Scrutinizing the Body - Sociology Study Guide

Key Perspective of Michel Foucault
What is the Body?
The relationship between political power and the body
Power, Justice, and Oppression
Body is a Result of Political and Economic Strategy of Power
Society Shapes Behavior to Make People More Productive for Society
Discipline
Mechanism of power which regulates behavior of others in a social body
Regulates the organization of
Space
Time
Activity
Power is not discipline, Discipline is one way power is exercised
Enforced by Surveillance
Disciplinary Societies a society where power is exercised through disciplinary action this doesn’t mean everyone is punished key techniques for gaining control through discipline hierarchical observation normalizing judgment examination Power and Knowledge
Mechanisms of Power Produce Different Types of Knowledge
Collection of data enables power to be extracted from knowledge
Power is enabled by knowledge, but knowledge is not necessarily power
Religious Power and Discipline
Secularization Began in 18th and 19th Centuries
Religious Confession
Allowed people to discuss intimate thoughts, desires, fantasies, dreams, etc.
Allowed the powerful to penetrate the intimate lives of individuals

Discipline and Punish: Key Thoughts and Analysis
The Spectacle of the Scaffold
Torture and Harsh Penalties
Originated from the French Penal Code of 1670
Torture Played Key Role in Punishment defined by measurable pain ceremony that reveals the truth of the crime
Torture has Two Elements
1) Secret Investigation by Authority suspect is not aware of any form of police investigation
2) Action of the Accused body of the accused links the two elements

Public Execution
The Criminal’s Body showed the truth of the crime during execution by
1) becoming the herald of his own condemnation
2) taking up the scene of confession
3) by pinning torture onto the crime itself
4) slowness and suffering became the ultimate proof of crime if criminal suffered for a long time, God was punishing him for his crime – he was guilty if suffering was short and death occurred quickly, God was easing his pain – he was innocent

Transition from Torture
Enlightenment Period
Adjusted society’s view of “atrocity”
New Viewpoint: punishment should reflect atrocity of the crime committed in order to reveal the ultimate truth of the crime
Popular Illegality
Response from the Crowd Through Demonstrations and Riots intervention posed political issue needed to protect the criminal from the crowd viewed torture and spectacle of punishment as inhumane
Foucault: technique of discipline didn’t change because of society’s humanity but because dynamic of power changed power is not primarily exercised through punishment, but control and oppression over the people (discipline)

System of Disciplinary Power
More Perverse: According to Foucault
Punishment Becomes Invisible to Society
Smaller Scale of Punishment
Body Remains the Target –Indirectly
Changes in Motive for Punishment
Prison is Meant to Re-Educate Criminals no longer a means of revenge for the king

Disciplinary Techniques
Disciplinary System of Order (19th Century)
Based on Idea of Disciplinary Techniques aimed at correcting the souls of criminals and social citizens
Discipline: “Political Anatomy of Power”
“meticulous control” of body operations (gestures, actions, etc) constant subjection of body’s forces imposed docility/utility capitalistic tendencies must define everything as productive for society introduces humanism (society becomes more productive)
Characteristics of Disciplinary Techniques
Scale of Control precise gestures, attention paid to detail looking at the body as separate from the soul body is not a whole entity simply a set of gestures, actions, etc.
Object of Control body is a machine to be controlled look at the efficiency of the body gestures are no longer symbolic (pragmatic instead)
Modernity of Control punishment is no longer in grand gestures previously concerned with process, not the end behavior coercion occurs throughout the entire process (training, trial, etc.)

The Disciplinary Techniques
Art of Distribution
Controlling and Limiting the USE and DISTRUBUTION of Space
Four Key Techniques
1) Enclosure
a. Individuals are confined in barracks, prisons, factories, etc.
b. Used as a means of monitoring and observing the public
2) Partitioning
a. Concept of individuals having their own space by dividing enclosures into individual partitioned spaces (i.e. cubicles, assembly points, cells, etc.)
b. Allows for identification and organization of individuals
3) Functional Site
a. Provide the specific location of individuals in
4) Interchangeability of Elements
a. Individuals are interchangeable
b. Demonstrates the importance of hierarchy through “rank”
c. Introduces ideology that no one is uniquely individual
i. Individual talents are equal, no one has natural gift ii. Individuals are defined by their place in society
The Concept of Analytical Space
Ability to Control and Identify Individuals placement on a field of space (table) allows for better organization, detail in rank, monitoring and observation of “machines” determines identity and demonstrates place in society
i.e. schoolkids – good in front, bad in back

Control of Activity
Controlling the USE and DISTRIBUTION of Time
Five Key Techniques
1) Timetable
a. Activities must occur at a specific time
i. Monastery - (prayer was first example)
b. The amount of time and quality of time is detailed
c. Time is now understood as “exhaustible”
i. Capitalistic Ideology of “Perfect Time”
2) Temporal Elaboration of the Act
a. Detail added to gestures and movements
b. Body is always under scrutiny
3) Correlation Between Body and Gesture
a. Power imposes the relations between gestures and the body
i. In correct usage, nothing on body remains useless
4) Correlation Between Body and Tool (Body-Object Articulation)
a. Power describes best relationship between body and tool
i. Tool usage is scrutinized along with the body
5) Extraction of Time
a. “Time is Money” Ideology
i. time must be most productive possible
The Concept of Exercise
Activity and Gestures Controlled Through Exercising Techniques
Repetitive exercises help conform an individual’s behavior to those that are socially acceptable through teaching/monitoring/etc.
Hierarchy in learning (letters, words, grammar, sentences, etc.)

Composition of Forces
Discipline is an Art of Composing Forces in Order to Create Productive Machines
Three Key Aspects
1) Singularity of the Individual
a. Individuality is not as important as the place a person holds in a social group (i.e. soldiers in the military are robotic)
b. Body becomes a smaller function of a larger machine
2) Time Segments
a. Time is managed to help increase the efficiency of the “machine”
3) System of Command
a. Power is everywhere in a precise system of command
b. Injunctions must be “clear and brief” and must trigger immediate response/behavior from listeners
Organization of Geneses
Divided in Four Different Ways
1) Division of Duration
a. Learn in chronological levels by passing through each stage
2) Analytical Plan
a. Combine training according to complexity
b. Slowly progress through each individual stage
3) Conclusion by Examination
a. Used to trace evolution of a pupil’s progress
4) Series of Series
a. Individuals are caught in a temporal series of ranks
b. Allows for better detail and observation

Discipline Conclusion
Specialized Training
Divide “training time” from “adult working time”
Arranging Stages
Each stage separates individuals from others by graded examinations
Drawing Programs
Methods that take place in a particular stage
Increase in difficulty according to the pupil’s progress
Qualifying Individuals
Qualification based on individual success and progress in different stages
Ideal Society
Control Makes Society Productive
Produces and efficient “machine” based on a system that works on its own based on military and disciplinary reform society is no longer based on social contract in which individuals put their rights in the hands of the monarch in return for civil liberties and appropriate rulings.
It is now based on societal efficiency and productivity

What Does Disciplinary Power Do?
Differentiates
Hierarchizes Individuals
Based on quantitative terms of progress and abilities
Homogenizes Individuals
Imposes conformity on every domain of behavior
Excludes
Makes tangible the abnormal, shameful, or dysfunctional
Creates a definition for “normal”
The Concept of Examination
Creates knowledge through objectification of individuals
Ceremonial Display of Disciplinary Power
In the form of tests, authority visits, observation by superiors, etc.
Makes the individual visible through surveillance and observation
Consequences of Examination
“Normal” takes over Ancestral
Calculable Man to Memorable Man
Novel takes over Epic Stories
Measurement takes over Status
Degree vs Nature
Power Produces
Reality
Objects (through examination/analytical space)
Ritual of Truth (knowledge)

Surveillance
Introduction
Surveillance is Coercion by Examination/Observation
Institution become observatory in which progress is judged
i.e. schools, prisons, hospitals, etc.
Inherent to Efficient Training everyone becomes supervised in a constantly surveilled society power is no longer possessed by one person
Power Implementation
Surveillance Normalizes Judgment Through Infra-Penalties
Behaviors that are outside the law and go unrecognized
When constant surveillance takes place, these are no longer unrecognized, creating MICROPENALTIES that are now observable and punishable through humiliation
Time (Being Late)
Activity (Daydreaming)
Behavior (Rudeness)
Speech (Talking too Much)
Body (Hygiene)
Sexuality (Indecent Jokes)

Sexuality and Control
Foucault – History of Sexuality
Used to Normalize Sexuality in Britain in the Early 20th Century
Addressed the Change from Victorian Era to Modernity
Christianity Previously Made us Detest Bodies, but Made Sex Sensual
17th – 20th Century Philosophy was Central in Society
Sex Talk was Enjoyable – because it was prohibited
Sex Became More Important Than in More Open Societies
Introduced the Idea that Sex is the Most Revealing Aspect of Life
It was Central to Religious Confession
David Clark
Applied Foucault’s Theories to Great Britain
Looked at Sex Therapy
Addressing Sex in an Objective, Medical Way Makes People Free from Sex
Helps to Regulate Sexual Activity Through Speaking About it
Sexual Therapy is a Way to Control the Intimate Parts of Human Life
Are We Free, Sexually?
The Sexual Revolution in Britain was an Evolution from the Previous Regime
Allowed Unpunished Adultery, Masturbation, Premarital Sex, etc.
Science Helped to Normalize Sex Through Health
Sexual Counselors Help “Overcome Sex Problems”
The Idea of Abnormal Sex Helps to Control Behavior and Develops Norms Regarding Both Sexual Desire and Sexual Intercourse

Clark’s Argument
Implementation of Marital Sex Counseling Occurred to Protect Sex in Marriage
Social Construct that Healthy Sex = Healthy Marriage
Used to Reduce Divorce Rates, and Promoted Chastity and Fidelity
Also Used as a Means of Avoiding Venereal Disease
Moral Discourse Disguised as Medical Issue
Stressed the Both Partners Must be Satisfied
Only Satisfied Through Simultaneous Orgasm
Used to Repopulate Britain Post WWII
State Control of Reproduction
1960’s Sexual Revolution
Lead to Establishment of Sexology as a Scientific Field
Helped Normalize Sexual Intercourse
Also Lead to Criticism of Intercourse (Dysfunctional Sex)
Dysfunctional Sex Included Homosexuality, Masturbation, etc.
Couples Encouraged to Monitor Sexual Practice
Idea of Self Surveillance as a Means of Sexual Control
Medicalization of Sexuality
Sexual Activity is no Longer Observed in a Socially Discursive Lens
Medicine Becomes Concerned with Controlling Sex in Marriage
Links Sex to Procreation
Female Penetration is only Non-Dysfunctional Intercourse
Pathological Sexuality
Introduces the Idea that Mental Reactions to Sex are Dysfunctional
Low Sex Drive, Frigidity, Delayed Ejaculations, Abnormal Positions, Inability to Penetrate, etc.

Medicalization of Sexuality (Cont.)
Treatments
Hormonal Injections
Expected to Cure Homosexuality
Sexual Therapy
Cures Abnormal (Pathological) Abnormalities in Couples
Individuals Receive Treatment for Dysfunctional Desires
Disciplinary Techniques Penetrate Intimate Lives Normalize and Scrutinize Sexuality
Medicalization of Sexual Relationships Quantification of Sexuality
Orgasms, Satisfaction, etc. is Measured
State Controls Bodies Within Private Institutions

Techniques of the Body
Introduction
Proposed by Marcel Mauss (1934)
Looked at Non-Westernized Societies and How Education Changed Generationally
Techniques are Learned Through Apprenticeship
Physical Trait Linked to Social Background
Defining Techniques of the Body
An Action which is Effective and Traditional
There is no Transmission of Techniques Without Tradition
i.e. Sign Language in Chimps (Non Traditional – Not Technique)
Transmission of Techniques/Oral Transmission Distinguishes Man from Animal
The Body is a Fundamental Instrument
Techniques Differ from Religious, Moral, Symbolic Actions Because Techniques are Felt as Actions of a Mechanical, Physical, and Physico-Chemical Order
Body Techniques Involve Learning to Attach Meaning to a Gesture
i.e. What Does a Smile Mean – Friendly or Childish?
New Techniques Lead to New Perceptions – Vice Versa
Levi Strauss and Body Techniques
Anthropologist who Lobbied For National Archives and Collections of Techniques
Believed Acculturation can be Traced Through Techniques of the Body
Provides Intimate Details about the Acculturation Process
How Do You Collect Techniques?
Not Limited to Story, Religion, etc. but is Observable in Everyday Gestures

Collecting Techniques of the Body
David Efron
Examined Immigrant Population in United States
Main Goal was to Contest Evidence of Superior Races (Nazi Evidence)
Stated that Gestures are not Inherited – No Superior Races
Noted Differences in Techniques:
Gestures During Conversation
Spatial Temporal Rhythm of Gesture
Relation Between Gesture and Words
Produced Filmed Evidence Stating That
Different Societies Shared Different Gestures
2nd Generation Immigrants (Acculturated in America) Lost Gestures
Conclusion
Race Doesn’t Influence Gestures, Culture Does
Not Biological – Only Social

Marcel Mauss –Techniques of the Body
Principles of Classification of Techniques
Four Divisions of Techniques
Sexual Division
Male Techniques vs Female Techniques
i.e. Throwing, Fist Clenching, Punching, etc. Methods are Taught Differently According to Gender Roles
Age Division
Techniques and Actions Differ in Children
i.e. Squatting, Posture Changes, etc.
Division According to Efficiency
Based on the Results of Training
Techniques are Human Norms of Human Training
Techniques can be Compared to Training Systems, Ranks, Order, etc.
Transmission of the Form of the Techniques
Classified According to the Nature of Education and Training
Education is Full of Details Which are Essential in Learning Techniques of the Body
Biographical List of Techniques of the Body
Birth and Obstetrics
There are Techniques of Giving Birth
Lying on the Back, Squatting, Sitting Upright, etc.
Techniques Apply to Helpers and Care as Well
Tying the Umbilical Cord, Pain Relievers, Holding the Baby, etc.

Infancy
Rearing and Feeding the Child
Techniques Involving Carrying a Child Greatly Differ and Affect Life Experiences of that Child Later on in Life
Carried Children have Different Attitudes Towards Mothers Than Those Children Who are not Carried Often
The Weaned Child
Children are Taught to Walk, Trained in Vision, Hearing, Rhythm, etc.
The Child Acquires Notions and Practices Exercise, Breathing, Posture, etc.
Adolescence
Typically More Observed in Men Than Women
Especially in Primitive Countries, Genders are Taught Differently
Men Decisively Enters Society when their Profession is Learned
In this Moment They Learn Techniques that They Retain in Adult Life
Adult Life
Techniques of Sleep
Sleep is not Natural and Universal
Techniques Tell Us Where to Sleep, How to Sleep, When to Sleep, etc.
Practices Have Profound Biological Echoes and Effects

Techniques of Rest
Rest can be Perfect Rest or Simply Suspended Activity
Lying Down, Sitting, Squatting, etc.
Techniques of Movement
Walking
Techniques Control Movement of Arms, Speed of Walk, etc.
Running
Techniques Influence Position of the Feet, Arms, Breathing, etc.
Dancing
Gender Differences in Speed, Spontaneity, Movement Emphasis, etc.
Techniques of Care
Cleaning, Consumption Methods, Drinking Rituals, etc. are Acquired
Utensils vs Hands
Drinking from the Source vs Using a Glass
Emotions
Acquired Reactions – Socially Constructed
Not Universal Physiology
Changes Based on Gender
Express Emotions to Relieve Ourselves – and Society Around Us
Cultural Differences Challenge Idea of Neo-Darwinism
Emotions are not Animal Instinct
Acquire Feeling of “High”

“The Outsiders” Howard Baker
Howard Baker – 1963 – Discussed Deviance and Marijuana Smoking
Process of Becoming a Marijuana Smoker is Strict and Dependent on Emotion
Acquire Technique of Marijuana
Learn how to Smoke, Prepare, Breath, etc. Through Watching Others
Acquire Perception of “High”
Learn to Recognize Signs of Being High
Acquire Positive Perception of “High”
Smokers Must Learn to Enjoy Marijuana High
Must Define High as Pleasurable – Not Frightening
If You Don’t – You’ll Quit Smoking
Conclusion
One Doesn’t Smoke Marijuana to Escape Psychological Trauma
Smokers Learn to Enjoy Marijuana Effects – They Want to Smoke

Habitus – Pierre Bourdieu
What is Habitus?
Builds onto the Idea that Body Techniques are Socially Contextual
Conceptualized by Pierre Bourdieu
Used Previously in Phenomenology
Husserl Stated that Habitus was the Mantle Passage Between an Individuals Past Experiences and Forthcoming Actions – The Link Between Past and Present
Habitus According to Loic Wacquant
“Habitus” Proposes that Human Agents are Historical Animals who Carry Within Their Body Acquired Sensibilities and Categories that are Sedimented Products of Past Social Experiences
Breakdown of Habitus
“Historical Animals” - French School of Thought
“Human Agents” - American School of Thought
Ties Two Schools Together
“Carry Within Bodies”
Speaks of Body - Not the Brain. Actions are of the Body – Involuntary
Doesn’t Depend on the Situation – Only the Person
You Carry Habitus With You Wherever You Go
Habitus is Embodied, Irrational, and Transportable
“Acquired Sensibilities”
Merging Body and Soul – Emotional
“Categories”
Classification of People, Objects, Thoughts, etc. – The Way You Judge
“Sedemented”
Layers of Past Shape Perceptions, Understandings, of Society and Relationships

Links: Introduction Proposed by Marcel Mauss (1934)