve as an incentive.
 3 years of Spanish, Latin, Greek, and Hebrew; 4th year in poetry; 5th in rhetoric and 6th year courses in Philosophy (studies in Saint Thomas Aquinas, Aristotle, math, and physics)
The College of Santo Tomas
 Dominican Colegio de Santo Tomas began with a sounder financial base because of the
Archbishop of Manila (Miguel de Benavides) and Bishop Diego de Soria who both gave money and donated a library.
 On August 15, 1619, classes for 12 students, sons of leading Manila families were held.
 1623, a royal cedula confirmed the school as a colegio.
 It included: humanities or arts (grammar, rhetoric, poetry), philosophy, and moral and dogmatic theology.  Pope Innocent X allowed degrees to be granted in philosophy and theology, thus elevating Santo
Tomas to the rank of university.
Student sodalists for God
 The Dominican and Jesuit universities were schools of the elite.
 One reason for the Jesuits’ undertaking was to provide leaders who would distinguish themselves in service of God.
 Sodality of the Blessed Virgin Mary - a co-curricular activity. 6 students were carefully chosen and had to make general confession and receive Holy Communion, write original verses and inscriptions for declamation, serve banquet to the inmates of the city jail, and care for the sick in hospitals. Theologians and debates
 Higher education in Spanish Philippines centered on religion and the colleges were expected to serve as centers for solving missionaries’ doubts and problems.
 Slavery was a hot topic for debate. If a slave escaped from his master does that mean that he has to repay his master for the damage of escaping because he is legally bound to his master or an escaped slave will forever be free.
 Confession: According to the argument, no priest can validly absolve a man from sin on the strength of others’ reports about the penitent.

Scientists studies plants
 George Josef Kamel, a Czechoslovakian Jesuit Bother, was a pharmacist and the lack of medicine here in the Philippine led him to study the medicinal properties of indigenous herbs. He also studied various species of butterflies, moths, phyton, etc.
Schools for the underprivileged Spaniards
 Not all the Spanish boys in Manila were wealthy.
 Juan Geronimo Guerrero, a Spaniard in Manila, gathered some orphans in one place and he gave them food, clothing and basic schooling with the alms from the generous Spanish families. They were identified as the Colegio de San Juan de Letran.
 Dominican lay brother Diego de Santa Maria had also been housing 24 abandoned orphans.
Guerrero asked Santa Maria to take in his boys before he died.
A school for boy sopranos
 The Dominicans called the new group of orphans the Seminary of Saints Peter and Paul for
Orphan Boys.
 Archbishop Juan Angel Rodriguez established a foundation to support tiples (boy sopranos) for the Cathedral. The school taught vocalization, singing, chanting, as well as piano organ and musical composition and the playing of stringed instruments.
No to gambling and mixed races
 Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera set aside P4, 000 for scholarships to be given to orphans of the government officials and military personnel they would study in a school named after King Philip
IV of Spain.
 Rules: o Only those free of any mixture of Muslim or Jewish blood up to fourth generation would be accepted; blacks and Bengalas (Indians) were not accepted, not were those who were on-quarter Filipino. o First choice for scholarships went to those who were already attending San Jose. o Saturdays were set aside for review classes and debates. o No card games or any forms of betting were allowed. Disobedience to this rule could lead to imprisonment and/or expulsion. Gambling was considered a ‘most destructive vice’ among students.
 Colegio de Santa Potenciana was established for the proper upbringing of girls in Manila. Some girls elected to take religious vows and part of their schedule required religious duties. This school also served as temporary residence to the wives of army or navy personnel.
 The royal decree of November 7, 1790 banned marriage among students reached Manila two years later.
 Books were the channels through which the legacy of scholastic thought was transferred to
Filipinos.
 Opusculum, by Father Juan de Paz, contained moral cases and 24 questions concerning the difficulties of introducing Christianity to North Vietnam.
Proof of Filipino artistry
 Francisco Suarez with the help of Lino Suarez engraved the design on the cover of the book written by Nuno de Villavicencio.
 Nicolas de la Cruz Bagay help engraved the famous maps of the Philippines.
 The book industry thrived in the Philippines because the colony ha dthe skilled artisans for the trade (writers, editors, engravers, etc.)
Expulsion of the Jesuits




Charles III of Spain ordered the expulsion of the Jesuits from all Spanish dominions for weighty reasons he was locking away in his royal breast.
By June 1768, all the Jesuits were in Manila, ready to be shipped to Europe.

The Jesuits return
 1814, Pope Pius VII restored the Jesuit Order.
 1859, Jesuits return to the Philippines.
 When the Jesuits were expelled, education was affected.
 The period between 1768 and 1814 was a period of tremendous change in the world coinciding with the revolutionary wars in the North American colonies, France and South American colonies. The Philippines remained isolated.

EDUCATION AND LANGUAGE
Under the First Philippine Commission
 One of the most important recommendations of the First Philippine Commission was the establishment of ‘an adequate system of secularized and free public schools.’
 Public school system would become one of the American regime’s most valuable and enduring legacies.  Agricultural and manual training schools were ‘peculiarly suited’ to the needs of the Filipinos.
 It stressed that “instruction in the English language should be introduced as speedily as practicable in the primary schools.”
 The establishment of an American-style system of national education was an experiment in transferring the American ideals of “universality, practicality and democracy” to the Filipinos.
 Of the many native languages in the Philippines, not one could be used as a common medium of instruction that is why English was used. It was considered as a useful language, which a man can know. Pacification through public education
 The American authorities knew that education would be a powerful instrument of pacification.
 Gen. MacArthur said that schools were “calculated to pacify the people and procure and expedite the restoration of tranquility throughout the archipelago.”
 The Americans opened public schools in Muslim and ethnic communities wherever garrisons were located. American soldiers were the ones who taught the people.
An eagerness to learn English
 The first primary schools were opened in Manila and the provincial capitals (cabeceras) of firstclass provinces.
 Parents and children were “eager for primary school instruction and are very desirous to acquire a speaking knowledge of the English language.”
 Even the resistance leaders recognized the values of English in the new colonial order.
 On January 21, 1901, the Philippine Commission passed a law, which created the Department of
Public Instruction and laid the bases for primary school system. Primary instruction was free.
The civil government supervised schools established by the military government.
The coming of the Thomasites
 Schools were opened in every municipality and the Philippines divided into schools divisions.
 The first schools were opened in towns in which the townspeople showed their loyalty to the US by their peaceful conditions.








The law established a normal school in Manila for Filipinos and an agricultural school in Negros.
It also allowed general superintendent of public instruction to request 1,000 trained teachers from the US.
In July 1901, six hundred American teachers, Thomasites, traveled to the Philippines through the transport Thomas.
By May 1902, there were 926 American teachers.
The Filipinos developed a high regard for them.
The American teacher brought with him the American spirit. He was considered as the apostle of progress. On display in St. Louis
 In 1904, the St. Louis Exposition opened in Missouri. Its centerpiece was the Philippine
Reservation, built in the cost of over $1 million. It exhibited the material culture of the Filipinos, including several hundred living members of ethnic communities.
 Filipino nationalist Maximo Kalaw called it a misinterpretation that created in the minds of hundreds of thousands of Americans, the indelible impression that Filipinos have not yet emerged from savagery.
 The Philippine legislature passed a bill punishing the exhibition of tribal Filipinos with a fine of
P10, 000 and imprisonment of not more than five years because of the slander the live exhibits had caused the independence movement.
 Americans saw only opportunity, revealing the commercial motives behind a supposed magnanimity. Rejuvenating the native economy
 The Philippine Commission envisioned educations as a necessary tool in economic development.
 Filipinos were inherently backward because of the Malay race and the Spanish tyranny and inefficiency left the Filipinos in a dark backwater of civilization.
 William Taft believed that improvement in the condition and in the intelligence and governing capacity of the people depended upon the development of the country by American and foreign capital.  The tremendous investment of capital (railroads, agriculture, manufacturing and mining) would contribute to the happiness of the Filipinos and their prosperity.
 The Filipinos have to be taught how to work.
 Economic development was the primary target of education.
The creation of the UP
 The first Philippine legislature enacted the bill of creating a Philippine University into law on
June 18,1908. Thus was born the University of the Philippines, the logical outgrowth and culmination of efforts to establish as complete system of education for the Philippines.
 In the beginning of the Filipinization policy by Harrison, public schools began massive hiring of school teachers but the Filipinos received lower wages, fewer privileges and taught bigger classes. Summer camp for American teachers
 The Teachers’ Camp in Baguio was organized for the American school teachers who received free summer holiday in the country’s highland capital.
 As Harrison continued his Filipinization policy, Filipino teachers were appointed to positions that normally would have been given to Americans.
 Jones Law of 1916 kept education in the hands of the Americans.

English as the new lingua franca
 English steadily displaced Spanish as the language of communication, public administration, and business.  The older professionals resented the replacement of Spanish as the lingua franca because they saw that English as the key that would open the door to domination American culture.
 In 1925, the Philippine legislature authorized the first nationwide educational evaluation project.
Paul Monroe headed the survey commission along with research associates (9 were Filipinos) to help the Filipino people find and establish themselves through education and to work toward a s school system truly suited to the Filipinos.
A receptacle to be filled
 John Locke’s tabula rasa: the student or child was a passive object – an empty receptacle – whose inherent nature was essentially imperfect but perfectible.
 The survey determined that the most critical issue was the students’ capacity to learn English.
 It also found that Filipino children were as good as their American counterparts in mastering arithmetic.  Filipinos’ science aptitude fell below American norms, which they believed that Filipinos were ignorant of the physical, biological and chemical attributes of the world that they live in.
Flawed survey
 The board presumed that the Filipino students had no sense of nationality. Students spoke English only in school and used the native language at all other times. I other words, the students were learning English as a second language.
 Changes in the University of the Philippines: o Concentrate upon the fundamental things, which are essential to develop a really great university.  The tradition of political meddling in the university – something which continues to this dy – ay have been encouraged by the fact that with the old UP campus within walking distance of the
Philippine legislature, politicians made the university their forum for various legislative measures. A new literature in English
 By the 1920s, Philippine literature in English started to develop.
 It signaled not only the acceptance of word but also assimilation of many elements of American culture.  Influenced by English literature, the writers in Tagalog adopted English terms and phrases.
The search for a national language
 Throughout the American period, no one, not even those who advocated independence from the
US, seriously opposed to the use of English.
 By the 1930s, scholars and nationalists were advocating the development of a national language to promote national unity.
 Tagalog was the best possible basis for a national language because it occupied an intermediate position linguistically and geographically among the Philippine languages.
 Institute of National Language (November 1936), recommended in November 1937, that Tagalog as the basis of national language.
 On December 30, Quezon proclaimed Tagalog as the nationa l language and in April 1940, printing of dictionary and June 19, it should be taught in all schools.
 Commonwealth Act No. 570 in June 1940 declared the Filipino national language as the official language. 


The Filipinos felt that this would advance the country’s welfare and national identity.
As the government struggled to prepare the country for independence, the educational system began to show signs of strain.

Miseducating the Filipino
 1966, Renato Constantino published his influential essay.
 Indigenous Filipino ideals were slowly eroded because of the influences of the colonizers.
Education served to attract the people to new masters and to dilute their nationalism.
 Filipinos felt like they have utang na loob to the Americans for teaching them most of what they know that is why they cannot break free from their colonialism.
C. ECONOMY
The End Of The Galleon Trade
Fateful day in 1815 when galleon Magallanes left Acapulco, Mexico, to return to Manila, never again to leave. The end of the galleon trade marked the opening of the Philippine colony to the world trade.
Spanish saw Philippines as a colony with limited economic potentials
Philippines was rich in resources and products such as cotton, indigo, sugar.
A propensity for trade
Early 19th century- in the Philippines, there were a lot of markets that sold local crops such as indigo, sugar and rice.
- Spanish concluded that that Filipino propensity to barter and traffic in all kinds of ways” was
“universal.”
-Trade was limited by only domestic products. And were not all of good quality
- Even having trade with China and other counterparts in Asia, goods could only be produced in limited amounts and mainly for local markets.
- No free trade except with the Chinese and the Galleon trade
Colonial Government attempted change- experimented on coffee and spices, new industries (i.e. Silk), incentives for scientific studies and inventions.
Prime movers- British and Americans (not Spanish)
Western commerce- galleon trade
Indigenous subsistence- agriculture
Strengthened
Chinese economic activities
Turn of century- England and US became the colony’s largest trading partners
- Spain (Galleon trade)- Items homegrown were not saleable (Spain- Philippines)
- England, US and Philippines these items became saleable.
- Chinese immigrants became liberalized and was able to practice the profession of their choice o Acquire land o Inherit property o Lucrative (saleable items) monopoly o Was able to settle outside Manila, trading freely o Lending money o Own lands
Bridged the distance between local producers and consumers in the other side of the port; export and import firms in Manila and the port towns.
New forms of private estates

Hierarchal sets of relations emerged (among owners, managers, resident tenants and outside farm workers) Landed Class- Friars (now included Filipino principales and Chinese mestizos)
Cash tenants, sharecroppers and contract laborers worked the land
Filipino peasants continue to subsist the way they had done before
Agricultural Exports
Close of the century- agricultural commodities- 95% of total exports
Abaca, sugar, tobacco and coffee—defined the shape of export trade because it marked the feature of the 19th century
Domestic commodities also rose in value.
First part of the century- more imports than exports.
1850’s- exports overtook imports
Latter half of the century- there was a favorable balance of trade
Sugar and abaca (largest), tobacco, hemp, coffee (least)
Trade was subject to agricultural factors and cycles
Tobacco Monopoly
Tobacco- export strong in Spain
After 15 years- there was the Tobacco Monopoly
Government enjoyed sole control over production, manufacture and trade of tobacco thus Spain became the largest trading partner for tobacco exports
Tobacco growers complain about the system
Dictated how much they would be paid
Credit certificates instead of cash th Mid-19 century- Spanish merchants, British authorities and some colonial officials were pushing for the closure of the monopoly
Tobacco monopoly= CLOSED- took over by Compana Genreal de Tabacos de Filipinas (In a sense became a private monopoly). Spanish still have a high share of the export trade.
Abaca- U.S. Ship makers
Hemp- lighter than others but also sturdier in salt water, unlike other types of cordage
Rice- China
Port in Saul, Pangasinan helped boost rice exports to China.
But British vessels were also docked here
Merchant houses were short-lived- only one firm remained—British-owned Herarld and
Company.
Rice was an important export crop but it remained until only about 1870.
Rice was then imported until the end of Spanish rule.
Export to Import of rice was due to external and internal factors.
China was only affected due to its conditions; Saigon was becoming competitive
Filipino farmers in Luzon produced more lucrative cash crop of tobacco, sugar and abaca
Foreign textiles and Chinese Traders

Textiles- large portion of imports
British textile and Spanish cotton
Native cloths- small value in export trade but rose steadily until after the Mid- century.
Chinese
Distributed imported textiles. (import-export establishments such as sari-sari stores served as local distribution points for foreign products)
Bought agricultural goods to be sold to foreign agents engaged in the export trade.
 New physical infrastructures were set in place
Ports and communications
Steam navigation and rise of ports of Shanghai, Hong Kong and Singapore
Communication lines and interisland connections
Initiated by the British who put up Telegraphic lines (telegraph system)
The Manila Railway Company, Limited
Smith, Bell and Company
Warner, Barnes and Company

British built railroad companies

Transportation by coach (mas sosyal na kalesa)- accommodated 10 seated passengers and 8 more standing
Streetcars
Electric lighting
Financing foreign trade
First bank- Banco Espanol- Filipino—dealt mostly with local businesses
British banks—handled foreign exchange
2 Filipino Financial Houses were set up
1. Paris-educated—Damaso Gorricho ran a small moneylending business
2. Francisco Rodriguez- returned to Manila and found his bank as companion to other foreign banks. Death: gave the bank to Queen of England—Banco Espanol- Filipino de Isabel II
(Bank of the Philippine Islands)
3.
2 decades later…
Entry of 2 British banks strengthened Philippine banking—the Chartered Bank of India, Australia and
China; Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation.
Among its shareholders were Manila merchants both foreign and domestic
Both banks borrowed considerably sums from the Banco Espoanol- Filipino.
Foreign merchants depended more on bank borrowings.
Monte de Piedad y Caja de Ahorros (open til this day)—combination of savings bank and pawn shop completed the institutional banking structure of the Philippines in the 19th century
Commercial houses financed foreign trade—real estates as security afor loans and generally charged lower rates (foreign commercial firms had several advantages)

A little capital goes a long way
Merchant houses ventured in commercial banking and revolutionized trade transactions.
Mode of payment-- Pesos/ Mexican silver dollars
Traders had to have ready cash
Bill of exchange (letters of credit)- traders could buy with little capital
Some commercial firms traded on their own account—advances given directly to growers or indirectly to local traders (mostly were Chinese) who sought supplies of cash crops
Agents of insurance and shipping companies they were able to link the colony to major trading centers—London, New York, Boston—help expand Philippine commerce
The Trade and Network
Few products -> Few countries
U.S., Great Britain (also Hong Kong) and China—Philippines’ key trading partners
Hong Kong was a vital transshipment point for trade not only with China and other parts of Asia but also with Europe and United States.
Americans- desire to gain a foothold in China.
Location of Philippines: Along the route to Canton—Attracted American traders, thus a good number of
American shops were frequenting Manila.
American commercial agent living in Manila was appointed permanent consul.
Spain’s last moves
Boost American commercial interest—when Spain declared Manila an open port for waling vessels.
Britain—was already in control of large portion of the colonized world when it entered Philippine trade and dominated foreign shipping worldwide.
One of the first to respond when the colony was open to outside commerce
Interests in sugar, abaca and tobacco grew.
ECONOMY TRANSFORMED
• The economic changes in the 19th century were not the same throughout the Philippines. Not all parts of the country, for example, produced cash crops, and those that did went about it at their own pace.
Some areas were less affected by the entry of European traders, while others remained completely outside the reach of merchant houses buying produce for sale abroad.
• Population growth and the transformation of the old frontiers into cultivable land caused changes I the rural landscape.
• As more towns were integrated into the market economy, farmers felt the pressure to raise salable crops. Moving from place to place
• Some crops became instant opportunities for wealth but did not make most Filipinos rich. The large majority of the Filipino people were still subsistence farmers, a growing number of whom depended on cash advances to sustain production.
• At times migration was temporary. Reaper would move from place to place, taking advantage of varying rice cycles in Luzon. But at other times it was permanent: migrants worked as either sharecroppers (kasama) or as dependent laborers (kasugpon or “helpers within the family circle)

in farms owned by earlier settlers, some of whom were their kin.
• Sharecroppers: sometimes had enough capital and free time to clear other land they would later lay claim to,
Dependent Laborers: tended to be young, single men with little capital and big dreams of having their own farm some day.
• In the frontier, land was readily available; whoever cleared and worked the land could cla im it. No title was necessary. All on needed were farm implements and a carabao.
• Latter settlers: land sometimes had to be bought from the original pioneers.
• All the prospects of work and of acquiring he kasugpon-kasama arrangement gave the new settlers hope for the future.
• Pioneer settlements practiced communal labor like planting and harvesting.
• With the commercialization of crops, private individual ownership of land replaced frontier claims.
Tenants and landowners
• In Luzon, farmer settlers found out that because the best lands were already titled, they had to enter into contractual agreements with landowners to clear land for rice cultivation.
• Under this setup, the owner would provide credit if the pioneer farmer was unable to bring along his farm animals and tools.
• If the harvest was good, the tenant would be able to redeem his debt; if not, he would end up making more loans.
• Although Pampanga had ventured into sugar cultivation in the 1730s, the rapid expansion of sugar production took place only with the development of foreign commerce in the 1800s.
• The commercialization of agriculture changed the nature of land and ownership in the province. In place of the carabao-run stone, steam mills were used to grind the cane.
• Because of the profitability of sugar, landowners became entrepreneurs themselves, negotiating with middlemen in order to fetch the best price for their product.
• Land itself shot up in value and speculation in land became subsidiary business interest of some owners. • The 19th century also saw the legalization of the pacto de retroventa, a debt-payment scheme commonly applied by Chinese mestizos, by which they were bale to acquire land (illegal way) from borrowers unable to pay loans within the period prescribed.
• The borrower could buy back his land but the value of the land was often greater than the amount of the loan. Interest rates were high.
• Through the retroventa, traders and other non-owners were thus able to acquire land, which also grew from ten to more than a thousand hectares.
• Chinese mestizos and the indigenous provincial elite, including Pampango women, were the prominent owners though not all of them obtained land through these means.
Tenancy in Pampanga
• Sugar tenancy
•
The sugar contract usually stipulated that
•
The owner: provide apart from the land – sugar cuttings for planting, milling machines, and cash advance when needed.
•
The tenant: provided labor, implements, and draft animals.
•
Usually the tenants did not hire laborers so the tenants and the owner helped each other dur ing the harvest and milling seasons.
•
The owner and the tenant shared the proceeds of the sale of sugar, however the owner undertook expenses expected of the tenant from the tenant’s share of sale.
• Rice tenancy:
•
Landowners: provided the land and the loaned seed rice for planting and subsistence
•
Tenants (aparcero): supplied labor, tools and carabao
•
Owner and tenant each milled their own rice, often with a plain mortar and pestle.
• Leasehold contract

•

The lessee paid the owner a fixed rent and usually hired tenants to work the eland on an equal share of harvest.
• The whole system fostered tenant indebtedness, where the children inherited their parents’ debts and nurtured dependence on the landlord. Tenancy also allowed the landlord to exploit the tenants for personal services, such as household work, free of charge.
The case of Nueva Ecija
• In the19th century, Nueva Ecija had become Manila’s major source of meat.
• They had cattle’s, carabaos, horses and pigs.
• The Sabini property, which was the largest estate, had a herd of 3,000 but rinderpest destroyed the herds in the 1890s, and the livestock industry was never the same again.
• The province was drawn into the trade network, shipping about half a million cavas of palay annually to Manila.
• Chinese mestizos from Bulacan and Pampanga were attracted to Nueva Ecija and quickly acquired land through the retroventa.
• Southwestern Nueva Ecija, tobacco was grown. The tobacco monopoly stimulated migration within the region. Forced to raise tobacco, the farmers began to look to the Ilocano settlers for their ready supplies of rice and other staples.
• When the tobacco monopoly ended in the 1880’s, sugar became an important crop and was sent to
Manila.
The Samar economy
• In Samar, there was not much trade in the 1860s, except for the usual barter exchanges in rice, coconut oil, and forest products.
• Rice agriculture was dry (kaingin) partly because of the lack of draft animals.
• But late in the century the economic transformation began to have some effect on the area.
• Abaca and coconut oils exports grew.
• The hacienda-type estates were absent in Samar because growing abaca was less demanding than growing rice or sugar. Abaca grew easily in upland areas, needed little care, and complemented other livelihood activities such as fishing and the cultivation of rice and root crops.
• In Cebu, land quickly became a valuable investment as agriculture was increasingly commercialized.
By the 1870s most of the good land was already privately owned, generally by Chinese and
Spanish mestizos, Spaniards, Cebuanos and Filipinos from other provinces.
The Tagalog economy
• The Tagalog region was greatly affected by the development of cash crops.
• In the late 18th century, Tagalog religious estates were already producing most of Manila’s crops. Also land mortgages were prevalent in the provinces surrounding Manila.
• Share-cropping (kasamahan) arrangements were also common and appeared to have worsened in the
19th century.
• In Bulacan, a tenant with no tools and carabao was given only one-third share of the crop. The land, tools and the draft animals cost so much during that time. This increase was directly caused by the rising value of agricultural crops.
The inquilinos
• Friar estated operated in leasehold contracts by which the inquilino paid a fixed rent to the owner and relied on the labor of share tenants.
• The religious haciendas were large and some parts remained underdeveloped. To clear these portions for cultivation, friar owners leased them out to inquilinos (both Chinese mestizos and Filipinos) who paid no rent in the first two to three years.
• The inquilino paid a flat rent to the owner depending on the productivity of the soil. Once the rent was paid the balance was shared between the inquilino and the tenants.
• A marked disparity soon developed between the inquilino and the share-cropper, as their lifestyles made clear.
•
Inquilinos: lived in the town, land rents made up the smallest portion of their income

•
Kasamahanes: poor, unfortunate people
Land sizes and population growth
• The growth of tenancy went hand-in-hand with the expansion of land sizes.
• Patterns of land tenure were also shaped by the demands of population growth. With the increase in the population and the closing of the frontier, the surplus in land was supplanted by a labor surplus that had to be fed, clothed, and housed.
• The sugar haciendas in Laguna, particularly the Dominican estates in Binan, Santa Rosa and Calamba, were the most striking examples of commercialized agriculture.
• In the early 18oos the lands were still hardly populated and the revenue from sugar only amounted at a low price.
• By 1895, sugar income had grown. After 1891 (when the family of Rizal and other inquilinos were evicted from he hacienda) the new Spanish tenants brought in steam-powered mills. The result was a dramatic increase in sugar production that made the Dominican estate one of the largest sugar producers in 1896.
• In the late 1890s, the religious orders began to incorporate their large and heavily populated haciendas.
The Dominicans called theirs the Philippine Sugar Estates Development Corporation.
• The transition to an agricultural export economy took a heavy toll on the farming population.
• If only the loans were used to improve production and refinery methods they could have contributed significantly to the transformation of the economy, But most loans were used to either seed capital to clear forests or to maintain subsistence.
Social levels more defined
• The different social classes became more rigid over time.
• Labor and rent became sources of the landowners’ wealth.
• Both labor and rent were reckoned either in terms of cash or agricultural procedure, or a combination of both. • Three social classes
•
Landed class (cacique) in the central Luzon
•
Middle class of fairly well-off tenants, merchants and white collar workers
•
Landless peasants – share-croppers, poor tenants and seasonal agricultural workers.
THE RISE OF THE CHINESE TRADERS
• Spanish attitudes toward the Chinese in the Philippines had always been ambivalent, reflected in the attempts to convert them and eventually to assimilate them into Philippines colonial society on the one hand, and in the series of massacres and mass expulsions from the colony on the other.
• The last expulsion took place in 1733 as a result of Chinese support for the British occupation and before that Spain wanted to remove Chinese control over the retail trade.
• Chinese were allowed to live in the provinces as long as they confined themselves to agriculture.
• Massacres and expulsions depleted the Chinese community in the Philippines.
• The Chinese made a came back to the Philippines in the mid-19th century.
• There were a large number of Chinese mestizos and one-third of them lived in Tondo while some lived in Bataan, Bulacan, Cavite and Pampanga.
Not quite foreign, not quite Filipino
• Chinese mestizo: father was Chinese or another mestizo and mother was a Filipina
• Mestizo woman: acquire her husband’s classification except when she married a Chinese in which case she remained classified as a mestizo.
• Mestizos were considered as a native subject of Spain with the same entitlement as the indios to participate in local government.
• The Chinese were perceived by Spain as foreigners – although they were given their own selfgoverning organizations called gremios whose heads (cabecilla or cabeza) nominated the gobernadorcillo de chino but were forbidden to govern indio towns.
• Both the mestizos and the Chinese had no right to change their residence.

• Only in the area of taxation were the Chinese mestizos treated differently from indios: they were taxed twice the amount required of Filipinos and in addition had to pay miscellaneous taxes.
• Dispensa de ley – where the Chinese mestizos could transfer his family to the tax register of indios.
• Mestizos’ last names were Filipinized e.g. Tan Hwat Co = Tanjuatco
• Christianized mestizo sometimes dropped his Chinese name and only used his baptismal one. He wore camisa de chino and also the top hat, which was the status symbol of the undegeneour principalia. • Some mestizos tried to be more hispanized than the Filipinos and dist inguished themselves in the political and economis life of the towns that became know as ‘mestizo towns’.
• Most of the mestizos were retail traders and artisans.
• The Chinese continued to dominate the wholesaling of imports and exports in the China trade, which was, conducted in the Alcaiceria de San Fernando in Binondo. The Alcaiciera was a customs and wholesale warehouse.
• Outside of Manila, the Chinese mestizos were retailers and landholders.
• The Chinese mestizos and indios profited a lot from buying agricultural produce wholesale and selling it in Manila.
The return of the Chinese
• The Chinese were given the freedom to practice their own occupations as long as they had permits.
• The Chinese who settled in the frontier or worked on other agricultural land were awarded tax incentives so as to promote the production of cash crops.
• The Spain needed this enterprising foreign community to develop the economy.
• Reason for Chinese immigration: The unrest and extreme poverty in the mainland drove the Chinese out to search for a better future.
An expanding economic role
• With the entry of foreign merchant firms, the Chinese began to serve as commercial agents, linking these firms to the rural producers and consumers. Some Chinese merchants became wholesalers of imported goods that they distributed through a retail network in the provinces. Others got involved in the processing of agricultural crops for export.
• The most profitable business by far came from monopoly contracts that the Spanish government awarded. • The foreign merchant houses had few connections within the Philippines To remedy this gap, they introduced railroads, communication and other modern infrastructure that facilitated flow of products to and from Manila and between the Manila and the foreign markets.
• They needed people familiar with the locality; the Chinese were the ones who helped them communicate with the indios.
• To ensure the distribution of goods, European firms themselves financed Chinese wholesalers not through cash loans but by consigning goods to them on credit.
• If the Chinese failed to pay the advances, they became completely indebted to the European firm.
• Eventually, the firms just dealt with the Chinese retailers on a strictly cash basis.
The cabecilla-agent system
• Transactions between the Chinese traders and foreign firms became more sophisticated as the Chinese reorganized themselves into their own firms.
• Real power rested on the Chinese cabecilla principal, head of the occupational gremio, who also collected taxes and could make profits off the collection.
• The cabecilla opened up an office in Manila where he dealt directly with the foreign merchants and maintained agents in the provinces who managed retail stores and the distribution network to be able to save on the cost of running these outlets and also to avoid paying the heavy shop tax.
• The cabecilla-agens system proved advantageous to all parties. It expanded the reach of products handled by European firms and saved the latter the burden of having their own agents.
• On the part of the agent, the system provided a ready and steady source of capital from the cabecilla.
The retail outlet (tienda de sari-sari) provided convenience and easy access to the consumers.

• Only the Chinese mestizos were placed at a disadvantage by the cabecilla system because the cabecilla replaced the Chinese mestizos when it came to the shipments of goods.
Sea cucumber and swallows’ nests
• Another important aspect of Chinese business was the Philippine trade with China. Manila served as an entrepot for the Chinese silk, porcelain, and exotic Philippine sea and forest products.
• The Philippine exports to China were rice, sea cucumber, tobacco, sapanwood, cotton, pina cloth, swallows’ nests, carabao horns, salted fish, indigo and tortoise shells.
The Chinese in local industries
• Apart from trade, Chinese merchants also got involved in either the production or the processing of valuable crops such as sugar, abaca, tobacco, indigo, and rice.
• The Chinese were also active in sugar brokerage; this involved giving out crop loans at interest rates.
• Chinese traders also moved into the abaca producing provinces in Bicol and Eastern Visayas. They put up sari-sari stores where they could exchange rice and other items for abaca. Some of them were able to own land in the major abaca sites.
Cheaper versions of costly puffs
• The colonial government all exclusively held the sale of tobacco.
• Chinese interest on tobacco began to grow through the pacto de retroventa when they were able to acquire tobacco lands and they leased them to indio farmers.
• Chinese bought lower grades of tobacco because the Spanish owned the supply of the best tobacco.
• The Chinese in Manila responded by getting into the cigar and cigarette manufacturing industry themselves and producing cheap versions of the expensive brands that their consumers aptly named cigarros beri-beri.
Dyes to Europe, wood to Singapore
• Chinese also took part in the trade of indigo, beverages and various typed of lumber.
•
Indigo was exported to: China, US and Europe
•
Local rum and wine
•
Lumber exported to: China and Singapore
• Retail trade was associated with the Chinese. Also some other occupations like textile dyeing, haircutting, wax making, baking, tanning and butchering.
Fifty pesos for a Chinese coolie
• Indio labor was employed in most industries although Chinese workers, or coolies, were generally hired in factories, warehouses, and dockyards.
• More Chinese labor was recruited because of the demands for foreign commerce.
• Foreign companies wanted cheap labor and employed the Chinese as stevedores and warehouse workers. • The coolie broker brought in Chinese laborers and provided the laborers’ housing and food. The broker ‘sold’ the laborers to Chinese cabecillas at a price that the coolies had to pay back.
• Foreign firms favored the coolie system because the workers were already organized and they only dealt with a single person when hiring.
• The most lucrative business for the Chinese came from monopoly contracts, including those for the collection of taxes on bridges, carriages, horses, public markets.
• Among the monopolies highly prized by the Chinese and Chinese mestizos were the cockpit monopoly and the opium monopoly. Both of those monopolies were equally profitable. Opium used was banned in the Philippine and only the Chinese were able to use it.
Selling a status symbol
• The highest bidder was awarded a three-year contract to import opium and keep it under customs storage until it was released to officially licensed opium dens and sold to individual consumers.
• It is hard to say for certain how much profits were gained from the sale of opium, considering that among the Chinese ‘membership’ in an opium den was a status symbol.
• So attractive were the opium contracts that even few Spaniards held monopoly contracts.
Different taxes for different people

• For the wealth they made, the Chinese were more heavily taxed compared to indios and Chinese mestizos. • Indios and Chinese mestizos had a tax ratio of 7 to 5.
• Chinese residents were exempted from paying the cedula personal but they had to pay the cedula de capitacion or ‘head tax payment certificate.’
An Anglo-Chinese colony
• Chinese capital, entrepreneurship, and labor had so permeated the economy that in the 19 th century a
Spaniard observed that Manila was marked by a special Anglo-Chinese seal. The British and the
Chinese fed each other’s economic interests in a symbiotic relationship made possible by changes in Spanish policy.
D. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
TOWARD GOVERNMENT BY FILIPINOS
 September 1913, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson received a confidential report from colleague Henry
Jones Ford.
 Ford, spent April and May, in the Philippines was impressed y the Filipinos’ political capabilities, which he believed was underrated.
 Ford complained of how Filipinos seemed ungrateful of their efforts and in fact resentful of their domination. Governor-General William Cameron Forbes said that because of “the efforts of the Assembly to extend its own authority and to curtail the authority of the Commission.”
Ford set to prove that self-rule would be hindered by illiteracy, tribalism, and caciquism.

>AUTONOMY BUT NOT IDEPENDENCE
Ford recommended that Filipinos be given autonomy but not independence until they can prove that they are capable of handling their own affairs. Recommended the abolition of the Philippine Commission and holding of constitutional convention with elected delegates.
 Wilson, influenced by Ford’s report, declared to the U.S. congress that he favored giving the Filipinos control of the “instruments of their life”
>CREDIT FOR HARRISON’S APPOINTMENT

From Ford’s report Wilson appointed Francis Burton Harrison as Forbes’ replacement. But Secretary of
State William Jennings Bryan had an earlier hand in his appointment. Upon the suggestion of
Congressman William Atkinson Jones, Bryan endorsed Harrison, who was one of 15 nominees. August,
Harrison had approached Quezon on behalf of a friend who had suggested that Harrison be candidate for governor. Harrison agreed to the idea with some eagerness, and his nomination was strongly supported by the Democrats.
Quezon however spoke as if he himself and no one else had orchestrated Harrison’s appointment. In fact, Wilson and the executive department were merely receptive to the idea of Harrison as governor.
In letters to Professor h. Parker Willis and to speaker Osmania, Quezon took credit for the appointment of Harrison. However, Harrison refused to admit that he owed his appointment to Quezon, but said that he took part in it.
Quezon basked in the glow of the impression that he was influential enough to swing the appointment of Harrison, because of this he was idolized as ‘maracas’ or ‘napakagaling.’
Harrison became the executor of Wilson’s Policies in the Philippines. Arrived in October 1913 and stayed until 1921, longest for any governor-general in the Philippines.

>AN AMBIVALENT EXECUTOR
Harrison supported Filipinos being independent, thus he was perceived as a devout advocate of autonomy. Although he considered the elites as his friends, he had nothing but contempt for the poor, sees them as worthless.
Harrison started his program of Filipinization, took out American personnel and replaced them with
Filipinos.
However, his program removed competent and efficient Americans and replaced them with incompetent Filipinos.

>HARRISON IGNORES HIS CRITICS

 Osmeña advised Harrison to be more cautious about his program, Filipinization.
 Even Quezon was surprised with the hasty execution of Filipinization that he and Osmeña took the opportunity to reshape the Philippine Commission to their liking.
 The Filipinization gave a harsh abdication of former President Taft’s policies. He believed that giving
Filipinos majority in the Phil. Commission was fit unwise. Taft also saw that Quezon was a bad advisor for Harrison.
 Harrison ignored his critics. In fact, he installed a Filipino majority in the Phil. Commission, whose member we chosen after consultation with Osmeña, Quezon, the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, and the Chief Constabulary. The Commission was virtually a Filipino body.

>TURNING BACK ON SELF-GOVERNMENT
Jones Bill: fulfills the aspiration of the people of the islands for justice and liberty.
 Harrison expected the passage of the bill. However, even Wilson admitted to Quezon that it was good as “dead.”
Osmeña suggested to Quezon that in the Preamble, it must consist the agreement between the
Americans and their temporary stay in the Philippines. The Preamble states that the American
Government can immediately leave as soon as the Philippines is already stable.
Unknown to Harrison and Osmeña, Quezon did not want immediate independence for the Filipinos.
Instead he worked with the Republican to oppose the passing of Jones Bill.

>FREEDOM THROUGH ENGLISH LITERACY
 Quezon told Wilson that his administration was not ready for immediate independence and proposed to postpone it. Quezon went to McIntyre for assistance to postpone it for another “25-years.” Wilson approved of the proposal.

 McIntyre drafted a bill on Quezon’s behalf, which postponed independence and provided autonomous government and census in 1915 and every decade thereafter. Once census contained information that 70% of males were literate in English then the assembly could request the U.S. President to give complete and absolute independence.
 Quezon expressed satisfaction with the bill. But the educational system outside Manila was very poor, therefore condemning Philippines to its colonial status for a while. Quezon once again supported Jones
Bill in June 1914, this time he had a new draft minus Osmeña’s suggestion to hasten independence. He insisted on a bicameral legislation. October—new version passed.
>A QUESTION OF “STABLE GOVERNMENT”
Quezon revised the preamble to read that the people of the United Stated must withdraw their sovereignty once a stable government is established. The phrases “as soon as” and “stable government” sparked countless debates among Filipinos and Americans.
Bill of rights in the Jones law was the same as that guaranteed by the Philippine Bill of 1902. Law gave suffrage to all literate male adults. It created a Senate of 24 elective members, 2 for each of 12 senatorial districts, with 6-year terms. House of Representatives replaced the Philippine Assembly (office= 3-years)
 The new Jones bill languished in senate for 15 months. In January 1916, Senator James Clarke proposed that Phil. Independence be given not less than 2 but not more that 4 years after bill’s approval.
 Because of this amendment, Osmeña had to deal with the opposing position of the legislators. The
Phil. Assembly recommended that Congress and US President adopt the law, noting that the amendment made the preamble clearer.
 Wilson was in favor of the amendment. Voting in Senate: 42 in favor, 41 against. But both
Republicans and Democrats trounced the amendment: 213 against, 165 in favor. Harrison claimed that the
Democrats who voted against were Catholics and influenced by Cardinal James Gibbons of Baltimore, persuaded by Phil. Church leaders to oppose independence. Wilson approved the bill: August 1916.
Quezon triumphant celebrated. To honor Jones, he named a bridge after him. Privately, Quezon recognized Osmeña’s role in the passage of the Jones Law.

In Manila, Quezon was acknowledged as hero, another myth: that he was the law’s principal author and defender. >QUEZON ECLIPSES OSMEÑA
 At a banquet, he talked about the Jones Law, declaring that the preamble was enough to fight for its passage. He thanked everyone except Osmeña.
 Until 1916, Osmeña was an important politician. However, with Quezon’s lies, an overwhelming
Nacionalista victory won him Senate presidency, he was in an even better position to eclipse Osmeña.
 Harrison interpreted the Jones Law according to its professed intentions. Thus, abolishing the supervisory authority of the office of the governor over the executive bureau. Only the non-Christian provinces remained within his supervision, which then lost the power to monitor, supervise, and regulate local governments, which then further established graft and corruption in the civil service.

>A COUNCIL OF STATE
Harrison welcomed Osmeña’s idea of a Council of State and created the body in late 1917. Harrison: president; Osmeña: Vice-President; and Quezon: third man. Council immediately replaced the cabinet.
 Osmeña and Quezon advanced the autonomy of various departments usually in the grip of the governor. The result was a quasi-parliamentary form of government where Harrison followed Osmeña and Quezon. The council then became the target of scrutiny by President Wilson’s successor.

>BEGGING FOR POLITICAL CONCESSIONS
Harrison agreed with the Phil. Assembly to create a mission, which would demand independence and protect Phil. Interests. The mission would function like a lobby group but did not have any political or economic clout capable of operating in depth. 1935, politicians in various missions had an advantage that could gain them votes to higher offices.

 The missions, instead of being a noble cause, became a begging expedition for concessions of power to Filipino leaders.
1919, Quezon headed the mission of 40 political, economic, and social leaders whose instructions were to present the case for independence the governor allowed the legislature to pass a law, which violates
Jones Law, which permanently appropriated $500,00 a year to fund all missions, thus binding his successors to this illegal disbursement
>TWO SHIPS FOR THE U.S WAR EFFORT
 American wanted to show the world that the Filipinos were very much appreciative of their special bond and that they supported the American effort. The assemblymen approved the construction of a modern submarine and modern destroyer. Luckily, the war ended and Filipinos did not have to answer for their leaders’ pretentious commitment
 Secretary of War Franklin Baker and joint Senate-House Committee welcomed the Mission. Senator
Rafael Palma noted doubts and misgivings about the security of independent Philippines.
None of the missions ever envisioned complete freedom from the US.

>A SOURCE OF PATRONAGE AND ABUSE
Harrison encouraged Filipino leaders to engage in business because Osmeña declared, this would help
Filipinos prove that they are capable of running not just their political affairs but economic as well. WWI contributed to economic boom in the Phil.
The government bought Manila Railroad Company and Manila Hotel, established National
Development Company (NDC), and founded Philippine National Bank (PNB) to prove that Phil had stable government.
Without supervision, bank quickly became source of political patronage. Quezon wanted Willis to run
PNB, however refused it, Harrison appointed Venancio Concepcion. Before long Concepcion was engaged in graft and corruption.

 Peter Stanley provides evidence of the worst scandal in Harrison’s time.
 Concepcion allowed enormous loans to sugar and hemp industries after WWI. Concepcion, with the knowledge of Harrison and the Council of State, removed the currency reserve fund from New York and brought it back to the Philippines. Over P 82M disappeared without anyone noticing.

> CASTING DOUBT ON FILIPINO SELF-RULE
1918, Harrison asked his brother, Archibald to record Concepcion’s anomalies. However, refused to divulge them. Concepcion denied all allegations with the help of his powerful backers, Osmeña and
Quezon. Harrison pretended he did not know anything.
 1920, Concepcion resigned, tried, convicted and imprisoned for fraud. But the incoming Harding administration casted doubt on Filipinos capacity to run their own affairs.
>COMMITTED TO US WITHDRAWAL
 Harrison reversed Taft’s policy of protection and helped the Filipino leaders transform the government according to their vision.
 Harrison was committed to complete American withdrawal from the Philippines. If he allowed unbridled wrongdoing and abuse of political authority by the Filipinos, it was simply because he was letting the Filipinos shape a government of their own making.
E. RELIGION
THE MISSIONARY ENTERPRISE
 16th century—theoretically, in Spain the king could conquer and rule foreign lands provided he helped the Catholic Church to spread Christianity. However, while preachers were sent around the globe, their message was not always accepted.
 Non-believer would sometimes kill or harm both preachers and converts. Hence, the Church had the duty to help and protect the missionaries and Christians.

 This was known as patronato real de Indias, exchange of services between the crown, which could provide soldiers and officials, and the Church. Because the king had duties for the Church, it had certain rights (regalias). Duty implied rights and rights implied authority.
 In practice, the patronato obliged the royal government to build churches, support missions and missionaries etc.
 Most important of these rights was that of assigning candidates to vacant positions in the Church.
 People disagreed about how much authority the crown had over the Church. Some allowed unlimited power (regalism) others denied them (curialism)

> A RELIGION CROSSES THE PACIFIC
 There had always been priests in the expeditions to the Philippines
 There never enough volunteers, 10-years after the conquest of Manila, the crown organized the Church in the Phil with Fray Domingo de Salazar as its 1st Bishop
 The missionaries’ immediate problem was language
 It is unclear how Spaniards learned the local languages, but they made themselves understood weeks after their arrival.
 The royal law decreed that Castilian be taught in all colonies due to administrative and evangelical purposes. However, it was very difficult to teach a community to learn Castilian.

> FRIARS SPEAK TAGALOG
 Manila Synod 1582-1586: approved the use of the Phil language in preaching new religion. This time
Augustinians had their own vocabulary lists and grammar books. 1594, King Philip divided the colonies according to language.
 Because of this the missionaries became the first Philippine lexicographers and grammarians.

 Another result of the missionaries was the addition and changes in local vocabulary. For instance,
Spanish Dios Philippinized to Diyos.
 The missionaries also introduced new words like virtud, confesion, sacramento, cementerio, etc.

>QUESTION OF SAINTS
 An interesting addition to the indigenous language is santo (saint). The people recognized a good person wherever they found him and called him.
 Additions were not confined to religious vocabulary; they also gave new words to local lexicon. Day was divided into hours and not according to position of sun.
 Long before the Spaniards arrived the Filipinos had their own native terms.
 To aid memory, people wrote down sermons through songs. That is why they were able to learn the new Roman alphabet. Filipinos, unlike Southeast Asian neighbors, were the ones who inherited classical
Greco-Roman culture.

> PRACTICE OF SLAVERY
 Slavery was a practice for both the conquered and the conqueror. In fact, it was considered as another source of income.
 When Spaniards arrived, Philippine life revolved around the datu, whose power depended on his available laborers.
 The islands having barter trade borrowed goods not money. Good doubled in quantity were loaned to others, which explains practice of debt slavery, although other tribes used other forms of slavery.
 However, many missionaries saw slavery as unacceptable. King Charles I of Spain and Pope Paul III declared slavery as unfavorable.
 But papal and legal decrees did not work. Spaniards and datus kept slaves for themselves

 Even religious houses had slaves. By 1627 they were limited to only 1 slave, 4 in 1650. Muslims caught during the war could be kept legally as slaves for the purpose of educating them.
 A boy 2 or 3-years old cost about 30 pesos and could be kept until he is 20. After that, if kept as slave, must be paid a tael (3 rials) every year of service.

> SLAVERY JUSTIFIED
 Three kinds of slaves in colony:
(1) Those who sold themselves or sold by parents
(2) Captives of war
(3) Those condemned by judicial sentence
 Extreme poverty or inability to pay tribute forced parents to sell their children.
 1650—wars of conquest seized but soldiers continued to fight cimarrones or fugitives from justice
(bandits). If captured, bandits sentenced to slavery and 10-years hard labor as oarsmen.
 Other crimes merited judicial sentence of hard labor for number of years or service as oarsmen or as troops (presidarios).
 Missionaries could do so little to end this practice. Some ransomed them others “stole” them. So, the king ordered an emancipation of all slaves in the Phil. Owners were ordered to produce authentic titles of ownership within 3-days.
 Uproar by Churchmen, Chinese mestizos, and Spanish residents followed, saying that conditions in
Philippines were different from America. Insisted that many slaves were not Filipinos.
 Added that several slaves who claimed freedom were already emancipated for lack of legal titles.
Others declared Muslim slaves captured from “just wars.”

> ECONOMIC PROBLEM

 Real problem was economic. Slaves worked exclusively on farms, which fed the colony. If they stop working, an economic crisis would follow.

> SLOW TIDE OF CHANGE
 Those arguments failed to convince opposition to justify slavery. Soon, the ones who favored it thought otherwise.
 19th century: Spanish steam gunboats ended Muslim slavery. Change of datus to cabezas de barangay changed social practices.
 Workers then were treated with just treatment. They were paid for their works and not to work.
 These ideas diminished use of slavery in the Philippines except for true slaves (identified in certificates of royal scribes of Tribunal of Slavery from foreign nations).
 Areas beyond Spanish control (Mindanao or Benguet) continued to practice slavery. However, with the opening of free ports and economic boom of sugar and abaca industries led to demand of paid workers and not free labor.

> FRIARS CONVERT A DATU
 Domingo Salazar, 1st bishop of Philippines, reported the conversion of the Philippines.
 Pangasinan: for a while Filipinos stayed away from missionaries, refused to accept anything from them. But with Spanish troops in Vigan, they hesitated to expel the friars. After 3-years, a datu was said to have approached the Dominican superior.
 The datu having observed the goodness of the missionaries wished to become a Christian.

> EXPLAINING CHRISTIAN GOD
 Before Spaniards came, Fillipinos had their own religion, which often demanded sacrifices to gain the favor of their gods.

 When shown the cross with Jesus nailed to it, they wondered. They then explained how the Christian
God died for his people and not demanded death.
> RULES OF CATECHISM
 Conversion was not easy. But through Baptism, people witnessed “miracles” of cures at the moment of
Baptism, which convinced others of this Sacrament.
 Certain prayers had to be learned besides 10 Commandments and Apostle’s Creed. Monogamy was practiced strictly. Polygamy only associated with Muslims.
 Method of instruction was exemplified by Jesuit decurio method. Converts were grouped into classes; advanced ones helped the slower ones. To aid retention, the lessons were put into songs.
 When a missionary arrived in a settlement or doctrina, people first went to public catechism then attended Mass where missionaries repeated the catechism in the sermon.
 As the people became familiar with the lessons, they didn’t have to attend them. They took turns in
Church each Sunday afternoon.
 In Church, half-hour of common prayer after question-and-answer period to check how much they learned. > RELIGION TELLS THE TIME
 Christians developed habit of prayer though the church bell, rang 4 times during the day: sunrise, noon, sunset (Angelus), and in the evening.
 Town life was reorganized. Prayers interrupted working day, just as workweek was interrupted by religious duties.
 Missionaries observed that it was more effective to teach children. So, they asked their parents for them. Soon enough, parents grew curious and eventually listened to the lessons. Missionaries also destroyed anything related to paganism to erase the doubt. Once found out that no evil consequences

followed the action they ruled the idols as unimportant, therefore converted. As soon as the datu converts, his people follow him.
 1593—Doctrina Cristiana: contains essential Christian beliefs.
> THE NEW MORALITY
 It was not enough to be baptized; they had to live their lives based on the 10 Commandments. Even if they received Confession, not all could receive Holy Communion. The latter were comulgantes
(communicants) the former were solo confesion (confession only).
 The reason was simple. Priests had to know that the people were “mature enough” to be Christians and the fact that they have to travel often due to lack of priests. What surprised them was that instead of going back to paganism they remained loyal Catholics.
 Monogamy was a heavy burden. They also put a stop to the “bride-price.”
 Monogamy and removal of dowry were difficult to bear. Some escaped and relocated to avoid these.
Therefore, Spanish rules were not entirely accepted.

> AN UPRISING BORN IN WINE
 1574—with Agustin de Legazpi, Martin Panga, Magat Salamat, and other baptized nobles plotted against the Spaniards. They believed that Christianity had degraded them.
 To end their grief, they united to overthrow the Spanish rulers with the help of their kinsmen, Japanese traders, and English corsair Cavendish.
 But Pampango leaders refused to join. Native basi is strong stuff, which made someone divulge the plans. Japanese failed to return, and messenger to Borneo stopped where the encomendero’s foreman discovered the plot.
 The perpetrators were punished, tried, and sentenced. Appeals were upheld, was ordered to be beheaded, others exiled. All were ordered to pay a fine. Leader’s lots were plowed and sowed with salt.

> THE DIWATA OF BOHOL
 1621—beatification of Francis Xavier, some fugitive urged others to shake off Spanish influence and build a chapel for a diwata, who promised a blissful life, free of tribute and stole fees.
 Rebels said that had the people had courage to attack the Spaniards, the diwata would have helped them.  Boholanos refused the peace the alcalde of Cebu offered, troops routed the Boholanos from their lair less than a week later. Filipino troopers were rewarded with gold, silver, and food. Rebels were pardoned, but leaders executed.
 Others went on high mountains and continued the rebellion there, but all failed.
> LOVE AND REVOLT IN SAMAR
 Widely known as the uprising of Agustin Sumuroy (or Sumodoy), trusted leader in Samar. His duty was to sail out at dawn, to scan the horizon and to warn people.
 He fell in love with a young woman and began to live with her, which was against the warnings of the priest, who then sent the girl to a far away town. He went to his friends who hated the government. June
1, 1649, he killed the parish priest and government representative in his town. Because of this h started an uprising, which spread to other towns.
 Government troops were better organized and soon crushed the rebellion with the help of Lutao
Christians. One of sumuroy’s followers beheaded him thus briefly ending the uprising. Soon after a man named Dubao followed. But again failed. The fight for political independence would start much later.
> THE ALCALDE ABUSES HIS AUTHORITY
 The alcalde mayor, was supposedly the model of justice. Required to not engage in commerce while in office and was obliged to leave to his successor the remainder of the year’s rice. However, none of these were followed. Just like any other things, law deemed useless.

 Another frequent complaint was that the alcalde received bribe almost regularly during town elections.
 The alcalde mayor was required to visit his people once a year to check if royal ordinances were followed. But, he was bribed to stay away. Instead, he would have a substitute, who would go, not to check but to collect bribe money as commission. People would appeal to priests but they could do nothing. > ALCALDES VERSUS MISSIONARIES
 1702—Francisco Gueruela, judge of royal audiencia in Manila, sent to look for ways to alleviate poverty in Bicol. But people complained about his conduct.
 Gueruela said that he had both the powers of the Pope and the King. He was always with women. And said that the friars had left Spain because of poverty.
 He ordered several receptions in his honor and had women to shoulder him. He asked the newly elected gobernadorcillos that if they’d be willing to kill a friar or soften them, if yes they had the job, if no they were disqualified.
 Gueruela instigated a riot against the friars, urged people to use sticks against their priests.
 Before leaving for Manila, he prepared a negative report about Bicol and forced majority of the gobernadorcillos to testify against the friars. Investigations revealed that he had attacked many Church officials. He was excommunicated but obtained absolution after paying 720 pesos.
> PRIEST DEFENDS HIS COLLEAGUES
 Miguel Endaya, alcalde mayor of Camarines, forced people to sign a statement against the
Franciscans. But Fr. Miguel de Covarrubias defended the friars.
 According to Covarrubias, the friars taught the people to live in a well-ordered community. They do not ask for fees or only half of what law imposed.
 The Franciscans helped the needy with whatever they needed. Often priests refused to certify the tribute collected in kind.

 May 12, 1738—word spread that Dominican missionaries sparked revolt in towns, but proved to be false.  The newly elected gobernadorcillos insisted on people who live away from their farms to build a house in the poblacion to keep their rice safe. Farmers claimed that this restricted their freedom. So, their wish was granted.
 Manila—gangs of robbers had been abusing defenseless people. Government troops set out to stop them. Much anti-Spanish feeling was pointed towards the missionaries who urged obedience to the King.
Rumor described these crimes as cry against the tobacco monopoly. Robberies were caused by lack of money to pay tribute.

> PEOPLE RALLY BEHIND FRIARS
 People rallied to the side of the missionaries. Simon de Anda would not have successfully defeated the
British without the friar’s support.
 Bishop Manuel Matos insisted that friars continue to oppose abuses. Among the laws regulating the patronato, 4 had specific application in the Philippines, mainly referred to government’s right to nominate priests for church offices.
 (1) Allowed governor-general to present candidates for vacancies
(2) Directed governor-general and archbishop to submit a terna, or 3 names of missionary candidates that would be submitted to the Pope.
(3) Ordered governor-general to assign 2 clerics to help the bishop
(4) Allowed governor to name chaplains for the armadas, naos, galeras.
This power gave colonial power much over the Church. In turn, government had to support the Church and its missions.
 ¼ of people’s tribute went to priest’s stipends. Yet, these were not enough, there were other things needed that was supposedly supplied by the patronato.
 With priest’s favorable endorsement (visto bueno), a petition was granted.

> CHICKEN AND 4 EGGS
 Binahaan—settlement with good land for irrigation and rice planting.
 The people had to give the priest his pakain (food): they would give him rice, eggs, chicken, and others. IF priest was negligent, people gave nothing.

FORTS, CHURCHES, STATUES
•

represents the belief of the Spaniards that they can make their belief into a belief system
•
they provided the structure
•
we didn't have a common language
•
while friar was teaching he was learning the language
•
involves external and internal system
•
not within the control of the friar, but within your control
•
you can decide not to change it because you are used to believing other things
•
Church engage the Filipinos: friar, bells, masses etc.-structural scenario for the change to occur
•
some were convinced most were not
•
Impact:
•
>>>FOLK CATHOLICISM resulted- the fusion of pagan and Christianity or also known as spilt-level Christianity (because there are times when you are more pagan than Catholic and more Catholic than pagan); Syncretic syncretism
•
Manifestations: the use of an amulet (anting-anting), medallions, the characterization of Quiapo (Church but outside there are vendors of anti-Catholic items), belief in superstitions, karma (another form of syncretism)
•
we are still syncretic in many ways
•
this year is the year of faith so if you think you need to educate yourself then this is the time you do so
•
to a certain extent paganism is still with us, but Christianity is more dominant in us
•
but we tend to be double standard; there are times when you move towards the pleasure of the flesh than to the practice of your faith
•
even in our institutions (corruption), in the family (mistresses, infdelity)
•
why weren't we entirely converted: combination of violence and love (the sword), and

then we were converted
•
and the friars who converted us were also double standard; they who preach the word of God was also violating us; there are two standards there; it weakens the internalization there. hence weakens the absorption of Catholicism
•
knowing that the implication is we should educate ourselves; we should not be double standard • we should educate ourselves in the faith
Forts, Churches and Statues
What Goiti found in Manila
Pigafetta in Cebu 1521
- Chief had a “palace”
 House was built of planks and bamboo
 Raised high from the ground on large logs
 Enter by means of ladders
Two theories on the origin of the word “Manila”
1. may niila based on Sanskrit nila – indigo plant
2. may nilad – place where water lilies (nilad) grow
1571, Legazpi took possession of Manila
- Marked out a central plaza which had a:
 Church (future manila cathedral)
 City hall
 Governor’s residence
 Military barracks (future fort Santiago) - northwest
Governor Gomez Perez Dasmarinas (1590-1593)
- Erected a protective wall around the city
- Funds: taxes on playing cards
- To improve military discipline: built barracks for the troops
Early colonial houses
1600
- Streets were lined with stone and wooden houses, roofs of clay tile or nipa
- Ordinary Filipinos who lived outside city walls (extramuros or the suburbs) – simple houses made of bamboo or wood
1521
-

Ground below the house held the family’s domestic animals
Most houses had only one room
Most had a domestic altar

Houses of the rich in Manila
- Two storeys
- Lower storey: thick walls of lime and stone
- Upper storey: painted wooden walls
- Roof’s frame tightly pegged to strong posts

1800


Ceilings were rare, and inside the house one looked up to high roofs

Houses had walls called tabique pampango
Strips of wood crisscrossed with one another and strengthened with bamboo – mixture of lime and sand

New fort to defend the city
Bagong bayan
- Present Ermita
- Some Chinese families moved North to Tondo
First Spanish section of Manila had a protective wall of wood and stockade
- Withstood siege by Limahong three years later
First governors in Manila focused on conquering Mindanao
- Campaigns merely provoked retaliation and start of the Muslim raids
6th Governor-general, Santiago de Vera
- Needed a system of defense against local revolts and foreign attacks
- Asked Father Antonio Sedeno to design a new fort
 First stone fort in the Philippines: Nuestra Senora de Guia
Gomez Perez Dasmarinas
- Asked Leonardo Iturriano, engineer, to fortify the city against sea and land attacks
- Built a circular wall about two meters high in front of the old parapet at the end of the land jutting out between the river and the sea
Where prisoners spent their last days
The fort:
Named in honor of the patron saint of Spain – Apostle Saint James (Spanish: Santiago)
- Arches called Battery of Santa Barbara – honor of traditional patron saint of artillery men
- Consisted of straight concrete wall extending to the river mouth
1603 riots
- Chinese massed against the fort
- Driven away at great loss of life
- Governor Luis Perez Dasmarinas – died
1645
- Killer earthquake flattened Manila – fort suffered minor damage
- Fort served as defense and prison
Former governor Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera – imprisoned on trumped-up charges by his successor
- Judged guilty after juicio de residencia (court review of their acts in office)
- Condemned to imprisonment at the fort
Archbishop Mauel Rojo
- Acting governor of Manila when British invaded in 1762
- Confined by the British and died in his dungeon cell two years later

1739
Fort had a triangular form
- Perimeter of 700 meters
- South: facing the city with walls two and a half meters thick, guarded by semi bastions
- North: three fortified barriers, one aimed at the sea, another at the river entrance, and third at the river itself
- Moat connected to the river
- Two gates:
 South fate facing the city
 Postern gate with a false opening to the sea and river
Fort served as the guardian of Manila, walls measuring about 4 kilometers long, 12 bastions, bombproof magazine for powder and two main gates
Fort San Felipe in Cavite
Called hook or Kawit which became Cavite to the Spaniards
- Natural harbor
- Ships were safe against strong winds
- Served as southwest lookout for Manila bay
- Began in 1609
- Small and its basement was intended for storerooms
1591
Dasmarinas urged king to defend it (fort san Felipe)
- Could serve as a port of entry for the enemy
- Called it “key to these islands” or “key to manila”
1650 (fort san Felipe)
Diego Fajardo, 16th governor-general
- Surrounded fort with weak wooden palisade for lack of funds
- 1659: the fort was a square edifice with four bulwarks; perimeter of about 700 meters
- Built at the end of the river facing Manila to repel any hostile attempts to land
October 1687
- Earthquake damaged Fort San Felipe
- Field Marshal Tomas de Endaya: in charge of construction of ships at Cavite shipyard but used lumber for other purposes
Unsolved problems that threatened the fort
- Rapid soil erosion in Cavite
Five outposts against the Muslims
1700 – Mindanao
Three defensive posts:
1. Tandag in the northeast
2. Iligan in the north
3. Zamboanga in the southwest
75 years later
4. Dapitan

5. Cagayan de Oro
 Both on the north-central Mindanao coast
1775
-

Presidio or stronghold was approved for Dapitan

Plans for Fort Zamboanga
Father Juan de Bueras, Jesuit provincial superior
- Suggested establishing a naval station at the tip of Zamboanga peninsula
- Stationary garrison would immediately discover Muslim activity and chase it before it reached the Visayas
- Chaplains would be assigned to the outpost – they could evangelize the area
Juan Cerezo de Salamanca
6th interim governor general for two years – established the suggested fort
- For funds: Filipinos paid extra tribute called ganta of Zamboanga
March 1635
- Force of 30 Spanish and 1,000 Visayas auxiliaries thus sailed for Jolo
 Did not reach their destination
 Landed on the shore of future Zamboanga city
Melchor de Vera
- Chaplain of the expeditionary force knew something of military architecture and engineering
- Cornerstone of his planned fort was laid on June 23, 1635
 Fort and garrison did not last
 1652, threatened by Chen Ch’en Kung, Governor Sabiniano Manrique de Lara recalled all southern forces to Manila
A southern outpost survives
1672
- Reestablish the outpost in Zamboanga
- Funds were lacking
- Governor was afraid that work would endanger peace between government and Muslims
- Renovated fort consisted of
 Four bases
 Two redoubts
 Two bridges
 A casemate
 A magazine
 And quarters for 100 men
- Fort stood beside salty water which became a mangrove swamp that served as an added defense
1750



Plan to send 50 Spanish colonists from Manila to form a separate town beside the fort of
Zamboanga
Support themselves: raise cinnamon
Only one Spaniard, Antonio Jove, volunteered
In their place, 25 Visayan families were recruited

Fort San Pedro in Cebu was triangular, of stone, and mortar, with three bastions, about 300 meters
First Church in the Philippines
- Structure that housed the image of the Holy Child (Santo Nino) in Cebu, 1565
- Built by Augustinians with help of Cebuano
- Governor Perez Dasmarinas to erect a “moderate” cathedral at the same time
 Cost would shouldered by native tribute payers, encomenderos and the royal treasury
- Construction of the Manila Cathedral began in December 1581
 Made of light materials: bamboo, wood and nipa
 5 years later it was in disrepair and regarded as a “dishonor and discredit to our religion and our public and the heads who ruled it”
1620, Manila and the suburbs counted about 30 churches
- Some encomiendas had two churches or sometimes two neighboring encomiendas shared one church between them
- In the provinces, the church was the heart of the mission compound: included priest’s residence or covento
Atrium in front of the church was used as a public meeting place
- Soon became the town plaza
- Later divided by a street from the atrium then became the town market
“Earthquake Baroque” style of churches
- They were low, about 10 or meters from the ground to the eaves
- Walls one or two meters thick: strengthened by equally thick buttresses
- Windows were small and roofs were trabeated
- Generally supported by horizontal wooden beams instead of arches
- Walls were of extremely durable mixture of mortar into which was poured crushed seashells, a fine lime mixture, molasses, egg whites and eggshells
The craft of church building
- Documents disprove the belied that churches were built by forced labor
- Workers: carpenters, sawyers, concheros (crushed shells for mixing or cutting them for the windowpanes), mason, fogoneros (kiln contractors), blacksmiths, locksmiths, silversmiths, candle makers, sculptors, painters, seamstresses
- Parish priests were scolded if he has neglected to pay workers
- Building of church was a social project
1850
Bricks, tiles (floor or glazed), granite slabs (called piedra china) and cut stone blocks (sillares or sillaretes) were produced around Manila
- Network for transporting materials were brought by dugouts or cascos and rafts down the rivers to Manila Bay
1571
Augustinian Church in Intramuros Manila
- Burned during Limahong’s attack three years later
- Second burned down in 1579: during the wake of Governor Ronquillo de penalosa
- Stone edifice started around 1587
- Church measures about 30 by 12 meters with three naves
- Burial place for five governors-general:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Legazpi’s
Ronquillo de penalosa
Tello de Guzman
Pedro de Acuna
Gabriel de Curuzealegui

Sculptors and other craftsmen
Beauty of Philippine churches
- Interior furnishing such as saints’ images, altars, the choir loft, musical instruments, and pews
Tomas de Castro y Andrade, a professional artist from Manila
- Worked as military engineer at Manila and Taytay
- Promoted to rank of colonel in 1759
- Needed to make money: made miniature paintings
Maestro Juan de los Santos
- Master artist
- Famous wooden retablo of the main altar of San Agustin church in Intramuros attributed to him
- Destroyed in British occupation of Manila in 1762
Nicolas de la Cruz Bagay
- Engraver and printer of Jesuit printing press
Religious treats of music and theater
- Music served as a teaching aid in the missions
- Evidence: people quickly learned to play European musical instruments
1. Cithara
2. Laud
3. Harp
4. Vihuela (smaller predecessor of modern guitar)
5. Mondolin
6. Violin
7. Piano
8. Organ
Choirs were soon trained and in mission towns far from Europe, choirs played even masses by Giovanni
Pierluigi da Palestrina (1525-1594)
Theater
- Known as komedya or moro-moro
- Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera defeated Muslim confederation in south central Mindanao and
Sulu and almost killed Sultan Kudarat
 Manila gave him a warm welcome comparable to the triumphus: procession held in honor of victorious generals in Rome
 Some boys acted out his victory and inspired Father Hieronimo Perez to write a Gran Comedia about the event
Komedya
- Christians and non-Christians marching and fighting in verse, to the accompaniment of music
- Dramatizing stories from European metrical romances rather than from actual history

Ikon, Friar and Conquistador
-

Filipino is most Christian when he doubts that he is
Paradox of the Christian is that he must achieve selflessness through maximum selfconsciousness
Christian Filipino: self-conscious, intensely and tormentedly aware of himself in a way that the
Igorot and Moro are not
“The only Christian nation in the Far East” – sees only greed, graft, vileness and violence
Faith is a foreign irrelevance that hasn’t touched his people
Faith has formed us that those who left it still speak and write its frame of reference
Good or evil, our conversion to Christianity is the event in our history
Even without Spain and the Faith, we would sooner or later have emerged from tribalism

I: soul
We: nation
Nationalism: includes but transcends patriotism
- Lapu-lapu: a patriot in the old reasonable sense, defending a local habitation
- Philippine tribes that were left to themselves have never even approached the idea of union
- Sense of nation does not evolve inevitably, “sooner or later”, not even when spurred by the force of circumstances
- Conversion made us this people and this nation
- Years of conversion and unification: not our history
- Those years that shaped what we are today: impossible for us to reject them as for a tree to cut off its roots
- People calling itself Filipino and fighting for its nationhood under the banners of the Cross, the
Enlightenment, the French Revolution, and the Constitution of Cadiz
- Religious, political and cultural forces made it happen; represented by 3 figures
 Santo Nino, Fray Andres de Urdaneta and Don Miguel Legazpi
Santo Nino
- Perfect symbol of the Philippine Christianity because it came with Magellan which became a pagan idol
Folk Catholicism
- Fusion of Christian and the pagan that reveals how the Church triumphed in the Philippines: by assimilating and preserving
- Whatever of the old cults it could Christianize, so that not only the Pit Senyor of the Santo Nino but similar pagan rites like the tatarin of Manila, the turumba of Pakil and the ati-atihan of Aklan have survived under the auspices of the Church
- Faith becomes primitive again with every primitive people
- Dark ages: magical nature religion
Philippines undergoing this spiritual childhood because human’s processes are gradual and we cannot in the wink of an eye shed all the previous pagan ages
- Santo Nino was willing to become a pagan god
- Charge that violence was done to the Filipino when a faith alien to his culture was thrust upon him Learning is not an easy process
- Accepting of the challenge of the new, the unknown, the alien, the mysterious, that has unlocked wilderness, ocean, the atom, and outer space
Faith has had, not only no moral, but no social effect on us. However, even the gradual evolution of the
Faith in the Philippines has been in the nature of a revolution
- Revolution: comparing Christian and pagan art
- Juxtaposition, one could see at a glance how the static forms of paganism – stolid, squatting, expressionless figures – succeeded in Christian times, by forms in dynamic motion: gesturing hands, advancing feet, upturned heads, vivacious faces
Pregnant Woman: immemorial Philippine motif that evolved, with the Conversion, into the pregnant
Virgin
Friar: economically was our culture hero
Urdaneta: perfect symbol of the friar
- Chief pilot
- Renaissance Man in all his awesome vitality: sailor, soldier, explorer, adventurer, and yet combining with the man of action the man of thought, other worldly and God-haunted, afflicted with his epoch’s “fever of the marrow”
- Guided Legazpi’s armada to the Philippines: built the first church. Enthroned the Santo Nino, baptized his first converts, colony’s first spiritual head
- Final feat: discovered a safe return route across the Pacific to Mexico, after – vanished again into the cloister
- Warrior-priests, men of the world and of their time, through transcending both
Franciscan Pedro Bautista
- Conquista, built first church in San Francisco del Monte
Dominican Francisco de Capillas
- Explored wilds of Cagayan
- Evangelized North
- Built and baptized
Friar poured his blessing
- Shaped our economy by what he puts in; history to this day and our daily lives determined by the crops that he brought in
 Tobacco, maize, cotton, coffee, cocoa, naranja, guava, melon, cabbage, tomato, industrial sugar
Carabao pulling a plow
- Not a meat but a work animal
- Friar brought wheel and plow – turned carabao into a draft animal
International contacts even before Magellan
- How little they did for us
- International trade we boast of was so one-sided it can hardly be called trade, our role in it was purely passive:
 The folk to whom the trade happened, to whom the traders came, and from whom the payment exacted were slaves or the right to work local mines

Other cultures: wheel cultures – none of them seem to have had the charity to introduce us to the wheel
Never had a colonial economy, tied to the factories and markets of the mother country
- Broke away from Spain with no fear of economic upheaval
- Several decades after political independence we are still, economically, an American dependency
Progress
- Spain brought and planted here depend our lives, trade, culture, progress, and history for all time to come
- Wheel brought here is in permanent revolution: dynamo
Esta corte and Esta Republica
- Consciously or not: creating the idea of an independent realm
- Cops he (friar) planted created economic independence
- Revolt against authority of superiors resulted in independent friar provinces for the Philippines
- Propagation of the dialects instead of Spanish: disobeying royal orders bread an independent
Philippine Christian culture, not merely a mirror culture of the Spanish or the Mexican
- Organized dialects into grammars opened up and mapped our lands
- Pulled us out of folklore into the era into the era of written history
- Churches, roads, bridges, dams and irrigation systems he built – still using it today
- His is one of the great civilizing labors in the history of mankind
Quijote
- Conquistador who had welded the Americas into one empire – would repeat his feat in the orient
- If Conquistador had succeeded – Philippines might have extended from Indo-China to Australia
Philippine Governor-General Francisco de Sande
- Helped sultan of Borneo restore his throne
- Moluccas were conquered in the early 1600s, Formosa in the 1620s
 Geography was still fluid, in formation
Positive side of the battle of the Conquistador
Result: The formation of a native elite in close alliance with and practically the peers of the Spaniards
- Conquistador got men, timber, provisions and ships
 In return: municipal power and government, military authority, more of the old communal lands, prestige and privilege, and a liberal education
 Dealing with him as equals: developed a sense of destiny as a chosen people, as the ruling class – addressed as Don
La Naval de Manila
- Celebrated termination of an Philippine victory in the Dutch wars
- Fervently observed by the Tagalogs and Pampangos
- Double meaning:
 One: celebrated power and privilege they gained because of the Dutch wars
 Two: Continuance of their ally, the Spaniard in the land and the consequent continuation of their own power and privilege
1662
-

Chinese uprising

-

Symbolic act: turned over the walls of Manila to the Pampango armies, under Don Francisco
Laxamana, maetre de campo

Alternative capital
- Pampango soil; Bacolor, as during the British invasion, or Arayat as Governor General Basco proposed 30 years later
17th and 18th centuries
- Philippines was controlled by a triumvirate
- * Native-born Spaniard, the Tagalog and the Pampango
Revolutionary days as “ang panahong tagalog”
Reason for Revolution:
- Breakdown of the old triumvirate
- Reversion of the Creole-Tagalog-Pampango “republic” into a colony in the modern sense
 Mishap that marked the final phase of Spain in the Philippines
Spanish era – three distinct eras
1. Last 35 years of the 16th century, era of conquest and conversion
2. 17th century – beginning of the 19th century, era of commonwealth – independent of European metropolis, ruled vicariously by government in Mexico (too far away to exert pressure)
3. 19th century, era od a colony – controlled directly and oppressively by the mother country
 Also the era of the revolt against that status as colony
Caribees – respect that explains the survival of our old cults, dialects, place-names, and barangays
Stressing of “this court” and “this republic”
- Declaration of independence from the old friar provinces in Spain; cruel inquisitions of the governors at the end of their terms; and, among the Creoles, the establishment of the alliance with the Tagalog and Pampango leaders
Government controlled Creole, tagalog and Pampango
- That this was in the offing is indicated by the increasing use of the term Filipino
- We hear of an archbishop called a Filipino, of delegates to the Cortes styling themselves Filipinos
New idea to the world: the existence of something called a Filipino
- Idea had been proclaimed, the Creoles could no longer keep it to themselves
- Within a generation, their age-old allies, the Tagalog and the Pampango, were appropriating it for themselves What is Filipino?
Two extremes:
1. Idea has existed from time immemorial (as the Cebuanos came to believe they had had the Santo
Nino from time immemorial)
2. Idea sprang full-grown with Rizal, like Athene from the brow of Zeus
Philippine colony found itself actually used as a colony
Reaction was instantaneous:
- Revolt of Fathers Palaez and Burgos in the Church
- Revolt of Novales in the army

Possessed by a sense of destiny, the Tagalog and Pampango rose to greatness and captained a nation
Ikon, Friar and Conquistador were but the sacrament of Baptism

Part VI: FILIPINO IDENTITY AND CITIZENSHIP
A Question of Identity
The Invisible Filipino
 The Filipino - Invisible man in history
 The history, the events, is supposed to be about the Filipino, but he himself is not there. We get metaphors, abstractions, wishful thinking, and fantasy.
 The Filipino degenerated; he lost virtue: o Before he was colonized, he built beautiful boats like the barangay o When he was colonized, the Filipino fashioned beautiful bolo handles o After he was colonized, he could no longer carve bolo handles as beautiful as before
 In relation to the previous point, you can retort that the Filipino of the 17th century might not be able to build beautiful boats anymore, but he could and did build roads, bridges, irrigation dams, harbors, galleons, and cathedrals.
 He wasn’t carving beautiful bolo handles anymore, because he was busy carving santos, building carriages, designing furniture, inventing tools, and printing books.
 The Filipino who was a bookmaker and cathedral-builder is invisible to us, because we prefer an abstraction: the degenerate colonial who lost virtue. And yet it is with the bookmaker and cathedral-builder that the Philippine civilization started.







The wheel – what started civilization
Historians say that human civilization began with the invention of the wheel. And it can be argues that only when we entered wheel culture did Philippine civilization begin. o This does not mean we were uncivilized before; we had a fine culture but it was a pre wheel culture. o With the introduction of the wheel, we took a giant step into tool culture, into technology, into urban civilization
However, there was no mention of the event when the Filipino learned how to build and use a wheel. o The Filipino, as a wheel-culture man, is invisible – because we prefer to believe that we were already a civilization even before we got the wheel.
MISCONCEPTION: Manila was already a “center of civilization” even before 1565 o Before 1565, we were not uncivilized, but Manila wasn’t a center of civilization then. o This misconception is one of the reasons the Filipino is an invisible man in our history.
The Filipino is invisible because we won’t accept him as he is or was.

Philippines was Asian before 1565? No.
 Falsely-believed sequence of events
1. We traded good and ideas with our Asian neighbors and our culture was an Asian culture
2. The Westerners cam and stopped all this commerce with Asia.
3. As a result, we were alienated from Asia and forced to become Christian and falsely European.
 Evidence offered for this theory

o o o o The Chinese porcelain found in Philippine graves
The Asian loan-words in our speech
The annual trips of Chinese traders to our shores
The visit of a Philippine Muslim prince to China

The Filipino was Pagan Polynesian
 South-Seas culture – very much like the culture of Samoa and Papua and Tahiti and Hawaii
 We were Polynesians rather than Malays and we looked eastward to the South Seas and not westward to Asia
 Like the Polynesians… o We had an animist religion, a religion of totem and taboo, of ancestor and anito o Our cuisine was mostly rice, pork, fish, and yams o We wore tattoos o We tended to squatting position as their idols and our idols attest o We were clannish, forming into barangay groups
 If we were really an Asian culture, then why… o When Asia already had a wheel and plow, we were still without wheel and plow? o When India already had public works, we were still without road and bridge? o When China already had paper, we were still writing on tree bark? o When the Indians already had masonry, we were still not building in stone? o When all Asia was already wearing chinelas, eating pancit, and using a calendar, why was our culture still without those things?
 The word pancit only entered our culture after 1565 and the presence of the word pancit in our language does not prove how ancient our commerce was with Asia, but rather how superficial it was.  Before 1565, o We knew not pancit o We knew not chinelas o We didn’t have firecrackers, or bakya, or the siangse.
 After 1565, o Such artifacts from Asia began entering our culture by the hundreds
Becoming Asian after 1565
 The Asian artifacts that reached us before 1565 had no influence.
 The Filipino who became more and more Asian after 1565 is invisible to us o This Filipino who became a pancit-eater and chinelas-wearer was never mentioned in our historical writings o What is always being mentioned is the Filipino who was supposedly being corrupted by
Western culture at this time when he was actually being recreated by Asian culture
 The rise of the Filipino as an Asian in the 17th century is a great event never mentioned in our history books
 We cling to the superstition that we were already Asians before 1565, but in fact, we were on our way to becoming a Muslim nation
Not becoming a Muslim nation but still pagan
 Another superstition
 Misconception: Had the Spaniards arrived a few years later, they would have found the
Philippines completely Muslim.



The Islam arrived among us in the 14th century. After 200 years, what had it accomplished? It had converted a few tribes in a small corner of Mindanao. In the 16th century, it had begun to reach the Tagalog region in Luzon. o In other words, only two regions in the country could be called Muslim in the 16th century. o All the rest of the country was still fiercely pagan.

The Filipino as a Christian in progress is invisible
 The Christian Filipino is corrupt, is degenerate, is a disgrace, especially when compared to the uncorrupted pagan and Muslim.
 What they give us is the Filipino as unchristian, as the hapless colonial on whom has been forced a religion he does not understand and a culture he only wears skin-deep o His religion and culture are not really Christian, but only a barbarous folk Catholicism that is mostly pagan. This is the picture we are offered of the Filipino Christian.
Twelve invisible events in Filipino history
 The introduction of the: o Wheel o Plow o Road and bridge o New crops (corn, tobacco, carrots, tomatoes, coffee, mango, cabbage, etc) o New livestock (horse, cow, sheep, turkey, goose) o Fabrica (Factory) o Paper and printing o Roman alphabet o Calendar and clock o Map and the charting of the Philippine Shape o Painting and architecture o Guisado
 The twelve events are epochal, because they form the foundation, the infrastructure, of Philippine civilization, yet they are not mentioned in the books.
 History doesn’t tell us about the Filipino who mastered the wheel and plow, about the Filipino who was busy learning and mastering and developing, about the Filipino who learned to build an arch and a dome.
 What our histories immediately confront us w ith is the finished product – a Balagtas, a Burgos, a
Plaridel, a Rizal, a Luna. o But the Filipino who moved from paganism into Christian culture is an invisible man to us. Downgrading the Ilustrado
 Incredible as it may seem, the ilustrado has to be defended today o If you don’t, you contribute to the campaign to downgrade the 19th century ilustrado o If you do, you will find yourself being denounced as burguis
 The Philippines today must be the only nation in the world that would pull down its classic intellectuals simply because they belonged to the educated class.
 Ilustrado is a dirty word in our culture today. And the ilustrado is on his way to becoming an invisible man in our history.
 In the old days, we had a very visible icon of the ilustrado o He was Enlightenment: He impressed on his people that they could be uplifted only through education, so he founded schools and scholarships

o



He was Nationalism: He sought to revive the pride of the Filipino himself, so he reached in Philippine prehistory and glorified what was Filipino in himself o He was Militancy: He wanted to reform the society, so he led the reform movement of the 1859s and the propaganda movement of the 1880s o He was Patriotism: He was ready to go to jail, or go into exile, or go to the scaffold, for the sake of his country, so he shed his bled for his country in 1872 and 1896
Why are we so eager to make an invisible man out of him? o The ilustrado represents the flowering of 300 years of Christian culture in the
Philippines. Since we can’t accept the culture as truly Philippine, how can we accept its flowering? o We say that our history then was a sad field, a barren field, a polluted field. Yet from that field came this rich crop, this fine field, this glorious harvest.