Relevance of Linguistics to English as a Second Language

Rachel A. Hattaway
SPLP 4044
July 2, 2013
Relevance of Linguistics to English as a Second Language The characteristics of linguistics in relation to English as a Second Language (ESL) are varied and particularly focused. Some of the areas crucial to this field include language variation (bilingualism, multilingualism, and dialect variation), phonology, morphology, semantics, syntax, and pragmatics. Each of these areas signifies some important detailing in the makeup of the ESL curriculum and its bond with linguistics. Further insight to each one very specifically explores the components of the characteristics and methods in which they are applied. In order to understand the methodology behind English as a Second Language, one must first understand the ideal of linguistics. To begin, linguistics is described as “the scientific study of the phenomenon of human language.” In Laymen’s terms, this basically indicates that linguistics evaluates a person’s speech as it is. Linguistics is not concerned with how one should talk; rather, it focuses on the current pattern with which people do speak. With this information at hand, this brings to light possibly the most important element (and conceivably the most difficult to define) in linguistics: language. This is a complex system used to express ideas in words, and it includes many different combinations that affect the way “language” actually works: sounds, words, grammar, rules (prescribed and described), vocabulary (lexicon), dialects, phonology, pragmatics, styles, jargons, functions, and even writing. All of these different components work together to create what is known as “language,” which is the most recognized element of linguistics. These factors, especially linguistics as a general overview, are relevant to English as a Second Language. English Language Learners (ELL) expect to learn an entirely new language, but they must first witness how linguistics plays into their education. ESL must demonstrate how the English language is broken down into specific speech patterns and written arrangements in order for the ELL to comprehend the L2 (second language) better. Linguistics is the first step to opening up an entirely new world to those who want to explore a second etymological experience. Following linguistics is another key constituent in effective comprehension of English as a Second Language, and it is known as language variation. The first rule to recall in language variation is that language and dialect are not the same thing. In fact, “dialects are simply language varieties.” Dialects occur as differing speech patterns based on the origins of the speaker. The second rule involves dimensions of variation, which states that “people who speak together tend to speak alike.” This is especially true if two people are around each other in the same time (in history), the same space (region), and the same group (gender, race, or ethnicity). The third rule is based on absolutes versus relatives: the correctness of a word or speech pattern is relative to each individual speaker; there’s no absolute correct language variety; some varieties are more socially appropriate than others; there are standard dialects, such as those used in formal settings, school settings, or business settings; and there are non-standard dialects (less formal contexts). The fourth and final rule is that there are levels of language variation: lexical (word choice), phonemic (phonetic/accents), phonological (dialects), morphological (rule use of same word with different form across dialects), and syntactic (how to form sentences and phrases). The entire element of language variation focuses on three different parts: bilingualism, multilingualism, and dialect variation. Bilingualism is simply the ability one has to speak two languages. It is highly recommended both job-wise and everyday-wise for people to at least attempt to learn a second language, especially since more people are moving into the United States each year and communication is better between the two parties if one or the other speaks a similar language. Multilingualism, on the other hand, takes place when someone has the ability to speak three or more languages. It is likely plausible to see this trait in well-traveled people. Dialect variation, as briefly discussed previously, occurs in all different regions throughout the world; it is the intonation or speech pattern one makes when he or she speaks or even writes in whatever language is native to him or her. There really is no such thing as a “standard” dialect, because depending on the location of the person, the dialect will reflect the provincial area. Language variation, including its components mentioned above, is certainly critical to consider when observing ELL candidates in an ESL course. Dialects are absolutely going to be different for an ELL when one considers what is “normal” in the typical English-speaking areas. It is not an ESL teacher’s responsibility or obligation to rectify a dialect that is composed based on speech patterns of the ELL’s region. Basically, don’t fix what is not broken. Bilingualism is easily explained in relation to ESL in that once the ELL does grasp English, he or she has every chance of actually becoming bilingual. His or her L1 will always be the native language, and the L2 will be English. Given that bilingualism is possible, multilingualism is also very much plausible; if a speaker chooses to venture further into the linguistic world and attempt to learn new languages, he or she has every right. In fact, it would likely make that person more cultured. All of these reasons contribute to the importance of ESL. Phonology is the next focus. Phonology is the study of the sound system which underlies any given language’s organization. It is not to be confused with phonetics, which is “the study of the sounds of a language, including vowels and consonants, their classifications, and articulatory features.” Within the properties of phonology are phonemes, known as the “building blocks of speech sound.” As a note, another quality to be noted is an allophone, which indicates modification of a phoneme. Phonemes make up the units of linguistic sound and are introduced as a matter of their articulatory features—the way the vocal tract presents them. From phonemes, students will learn about consonants and vowels and their articulation (bilabial—made with both lips, labiodental—made with upper teeth and bottom lip, interdental—tongue tip between teeth, alveolar—tongue tip on alveolar ridge, palatal—tongue on hard palate, velar—tongue the soft palate/velum, and glottal—vocal folds). Manner of articulation includes obstruents (stops, fricatives, and affricates) and sonorants (nasals, liquids, and glides). Each of these indicates how a sound is to be spoken or constructed. Sometimes, a particular “sound” may be voiced (vibration in the vocal folds) or voiceless (no vibration in the vocal folds). All of this information goes back to a few important positions: tongue position, lip rounding, and muscle tension. These things affect the way something sounds or does not sound in English. Phonology has its own system. It allows distinction, various meanings, and distinguishing recognition. Phonology is relevant to ESL because the student needs to know the correct vocalization to words that are new to their verbal vocabulary. What fricatives and stops and other such things the English language has, their native language may not have. It is best to get used to physically saying the words and understanding why words and sentence structures make the sounds and patterns they do. The next topic that can be incorporated into ESL is morphology. Morphology encompasses the structure of words; morphemes, then, are recognized as the smallest meaning units in language. Morphemes focus on the form of a word, including viewing the word classes (parts of speech). They are not to be analyzed in a left to right fashion; one must always start with the root, determine the stems, and then carry on from there to derive the entire structure of the word. Classifications of morphemes include free, bound, lexical, grammatical, root, and affix (inflectional and derivational). Free morphemes are able to be used alone; bound ones must be attached to another morpheme. Lexical morphemes can be defined and have real-world connotation. Grammatical morphemes, on the other hand, are not so easily defined, belong to minor classes, and only have a syntactic function. Root morphemes contain foundations with which they can attach themselves to other morphemes in order to make polymorphic words. Most roots are free. Affixes are categorized: prefixes (come before roots) and suffixes (come after roots). Inflectional affixes do not create new words when they attach to existing words (example: adding –ed to the end of a verb to change it to the past tense); derivational affixes are just the opposite—they do create new words (example: adding –ly to a word to change it from a verb to an adverb). ESL will incorporate morphology because it familiarizes the ELL with structure of the English language words. In addition, an in-depth view to the very important parts of speech will help in the structure of sentences and what each word represents. English is one of the only languages that treats its words in such specific manner, with pronouns coming before nouns rather than after and so forth. That is an entirely new concept to many ELL students. Semantics is the content introduced. “Words are linguistic ‘forms’ used to convey a particular concept (i.e., ‘content).” Forms are used in order to express a concept’s meaning. As English speakers well know, there can be multiple meanings for one word. However, in other languages, this is often not the case. When objects and their descriptions are at hand, descriptions are usually known as references. A reference is “an expression associated with a real-world object.” For example, a “tree” is a real-world object. When one delves deeper into this ideal, it’s realized that there is now the matter of content and context. “Context effects the referent.” Depending on the situation, a speaker could indicate a type (a broad sense of a given word) or a token (a more specific sense of a given word). For example, there’s a difference between “a tree” (general) and “the sycamore” (specific). This is a type of semantics, and it can indicate either literal meaning (differences displayed) or figurative meaning (symbolism at its finest, especially in literature). Semantics also involves compounding (combining two root morphemes to make a new single word), blending (melding two free morphemes with only part of each free one to make a new word), borrowing (literally taking words from another distinct language, such as Japanese or Spanish), acronyming (using the initials of multi-word phrases and pronouncing them as a single word), and root creation (proper nouns are used as common nouns). With semantics, new words are introduced based on their inherent structure. These words, according to lexical semantics, have meaning and refer to any given specificity. Semantics is important to ESL students because of the more structured and complex formation it acknowledges. ELL students likely never had to worry with multiple meanings for one word, but English is full of these. Allowing students to work with these various degrees of the language and investigate the multiple differences will greater build their vocabulary and comprehension skills. Syntax greatly consists of structure and form. There are rules for how words can be ordered into phrases and how phrases are ordered into sentences. Lack of structure equals lack of sense. Assembly of these is like a puzzle: pieces have to fit in order to be comprehensible. However, structure isn’t just about word order; they aren’t even the same thing. A sentence with a specific word order can be read different ways, hence the structure. It all depends on the perspective of the reader. Mentioned before, phrases are just small groups of words that interact with each other in order to produce sentences. “Phrases are not always indicated by word order.” There are many types of phrases: noun phrase, verb phrases, prepositional phrase, etc. Each of these includes a phrase built around any particular part of speech, with the specific part directly identifying to whichever type of noun, verb, preposition, etc. it refers. This all a part of syntax and relates back to the structure and form. Syntax then is relevant to ESL learners because it demonstrates models for students to view English sentences. It also helps students develop patterns in their minds to best create phrases and sentences. It’s also good for visual ESL learners who would like to see the pattern take form in a more sensible way. Pragmatics, the final section mentioned, is simply defined as “language use.” Three main topics revolve around pragmatics: discourse, speech acts, and the Cooperative Principle. Discourse is “the study of the social norms for how a dialogue may take place.” Socialization is always important in any given language-spoken area. An utterance of anything can be grammatically determined or socially determined, depending on a situation in which it occurs. Whatever the intent is, it is rooted in conversation and can lead to misinterpretation if not spoken clearly. There’s also compulsion to consider: an “obligation to respond in a prescribed, mutually agreed upon, socially sanctioned manner.” For example, if someone has a phone call, usually people automatically see fit to let that person know about it. Preconditions are used with the understanding that “the questioner has the right or duty to ask the question” and “the one asked has the responsibility or obligation to know the answer.” Of course, sometimes questions can be legitimate or rhetorical, which can lead to sarcasm or confusion. It all depends on how the situation is set up and how the question is used. Another category here is presuppositions; it’s a “covert meaning that is never stated outright, but is presumed in stating and interpreting an utterance (‘Even Oscar is going’ [indicates the presupposition that Oscar usually wouldn’t do such a thing]).” Other things mentioned in pragmatics include utterance pairs (sequences where one utterance expects another utterance in return), indirect requests (alternative hints that indicate that something may be desired by the speaker), commands (conditional: commanding speakers have the right to command; recipient has the responsibility to carry out the command), compliments (acknowledgement), presequences (“offered before an invitation to save face”), collapsing discourse sequences (indirectly answers in the affirmative or the negative), and repairs (slip of the tongue correction). Speech Acts are from Austin’s Performative Utterances (1975). This theory is beyond a grammatical form, includes utterance performance, and changes conditions of the world (naming ships, marrying, and sentencing). According to Searle, though, “we perform different kinds of acts when we speak.” One may utter a sentence that can either sounds like a question, a request, or an offer, depending on the intonation and the situation. There are rules for this section called constitutive rules; they are agreed upon based on what speech behaviors are allowable. Again, it depends on the situation. Lastly for the section of pragmatics is the Cooperative Principle (Grice, 1975). This ideal is based on assumption in conversational interactions that “partners are mutually engaged,” “the conversation benefits all,” and “the benefit [is] mutual understanding.” Grice has “Four Maxims” by which he is motivated: quantity (“Make your contribution as informative as is required”), quality (“Do not say anything false”), relation (Be relevant”), and manner (“Avoid obscurity of expression; be brief and orderly”). ELL students can use this section and all other sections of pragmatics in order to better understand the actual use of the English language. As indicated from previous mentioning, language is all about context or situational experiences. It’s also about appropriate response versus inappropriate response. The ELL student would have to evaluate evidence presented in order to determine what is the most appropriate response—something English speakers do unconsciously every single day. Linguistics and all its components should not be taken out of context when it comes to English Language Leaners in English as a Second Language classes. Students must first come to grips with the basics and use this knowledge in their own way. Their linguistic skills (patterns of speech) will improve over time, but for a starting point the best thing to do for the student is to encourage him or her in learning comprehension. Linguistics should be applied to ESL courses thusly: encourage oral reading based on visual comprehension, evaluate a person’s spoken response to any presented subject matter, and work over a period of time to “perfect” things on the student’s terms and abilities. After all, linguistics isn’t about how a person should speak; it’s about how a person does speak, no matter what the situation or circumstances.