Review Sheet Exam 3

Exam 3 – Review Sheet
Be sure you can define, explain, apply, and generate examples all of the concepts listed below.

Retrieval Cues- hints that make it easier for us to recall information EX. “Do you remember the word that went with ‘A part of the body’?” “Finger”

Influence of Context on Memory and supporting research—Superior retrieval of memories when the environment in which we retrieve information is similar to the environment in which we learned it in. Godden and Baddley- EX. Learn of land, get tested on land= %of words remembered is greater than learn on land and get tested underwater.

State-dependent learning—Retrieval of memories when the organism is in the same physiological state as it was during encoding EX. Getting drunk to remember where they put something when they were previously drunk; hearing a song when your sad, next time you hear it you might become sad.

Encoding specificity- Tendency for memories to come back if related info is available when the memory is being retrieved. EX. Taking a test in the same room you learned the material in.

Retrieval failures – reasons we forget EX. Interference: Information learned earlier interferes with info learned later.

Types of Amnesia- Memory Loss- Retrograde: Loss of memories from the past Anterograde: Inability to encode new memories

False memories (Not ALWAYS false) - emotional memories that are thought to be extraordinarily vivid and detailed. EX. Remembering exactly where you were on 9/11

Misinformation effect- Creation of fictitious memories by providing misleading information about an even after I takes place. EX. Loftus car crash study. Saying “hit” or “smashed made a difference in the person’s memory of the accident.

Concepts- A set of ideas that represent a class of objects

Natural concepts- Formed as a result of ones experience with the world (experiences) EX. When someone refers to a fruit, we automatically think apple. (western new York)

Formal concepts- Ones that are defined by specific rules or features. (rules) EX. When you think of the term Bachelor, what do you associate them as? Single, male, adult.

Rule Theory- helps us to identify a concept if the object or event fits the rule then it’s an example of the concept and may be an example of the category. EX. Square-has to have 4 equal sides.

Prototypes- Based on concepts we develop prototypes.-An abstraction of the most common attributes of the concept. Depend on our cultural and social experience. EX. Since I grew up with Golden Retrievers, I would see them as a better example of a dog then a shiatsu.

Problem Solving – ways we solve problems 1.) Trial and Error 2.)Algorithm-step by step procedure 3.)Heuristics-Simple thinking strategy; quick 4.)Insight- Sudden novel realization of a solution

Limitations to our Problem Solving (e.g. fixation, framing)- Fixation- Inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective. Framing- Way an issue is posed, way a problem is phrased.

Mental set- Becoming stuck in a specific problem-solving strategy, inhibiting our ability to generate alternative. EX. Trying to think of a topic to write about but can only think of the topics your professor used as examples.

Functional Fixedness- difficulty conceptualizing that an object typically used for one purpose can be used for another. EX you are fixed on the idea that something needs to be used when there are other possibilities (Using shoe as a hammer)

Intelligence-Mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.

Theories of Intelligence- General Intelligence (Spearmen) - You either have a lot, a little, or none.

Multiple Intelligence (Gardener) - There are 8 separate types of intelligence. EX. Linguistic, Logical, Musical, Spatial, Bodily, Intrapersonal, Interpersonal, Naturalist, Existentialist. --- Savant Syndrome- A person is limited in their mental ability but exceptional in one specific skill.

Triarchic Theory (Sternberg)- 3 parts- Analytical: Book smart, Creative, or Practical: Street Smart

Emotional Intelligence- Knowledge involved in comprehending and navigating social situations EX. Sheldon on the BBT has very little emotional intelligence (Autistic)

History of Intelligence Tests-Mental Age- age corresponding to the average person’s performance on an intelligence test. IG= mental age/ chronological age*100
Intelligence Quotient
Modern Intelligence Testing – Standardization- scores that are lowest, average, and highest are made the norms(Creates the Bell curve

Normal Distribution- Bell curve

Behavioral Genetics- Permit us to look at the roles of both genetic AND environmental influences on behavior. (intelligence) Allows us to estimate the heritability of traits and diseases.

Heritability- extent to which genes contribute to differences in a trait AMONG INDIVIDUALS. EX. Height is highly heritable

Genotype- Set of genes transmitted from the parents to offspring

Phenotype- Set of observable traits

Twin studies- Identical= 100% similarity (temperament, intelligence) Fraternal- 50% similarity (no more alike than regular brothers and sisters)
Adoption studies-Whether the children adopted resemble their adopted family over their biological parents. Children adopted into a home share genes of their biological parents but not environment. ( Your genes cannot be changed but if the environment influences the genes to be used in a positive way.

Prenatal Stages of Development – Zygote- 2 weeks; Embryo- 3-6 weeks; Fetal period- 9-38 weeks

Teratogens- Any influence that can influence the development of the embryo or fetus. EX. Alcohol(Fetal Alcohol Syndrome.

Infant reflexes- Automatic and Stereotyped response to a specific stimulus; Stepping- begin to act as if they are walking if you hold them up. Grasping- Reflexively grasping finger. Moro Startle- Act as if they are falling, throw arms out. Sucking- Suck on whatever is put into mouth. Rooting- Putting a stimulus on the side of the baby’s face and they turn towards it as if to be fed.

Preferential Looking Method- Put things above babies and observe how long they look at a certain object to tell if they have visual and interpretive abilities.

Habituation Method- Decrease in responding due to repeated stimulus. EX. Baby is shown the same toy over and over again so they begin to not stare at it as long...Time decreases down to no response.

Dishabituation Method- response level returns due to a change in the stimulation EX. Change the toy so baby begins back at staring at the toy for a while.

Building Blocks of Language- Grammar- Rules for language use and structure. Phonemes- Basic Units of sound (“-ch”). Morphemes- Smallest unit of meaning (prefixes). Syntax- Rules for combining words and phrases. Extra linguistic Information- Not essential to interpreting meaning.

Babbling/Babbling Drift Hypothesis- Babbling gradually gravitates in sound towards the language they will eventually speak.

Categorical Speech Perception- Babies ability to detect differences in speech sounds that correspond to differences in meaning- Can hear that “ca” in “cat” is different in “ha” in “hat”.

Theories of Language Development: Skinner- Operant conditioning- EX Say “book”, “book” then are rewarded. VS. Chomsky- Language is innate.

Errors and characteristics of early language- Over regularization- Use the wrong word for a sentence EX. Writed Over-extension- Apply a word to broadly EX. Anything with wheels is a “car” Under-extension- Apply a label too narrowly EX. Stuffed teddy bear is called a “bear” but don’t think a real bear is a “bear”. Coining- Come up with a label in place of the correct one. EX. When knitting…“needling”

Piaget’s concepts of schemas- Mental representation concept used for organizing or interpreting info. EX. Filing cabnet

Assimilation- Interpret a news experience in terms of my existing schemas. EX. When you see a penguin and say it’s a bird

Accommodation-Modifying ones schema in light of a new experience. EX. Then realize they don’t fly so you change your definition or schema of a “bird”.

Piaget’s stages of cognitive development- Stage 1: Sensorimotor (birth- 2 years) Child exploring their senses (putting everything in their mouth) Stage 2: Preoperational( 2- 7 years) Egocentrism- Cannot place themselves in someone else’s shoes, cannot see another person’s perspective. (3 Mountains Task) Conservation Issues- Putting ice cream into a small bowl, and putting the same amount in a big bowl. Think they are getting less. Centration- Focusing on only 1 aspect of a problem Lack of reversibility- Water poured from same size cup to a tall cup, think there is more in the tall one, then put it back and still don’t know. Stage 3: Concrete (7-12 years) Begin to get conservation; Decentartion & Reversability; Classification; Concrete Logic.

Theory of mind-False belief Tasks- Children understanding that people can hold beliefs that are false (change of location task) EX. Children who say “basket” will pass, but if they say “box”, they fail the test. 3-4 fail 4-5 pass.

Harry Harlow’s Monkey Studies- Harry Harlow shows that infant rhesus monkeys appear to form an affectional bond with soft, cloth surrogate mothers that offered no food but not with wire surrogate mothers that provided a food source but are less pleasant to touch.