Summary: The Scientific Revoution
Ancient Babylonians were known for their scientific and mathematic achievements, such as heliocentric astronomy, planets orbited in circles, and base 60 counting. At the same time, Ancient Babylonians believed in magic and gods. In 14th century BCE, Code of Hammurabi, specified, “"If a man has put a spell upon another man and it is not justified, he upon whom the spell is laid shall go to the holy river; into the holy river shall he plunge. If the holy river overcome him and he is drowned, the man who put the spell upon him shall take possession of his house. If the holy river declares him innocent and he remains unharmed the man who laid the spell shall be put to death. He that plunged into the river shall take possession of the house of him who laid the spell upon him" (Arvin 42).
This Ancient …show more content…
Babylonian law first addressed the punishment for witchcraft. This tradition spread to the Roman Empire (2nd Century BCE- 4th Century CE), who were known for scientific and mathematic achievements, such as Euclidian geometry, trigonometry, Roman abacus, and sundials. Roman witch-hunts lasted even after the Romans adopted Christianity. In Christianity, witchcraft was linked with heresy (unorthodox religious beliefs) and apostasy (renunciation of religion); the Christian Bible mentions witchcraft in Exodus 22:18 and Leviticus 20:27. In the Middle Ages (4th-16th century), Christian nations developed laws and folklore regarding witches. Medieval Witch-hunts included Cathar Heretics (11th Century), Waldensian and Albigensian Heretics (12-13th centuries) and the Medieval Inquisition (12-14th centuries). After the invention of the printing press (15th Century), witch-hunting manuals emerged, such as 1486’s Hammer of Witches (Malleus Maleficarum). Then during the Commercial Revolution, Renaissance, and the Reformation (14th -17th century) writers justified witch-hunts, citing among other reasons, the Spanish Inquisition (15th-19th Centuries). Wiccaphobia, the fear of witchcraft, was at its height, when science and religion clashed as the Scientific Revolution began in 1543.
The year was 1543 when Polish astronomer, Nicholaus Copernicus, published On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies on cosmology. Long before Copernicus, other ancient cultures believed that space effected earth. Greek philosopher, Aristotle, in addition to believing that space affected earth, first claimed that the earth was the center of the universe (geocentrism). Aristotle believed that rest was natural and motion requires change. In Aristotle’s Physics (Physica), he describes motion as change from potentiality to actuality, being moved by a “Prime Move” (Hallsall). Based on Aristotle’s work, Ptolemy 's Almagest , concluded that the planets were perfect spheres, which orbited in perfect circular motions. Copernicus’ On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies challenged Aristotle, arguing that the sun was center (heliocentrism), but kept Ptolemy’s beliefs on planets orbiting in circles (Hunt 502). Three centuries earlier, Saint Thomas Aquinas used Aristotelian philosophy and astronomy to describe order and perfection in regards to Christianity. Aristotle’s History of Animals (Historia Animalium) describes the Ladder of Nature (scala naturae) an unchanging taxonomy of creatures, which held humans at the top and non-living inanimate things at the bottom, the basis of the Great Chain of Being. Aquinas used Aristotle’s idea of a “Prime Mover” that caused the universe to rotate to explain the Christian God moves the universe in Summa Theologiæ (Stafford). Additionally, St. Thomas Aquinas described witchcraft and demonology in Summa Theologiæ. Aquinas used logic to show that demons were real, basing his argument on Saint Augustine’s ideas, which included that witches/sorcerers were helped by demons. The Catholic Church authorized Inquisitions: Cathar Heretics (11th Century), Waldensian and Albigensian Heretics (12-13th centuries), the Medieval Inquisition (12-14th centuries), and Spanish Inquisition (15th-19th Centuries) based on St. Aquinas’ and St. Augustine’s ideas on witchcraft and demonology (Pavalec). At the same time as the Inquisitions, medieval universities studied Aquinas, Augustine, Ptolemy, and Aristotle, whose ideas fitted in with the teachings of the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church sanctioned science promoted Aristotelianism and Ptolemiacism in universities and churches, while St. Aquinas’ scholasticism: philosophy and theology based on logic. During the Late Middle Ages (13-14th Centuries), scholastic scholars began to challenge Aristotle’s theories. Soon after, Renaissance humanists (14-15th century) also began to challenge geocentrism. During the Reformation period, traditional, religious ideas of the universe were challenged and the Catholic Church condemned Copernicanism. Polish astronomer, Nicholaus Copernicus, a scholastic scholar and canon at Frauenburg Cathedral, challenged geocentrism, but it did not stop with him.
After Copernicus’s death, Italian cosmologist/philosopher, Giordano Bruno, continued Copernicus’ work and became the first martyr to science in 1600, when Pope Clement burned him at the stake for heresy (Hunt 502). In 1401, English King Henry IV first introduced burning at the stake during the Lollards Persecution; later, English King Henry VIII and English/Irish Queen Mary I (Bloody Mary) used Henry IV’s heresy laws (Foxe). In 1517, German monk, Martin Luther, published 95 theses, focusing personal salvation; as a result, at the Diet of Worms, Luther was deemed a heretic in 1521, but Luther left and created the Lutheran Church (Guiley 156). Later, in 1536, John Calvin, based on Luther, created Calvinism. Civil Wars and Revolts erupt all over Europe resulting from Catholics and Protestants countries warring. By the mid-sixteenth century, Lutheranism and Calvinism had been established in Scandinavia and Germany, Scotland, Switzerland, France, the Netherlands, and Eastern Europe. Protestant countries allowed scientific advancements because God revealed himself in nature and religion, but Catholic countries crushed countries. At the 1545, Council of Trent, the Counter Reformation began, the Inquisition was reinstated, and Protestants were burned as heretics. As a result, it made it harder to express new ideas in Catholic countries. Some heretics and witches were burnt in large fires, a quick death, and other small fires, a painful death. Giordano Bruno was burnt in large fire for challenging the Church by promoting heliocentrism and stating the fact that the Sun was a Star.
After Bruno’s death, Danish astronomer, Tycho Brache observed planetary motions, supernovas, comets, and searched for the daily stellar parallax that Copernicus mentioned. Tycho Brache discovered Copernicus was wrong; there was no daily stellar parallax (Ferguson). Brache believed in a geo-heliocentric system where the Sun and the Moon orbit an unmoving Earth, but the rest of the planets orbit the Sun. Tycho Brache’s assistant, German astronomer, Johannes Kepler found both Ptolemy and Copernicus were wrong. According to Kepler, the universe did not orbited in circles, but elliptically. Kepler believed the moon caused the tides. Additionally, Kepler found that the speed at which the planets orbited related to how far away from the Sun they were. In 1619, Johannes Kepler’s Three Laws of Planetary Motion, based on Brache’s data, were published. In 1620, Johannes Kepler published Epitome of Copernican Astronomy (Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae) and the same year Kepler’s mother, Katharina Kepler, was accused of witchcraft in Germany (Ferguson). Germany was known for witch-trials, including mass witch trials: Trier witch trials (1581–1593), the Fulda witch trials (1603–1606), the Würzburg witch trials (1626–1631) and the Bamberg witch trials (1626–1631) (Pavlec). Kepler delayed his research to defend her, securing her release. Katharina Kepler was lucky, because Germany was fighting the Thirty Years War (1618-1648). While the Thirty Years War was fought, rebellious Protestants in Bohemia from the Roman Catholic Hapsburg rulers, many people were burnt at the stake.
Kepler’s contemporary, Italian astronomer and physicist, Galileo Galilei, the “father of modern physics and modern observational astronomy,” believed that Kepler’s idea elliptical orbits of the planets was wrong and that the planets orbit in circles and that the moon did not cause the tides, but the earth. Galilei studied physics and mathematics, including motion of objects, the pendulum clock, theory of inertia, and acceleration. Additionally, Galileo Galilei studies astronomy and, in 1610, published The Starry Messenger, which Galilei observed from telescope, the Moon’s valleys, sunspots, Galilean moons (4 brightest moons of Jupiter), Saturn’s rings, and phases of Venus to confirm heliocentric model of the Universe (Levark). In 1619, Galileo Galilei and Father Orazio Grassi, argued over comets, and as a result, the Inquisition investigated Galilei. In 1632, Galilei published Dialogues Concerning the World’s Two Chief Systems (Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo) stating the theory of relativity; motion is relative and not absolute challenged Aristotle’s theory of absolute rest. Galilei boldly said, “"With regard to those few mathematical propositions which the human intellect does understand, I believe its knowledge equals the Divine in objective certainty” (Galilei 103). However, Galileo Galilei was imprisoned, under house arrest, for heresy and Dialogues was banned. Galilei continued to work on his heliocentric theories until his death in 1642.
After Galileo Galilei died, English scientist, Issac Newton, was born. Newton describes composition of light, and discovers gravity in 1665, and three years later, invents a reflecting telescope. Issac Newton based his physics, mathematics, and astronomical theories on Copernicus’, Kepler’s, and Galilei’s works, advancing the law of universal gravitation. Newton took Kepler’s three Laws of Planetary Motion, which explained the motion of planets and expanded upon it. In 1687, Issac Newton’s Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica) includes the theory of gravitation and Laws of Motion (Hunt 503). In addition, Issac Newton also dabbled in the occult studies of chronology (History of Ancient Times), alchemy (Philosopher’s Stone), and Biblical interpretation (Predictions). However, he was never tried for witchcraft.
Out of the Scientific Revolution came the Enlightenment; during the Enlightenment political and social scholars, such as, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Baron de Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Jean Jacques Rousseau focused on individualism, equal rights, and human reason. These ideas created modern laws, which we use today. As for witchcraft, Thomas Hobbes once said, “"As for witches… I think not that their witchcraft is any real power; but yet that they are justly punished, for the false belief that they have that they can do such mischief, joined with their purpose to do it if they can; their trade being nearer to a new religion than to a craft or science (Kittredge).
When science and religion collide, Christian theologians started the Scientific Revolution (16th-18th Centuries). It changed the way we think about science from everything from the scientific method to astronomy, agriculture, physics, geology, chemistry, and biology, as well as math, which resulted in our cosmology, changing from geocentric to heliocentric by the 1700’s (Wertheim). Additionally, the Scientific Revolution challenged the belief in traditional ideas: magic: witches, alchemy, and demons folklore; as well as, traditional science, math, geocentrism, Great Chain of Being, absolute rest, and four humors. By 1783, the last witch-trial in Europe, Doruchów witch trial, in Poland, took place (Pavlac). Christian Scholars believed their ideas on a new cosmology consistent with the Catholic Church’s worldview and a branch of theology. Some astronomers like Giordano Bruno, Johannes Kepler, and Galileo Galilei had direct experience with the Inquisition and witch-hunts, but other scientists, such as, Nicholaus Copernicus, Tycho Brache, and Issac Newton did not. Wiccaphobia, the fear of witchcraft, was vanquished, when science and religion clashed during the Scientific Revolution.
Works Cited
• Arvin, Heidi Louise, and Adrian Harrison Arvin. The Linear Hertage of Women. [S.l.]: Iuniverse, 2010. Print.
• Burns, William E. The Scientific Revolution: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2001. Print.
• Ferguson, Kitty. Tycho & Kepler: The Unlikely Partnership That Forever Changed Our Understanding of the Heavens. New York: Walker &, 2013. Print.
• Foxe, John, and John N. King. Foxe 's Book of Martyrs: Select Narratives. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2009. Print.
• Galilei, Galileo. Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems. Trans. Stillman Drake. 2nd ed. Berkeley: University of California, 1967. Print.
• Guiley, Rosemary. The Encyclopedia of Demons and Demonology. New York: Facts On File, 2009. Print.
• Halsall, Paul. "Modern Western Civ. 6: Origins of the Scientific Revolution." Modern Western Civ. 6: Origins of the Scientific Revolution. Fordham University, n.d. Web. 18 Nov. 2013. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/lect/mod06.html • Hunt, Lynn, Thomas R. Martin, Barbara H. Rosenwein, and Bonnie G. Smith. The Making of the West: Peoples and Cultures. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin 's, 2012. Print.
• Kittredge, George Lyman.
Notes on Witchcraft. Worcester, MA: American Antiquarian Society, 1907. Print.
• Levack, Brian P., Edward Muir, Michael Maas, and Meredith Veldman. "Chapter 16: The Scientific Revoution." The West: Encounters & Transformations. 1st ed. Vol. Single. Princeton, NJ: Pearson Education, 2004. N. pag. Chapter 16: The Scientific Revoution Summary. Pearson Education, Inc., 2004. Web. 18 Nov. 2013. http://wps.ablongman.com/long_levack_west_1/17/4392/1124455.cw/index.html • Pavlac, Brian A. "Explanation of Events for the Timeline of the Witch Hunts." Explanation of Events for the Timeline of the Witch Hunts. King 's College: Women 's Studies, 15 Apr. 2009. Web. 18 Nov. 2013. http://departments.kings.edu/womens_history/witch/witchlist.html • Stafford Grammar School. "Philosophy of Religion." Aristotle: The Prime Mover. Stafford Grammar School-Christian Denominations Project, n.d. Web. 18 Nov. 2013. http://www.scandalon.co.uk/philosophy/aristotle_prime_mover.htm
• Wertheim, Margaret. "PBS Faith and Reason." PBS Faith and Reason. Prod. Ronald Bailey. PBS. 11 Sept. 1998. PBS. PBS. Web. 18 Nov. 2013.
http://www.pbs.org/faithandreason/
• Westfall, Robert S. "The Scientific Revolution." History of Science Society Newsletter 15 (July 1986): n. pag. The Scientific Revolution. University of FLorida-Robert A. Hatch. Web. 18 Nov. 2013. http://web.clas.ufl.edu/users/ufhatch/pages/03-Sci-Rev/SCI-REV-Home/05-RSW-Sci-Rev.htm
This Ancient …show more content…
Babylonian law first addressed the punishment for witchcraft. This tradition spread to the Roman Empire (2nd Century BCE- 4th Century CE), who were known for scientific and mathematic achievements, such as Euclidian geometry, trigonometry, Roman abacus, and sundials. Roman witch-hunts lasted even after the Romans adopted Christianity. In Christianity, witchcraft was linked with heresy (unorthodox religious beliefs) and apostasy (renunciation of religion); the Christian Bible mentions witchcraft in Exodus 22:18 and Leviticus 20:27. In the Middle Ages (4th-16th century), Christian nations developed laws and folklore regarding witches. Medieval Witch-hunts included Cathar Heretics (11th Century), Waldensian and Albigensian Heretics (12-13th centuries) and the Medieval Inquisition (12-14th centuries). After the invention of the printing press (15th Century), witch-hunting manuals emerged, such as 1486’s Hammer of Witches (Malleus Maleficarum). Then during the Commercial Revolution, Renaissance, and the Reformation (14th -17th century) writers justified witch-hunts, citing among other reasons, the Spanish Inquisition (15th-19th Centuries). Wiccaphobia, the fear of witchcraft, was at its height, when science and religion clashed as the Scientific Revolution began in 1543.
The year was 1543 when Polish astronomer, Nicholaus Copernicus, published On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies on cosmology. Long before Copernicus, other ancient cultures believed that space effected earth. Greek philosopher, Aristotle, in addition to believing that space affected earth, first claimed that the earth was the center of the universe (geocentrism). Aristotle believed that rest was natural and motion requires change. In Aristotle’s Physics (Physica), he describes motion as change from potentiality to actuality, being moved by a “Prime Move” (Hallsall). Based on Aristotle’s work, Ptolemy 's Almagest , concluded that the planets were perfect spheres, which orbited in perfect circular motions. Copernicus’ On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies challenged Aristotle, arguing that the sun was center (heliocentrism), but kept Ptolemy’s beliefs on planets orbiting in circles (Hunt 502). Three centuries earlier, Saint Thomas Aquinas used Aristotelian philosophy and astronomy to describe order and perfection in regards to Christianity. Aristotle’s History of Animals (Historia Animalium) describes the Ladder of Nature (scala naturae) an unchanging taxonomy of creatures, which held humans at the top and non-living inanimate things at the bottom, the basis of the Great Chain of Being. Aquinas used Aristotle’s idea of a “Prime Mover” that caused the universe to rotate to explain the Christian God moves the universe in Summa Theologiæ (Stafford). Additionally, St. Thomas Aquinas described witchcraft and demonology in Summa Theologiæ. Aquinas used logic to show that demons were real, basing his argument on Saint Augustine’s ideas, which included that witches/sorcerers were helped by demons. The Catholic Church authorized Inquisitions: Cathar Heretics (11th Century), Waldensian and Albigensian Heretics (12-13th centuries), the Medieval Inquisition (12-14th centuries), and Spanish Inquisition (15th-19th Centuries) based on St. Aquinas’ and St. Augustine’s ideas on witchcraft and demonology (Pavalec). At the same time as the Inquisitions, medieval universities studied Aquinas, Augustine, Ptolemy, and Aristotle, whose ideas fitted in with the teachings of the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church sanctioned science promoted Aristotelianism and Ptolemiacism in universities and churches, while St. Aquinas’ scholasticism: philosophy and theology based on logic. During the Late Middle Ages (13-14th Centuries), scholastic scholars began to challenge Aristotle’s theories. Soon after, Renaissance humanists (14-15th century) also began to challenge geocentrism. During the Reformation period, traditional, religious ideas of the universe were challenged and the Catholic Church condemned Copernicanism. Polish astronomer, Nicholaus Copernicus, a scholastic scholar and canon at Frauenburg Cathedral, challenged geocentrism, but it did not stop with him.
After Copernicus’s death, Italian cosmologist/philosopher, Giordano Bruno, continued Copernicus’ work and became the first martyr to science in 1600, when Pope Clement burned him at the stake for heresy (Hunt 502). In 1401, English King Henry IV first introduced burning at the stake during the Lollards Persecution; later, English King Henry VIII and English/Irish Queen Mary I (Bloody Mary) used Henry IV’s heresy laws (Foxe). In 1517, German monk, Martin Luther, published 95 theses, focusing personal salvation; as a result, at the Diet of Worms, Luther was deemed a heretic in 1521, but Luther left and created the Lutheran Church (Guiley 156). Later, in 1536, John Calvin, based on Luther, created Calvinism. Civil Wars and Revolts erupt all over Europe resulting from Catholics and Protestants countries warring. By the mid-sixteenth century, Lutheranism and Calvinism had been established in Scandinavia and Germany, Scotland, Switzerland, France, the Netherlands, and Eastern Europe. Protestant countries allowed scientific advancements because God revealed himself in nature and religion, but Catholic countries crushed countries. At the 1545, Council of Trent, the Counter Reformation began, the Inquisition was reinstated, and Protestants were burned as heretics. As a result, it made it harder to express new ideas in Catholic countries. Some heretics and witches were burnt in large fires, a quick death, and other small fires, a painful death. Giordano Bruno was burnt in large fire for challenging the Church by promoting heliocentrism and stating the fact that the Sun was a Star.
After Bruno’s death, Danish astronomer, Tycho Brache observed planetary motions, supernovas, comets, and searched for the daily stellar parallax that Copernicus mentioned. Tycho Brache discovered Copernicus was wrong; there was no daily stellar parallax (Ferguson). Brache believed in a geo-heliocentric system where the Sun and the Moon orbit an unmoving Earth, but the rest of the planets orbit the Sun. Tycho Brache’s assistant, German astronomer, Johannes Kepler found both Ptolemy and Copernicus were wrong. According to Kepler, the universe did not orbited in circles, but elliptically. Kepler believed the moon caused the tides. Additionally, Kepler found that the speed at which the planets orbited related to how far away from the Sun they were. In 1619, Johannes Kepler’s Three Laws of Planetary Motion, based on Brache’s data, were published. In 1620, Johannes Kepler published Epitome of Copernican Astronomy (Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae) and the same year Kepler’s mother, Katharina Kepler, was accused of witchcraft in Germany (Ferguson). Germany was known for witch-trials, including mass witch trials: Trier witch trials (1581–1593), the Fulda witch trials (1603–1606), the Würzburg witch trials (1626–1631) and the Bamberg witch trials (1626–1631) (Pavlec). Kepler delayed his research to defend her, securing her release. Katharina Kepler was lucky, because Germany was fighting the Thirty Years War (1618-1648). While the Thirty Years War was fought, rebellious Protestants in Bohemia from the Roman Catholic Hapsburg rulers, many people were burnt at the stake.
Kepler’s contemporary, Italian astronomer and physicist, Galileo Galilei, the “father of modern physics and modern observational astronomy,” believed that Kepler’s idea elliptical orbits of the planets was wrong and that the planets orbit in circles and that the moon did not cause the tides, but the earth. Galilei studied physics and mathematics, including motion of objects, the pendulum clock, theory of inertia, and acceleration. Additionally, Galileo Galilei studies astronomy and, in 1610, published The Starry Messenger, which Galilei observed from telescope, the Moon’s valleys, sunspots, Galilean moons (4 brightest moons of Jupiter), Saturn’s rings, and phases of Venus to confirm heliocentric model of the Universe (Levark). In 1619, Galileo Galilei and Father Orazio Grassi, argued over comets, and as a result, the Inquisition investigated Galilei. In 1632, Galilei published Dialogues Concerning the World’s Two Chief Systems (Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo) stating the theory of relativity; motion is relative and not absolute challenged Aristotle’s theory of absolute rest. Galilei boldly said, “"With regard to those few mathematical propositions which the human intellect does understand, I believe its knowledge equals the Divine in objective certainty” (Galilei 103). However, Galileo Galilei was imprisoned, under house arrest, for heresy and Dialogues was banned. Galilei continued to work on his heliocentric theories until his death in 1642.
After Galileo Galilei died, English scientist, Issac Newton, was born. Newton describes composition of light, and discovers gravity in 1665, and three years later, invents a reflecting telescope. Issac Newton based his physics, mathematics, and astronomical theories on Copernicus’, Kepler’s, and Galilei’s works, advancing the law of universal gravitation. Newton took Kepler’s three Laws of Planetary Motion, which explained the motion of planets and expanded upon it. In 1687, Issac Newton’s Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica) includes the theory of gravitation and Laws of Motion (Hunt 503). In addition, Issac Newton also dabbled in the occult studies of chronology (History of Ancient Times), alchemy (Philosopher’s Stone), and Biblical interpretation (Predictions). However, he was never tried for witchcraft.
Out of the Scientific Revolution came the Enlightenment; during the Enlightenment political and social scholars, such as, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Baron de Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Jean Jacques Rousseau focused on individualism, equal rights, and human reason. These ideas created modern laws, which we use today. As for witchcraft, Thomas Hobbes once said, “"As for witches… I think not that their witchcraft is any real power; but yet that they are justly punished, for the false belief that they have that they can do such mischief, joined with their purpose to do it if they can; their trade being nearer to a new religion than to a craft or science (Kittredge).
When science and religion collide, Christian theologians started the Scientific Revolution (16th-18th Centuries). It changed the way we think about science from everything from the scientific method to astronomy, agriculture, physics, geology, chemistry, and biology, as well as math, which resulted in our cosmology, changing from geocentric to heliocentric by the 1700’s (Wertheim). Additionally, the Scientific Revolution challenged the belief in traditional ideas: magic: witches, alchemy, and demons folklore; as well as, traditional science, math, geocentrism, Great Chain of Being, absolute rest, and four humors. By 1783, the last witch-trial in Europe, Doruchów witch trial, in Poland, took place (Pavlac). Christian Scholars believed their ideas on a new cosmology consistent with the Catholic Church’s worldview and a branch of theology. Some astronomers like Giordano Bruno, Johannes Kepler, and Galileo Galilei had direct experience with the Inquisition and witch-hunts, but other scientists, such as, Nicholaus Copernicus, Tycho Brache, and Issac Newton did not. Wiccaphobia, the fear of witchcraft, was vanquished, when science and religion clashed during the Scientific Revolution.
Works Cited
• Arvin, Heidi Louise, and Adrian Harrison Arvin. The Linear Hertage of Women. [S.l.]: Iuniverse, 2010. Print.
• Burns, William E. The Scientific Revolution: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2001. Print.
• Ferguson, Kitty. Tycho & Kepler: The Unlikely Partnership That Forever Changed Our Understanding of the Heavens. New York: Walker &, 2013. Print.
• Foxe, John, and John N. King. Foxe 's Book of Martyrs: Select Narratives. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2009. Print.
• Galilei, Galileo. Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems. Trans. Stillman Drake. 2nd ed. Berkeley: University of California, 1967. Print.
• Guiley, Rosemary. The Encyclopedia of Demons and Demonology. New York: Facts On File, 2009. Print.
• Halsall, Paul. "Modern Western Civ. 6: Origins of the Scientific Revolution." Modern Western Civ. 6: Origins of the Scientific Revolution. Fordham University, n.d. Web. 18 Nov. 2013. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/lect/mod06.html • Hunt, Lynn, Thomas R. Martin, Barbara H. Rosenwein, and Bonnie G. Smith. The Making of the West: Peoples and Cultures. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin 's, 2012. Print.
• Kittredge, George Lyman.
Notes on Witchcraft. Worcester, MA: American Antiquarian Society, 1907. Print.
• Levack, Brian P., Edward Muir, Michael Maas, and Meredith Veldman. "Chapter 16: The Scientific Revoution." The West: Encounters & Transformations. 1st ed. Vol. Single. Princeton, NJ: Pearson Education, 2004. N. pag. Chapter 16: The Scientific Revoution Summary. Pearson Education, Inc., 2004. Web. 18 Nov. 2013. http://wps.ablongman.com/long_levack_west_1/17/4392/1124455.cw/index.html • Pavlac, Brian A. "Explanation of Events for the Timeline of the Witch Hunts." Explanation of Events for the Timeline of the Witch Hunts. King 's College: Women 's Studies, 15 Apr. 2009. Web. 18 Nov. 2013. http://departments.kings.edu/womens_history/witch/witchlist.html • Stafford Grammar School. "Philosophy of Religion." Aristotle: The Prime Mover. Stafford Grammar School-Christian Denominations Project, n.d. Web. 18 Nov. 2013. http://www.scandalon.co.uk/philosophy/aristotle_prime_mover.htm
• Wertheim, Margaret. "PBS Faith and Reason." PBS Faith and Reason. Prod. Ronald Bailey. PBS. 11 Sept. 1998. PBS. PBS. Web. 18 Nov. 2013.
http://www.pbs.org/faithandreason/
• Westfall, Robert S. "The Scientific Revolution." History of Science Society Newsletter 15 (July 1986): n. pag. The Scientific Revolution. University of FLorida-Robert A. Hatch. Web. 18 Nov. 2013. http://web.clas.ufl.edu/users/ufhatch/pages/03-Sci-Rev/SCI-REV-Home/05-RSW-Sci-Rev.htm