Sustenable Development by World Youth Alliance

Sustainable Development White Paper World Youth Alliance
By Meghan Grizzle, World Youth Alliance Research and Policy Specialist Reviewed By Andreas Widmer,

Director of Entrepreneurship Programs Catholic University of America and Vincenzina Santoro,

Former Vice President and Economist of JPMorgan & Co. and UN Representative of the American Family Association of New York

October 2012

World Youth Alliance • 228 East 71 Street • New York, NY 10021 • www.wya.net

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I. Introduction
On October 31, 2011, the Earth’s 7 billionth person was born,1 bringing to the world another life full of potential and promise. For some people, this is cause for concern in the context of sustainable development. They believe that we cannot continue to meet the needs of each person while sustaining the Earth’s resources. They view each additional person as another burden on the environment or as another mouth to feed, and thus they call for increased provision of family planning services and other means to restrain population growth. Others, however, recognize the potential of each person and the creativity they represent for the development of economic activity and the care of the environment. The more people there are on this Earth, the more creators, innovators, and developers there are. This view understands that it is poverty, not a growing population, that creates problems. The solution is therefore for people to get out of poverty through a focus on human development through education, employment, and access to various forms of capital. This paper begins with an introduction to the components of sustainable development as presented in United Nations conference documents. Next, it discusses the nexus of sustainable development and population-related issues, highlighting the dangerous argument that limiting population growth is a prerequisite for sustainable development. This includes a survey of some countries’ misguided attempts at limiting their populations through coercive government policies. The paper continues by considering how the Earth’s greatest resource—the creativity of humans—is able to make the world a better place even in the face of a growing population. The paper concludes with an overview of a positive approach to sustainable development, one that tackles the root causes of poverty and allows the creativity of the human person to flourish.

II. Introduction to sustainable development
A. Sustainable development at the United Nations
Several United Nations conferences on sustainable development have taken place. In 1972, the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment was held in Stockholm, Sweden.2 The first UN conference on the environment, it established the United Nations Environment Programme and spurred the creation of national environmental ministries.3 Twenty years later, the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development took place in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.4 Otherwise known as the Earth Summit, it had the participation of 172 governments, including 108 heads of State or Government.5 The Earth Summit produced several consensus

1

UNFPA, STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 2011: PEOPLE AND POSSIBILITIES IN A WORLD OF 7 BILLION 6 (2011) [hereinafter POPULATION 2011]. 2 JOHN BAYLIS, STEVE SMITH, & PATRICIA OWENS, THE GLOBALIZATION OF WORLD POLITICS 325 (2008). 3 Id. 4 Id. 5 UN Conference on Environment and Development (1992), http://www.un.org/geninfo/bp/enviro.html (last visited June 14, 2012).

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documents, including the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development6 and Agenda 21, which specifically outlines an action plan for sustainable development at all levels of government and society.7 After the Earth Summit, the UN Commission on Sustainable Development was created to monitor the implementation of the Rio plans of action.8 Ten years after the Earth Summit, a follow-up conference in Johannesburg, South Africa produced the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation.9 In June 2012, the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, or Rio+20, took place in Rio de Janeiro, and the conference resulted in an outcome document called The Future We Want.10 The International Conference on Population and Development, which was held in Cairo, Egypt in 1994, focused specifically on population issues in the context of sustainable development. The Programme of Action, the consensus document produced by the 179 nations at the conference, sets forth goals related to reproductive health, sustained economic growth, poverty eradication, and empowerment of women and girls.11 One year later, the 1995 Fourth World Conference on Women, held in Beijing, reiterated many of the sustainable development goals identified at Cairo, which it set forth in the Beijing Declaration12 and the Beijing Platform for Action.13

B. Definition of sustainable development
In 1987, the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development released Our Common Future, also known as the Brundtland Report after Gro Brundtland, then-Prime Minister of Norway and chair of the World Commission on Environment and Development.14 The Brundtland Report defines sustainable development as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” 15 The Report emphasizes that “overriding priority should be given” to “the essential needs of the world’s poor,” and that there are “limitations imposed by the state of technology and social
6

See United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, June 3–14, 1992, Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Annex I, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.151/26/Rev.1 (Vol. I) (Aug. 12, 1992) [hereinafter Rio Declaration]. 7 See United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, June 3–14, 1992, Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.151/26/Rev.1 (Vols. I–III) (Aug. 12, 1992) [hereinafter Agenda 21]. 8 BAYLIS ET AL., supra note 2, at 325. 9 See World Summit on Sustainable Development, Aug. 26–Sept. 4, 2002, Report of the World Summit on Sustainable Development, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.199/20 ( [hereinafter JPOI]. 10 See United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, June 20–22, 2012, The Future We Want, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.216/L.1 (June 19, 2012) [hereinafter The Future We Want]. 11 See International Conference on Population and Development, Sept. 5–13, 1994, Report of the International Conference on Population and Development, Ch. I, Res. 1, Annex, Principle 8, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.171/13/Rev.1 (Oct. 18, 1994) [hereinafter ICPD Report]. 12 See Fourth World Conference on Women, Sept. 4–15, 1995, Report of the Fourth World Conference on Women, Ch. I, Res. 1, Annex II, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.177/20/Rev.1 (1996) [hereinafter Beijing Declaration]. 13 See Fourth World Conference on Women, Sept. 4–15, 1995, Report of the Fourth World Conference on Women, Ch. I, Res. 1, Annex I, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.177/20/Rev.1 (1996) [hereinafter Beijing Platform for Action]. 14 See Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development, Annex, U.N. Doc. A/42/427 (Aug. 4, 1987) [hereinafter Our Common Future]. 15 Id. Ch. 2, ¶ 1.

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organization on the environment’s ability to meet present and future needs.”16 The Report continues, “Sustainable development requires meeting the basic needs of all and extending Sustainable development is to all the opportunity to satisfy their “development that meets the needs of aspirations for a better life.”17 the present without compromising the Sustainable development is not solely about their own needs.” the environment, although the Earth Summit and its follow-up conferences have focused on - Brundtland Report environmental issues. According to the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation, sustainable development has three “interdependent and mutually reinforcing pillars”: “economic development, social development and environmental protection.”18 The Plan of Implementation elaborates, “Poverty eradication, changing unsustainable patterns of production and consumption and protecting and managing the natural resource base of economic and social development are overarching objectives of, and essential requirements for, sustainable development.” 19 This three-pillar model continues to be used today.20 Principle 1 of the Rio Declaration, a consensus document from the 1992 Earth Summit, states, “Human beings are at the centre of concerns for sustainable development. They are entitled “Human beings are at the centre of to a healthy and productive life in harmony concerns for sustainable with nature.”21 The ICPD Programme of development. They are entitled to a Action reiterates this principle and explains healthy and productive life in that “[p]eople are the most important and harmony with nature.” valuable resource of any nation. Countries should ensure that all individuals are given - Principle 1, Rio Declaration the opportunity to make the most of their potential.”22 The Programme of Action emphasizes the centrality of poverty eradication in achieving sustainable development: “All States and all people shall cooperate in the essential task of eradicating poverty as an indispensable requirement for sustainable development, in order to decrease the disparities in standards of living and better meet the needs of the majority of the people of the world.”23 The Programme of Action identifies key areas of sustainable development, “[e]fforts to slow down population growth, to reduce poverty, to achieve economic progress, to improve environmental protection, and to reduce unsustainable consumption and

ability of future generations to meet

16 17

Id. Id. Ch. 2, ¶ 4. 18 JPOI, supra note 9, ¶ 2. 19 Id. 20 See, e.g., The Future We Want, supra note 10, ¶ 1. 21 Rio Declaration, supra note 6, Principle 1. 22 ICPD Report, supra note 11, Ch. I, Res. 1, Annex, Ch. 2, Principle 2. 23 Id. Ch. I, Res. 1, Annex, Ch. 2, Principle 7.

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production patterns.”24 The Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action highlight the importance of women in sustainable development efforts.25 The Declaration includes as components of the achievement of people-centered sustainable development “the provision of basic education, life-long education, literacy and training, and primary health care for girls and women.” 26 It also recognizes that “[e]quitable social development that recognizes empowering the poor, particularly women living in poverty, to utilize environmental resources sustainably is a necessary foundation for sustainable development.”27

III. Sustainable development and demographic and population issues
A. United Nations conferences
UN conferences have tied sustainable development explicitly to population and demographic issues. Principle 8 of the Rio Declaration states, “To achieve sustainable development and a higher quality of life for all people, States should reduce and eliminate unsustainable patterns of production and consumption and promote appropriate demographic policies.”28 Principle 6 of the ICPD Programme of Action elaborates: Sustainable development as a means to ensure human well-being, equitably shared by all people today and in the future, requires that the interrelationships between population, resources, the environment and development should be fully recognized, properly managed and brought into harmonious, dynamic balance. To achieve sustainable development and a higher quality of life for all people, States should reduce and eliminate unsustainable patterns of production and consumption and promote appropriate policies, including population-related policies, in order to meet the needs of current generations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.29 This relationship between sustainable development and population often manifests itself through the call for reproductive health policies and programs and family planning, in order to promote smaller family size. For example, Agenda 21, a consensus document from the Earth Summit, focuses extensively on the relationship between development and population issues. It calls for “[r]eproductive health programmes and services [that] reduce maternal and infant mortality from all causes and enable women and men to fulfil their personal aspirations in terms of family size, in a way in keeping with their freedom and dignity and personally held values.”30 Governments
24 25

ICPD Report, supra note 11, Ch. I, Res. 1, Annex, ¶ 3.14. See, e.g., Beijing Platform for Action, supra note 13, ¶¶ 56, 248. 26 Beijing Declaration, supra note 12, ¶ 27. 27 Id. ¶ 36. 28 Rio Declaration, supra note 6, Principle 8. 29 ICPD Report, supra note 11, Ch. I, Res. 1, Annex, Ch. 2, Principle 6. 30 Agenda 21, supra note 7, ¶ 5.49.

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must ensure people the “right to decide freely and responsibly on the number and spacing of their children, to have access to the information, The relationship between education and means, as appropriate, to sustainable development and enable them to exercise this right in keeping population often manifests through with their freedom, dignity and personally held values taking into account ethical and the call for reproductive health cultural considerations.”31 Governments must policies and programs and family also “establish and strengthen preventive and planning, in order to promote curative health facilities that include womensmaller family size. centred, women-managed, safe and effective reproductive health care and affordable, accessible services, as appropriate, for the responsible planning of family size, in keeping with freedom, dignity and personally held values and taking into account ethical and cultural considerations.”32 Agenda 21 further links the development discourse to population by stating that women in developing countries “lack the means of [ . . . ] responsibly controlling their reproductive life and improving their socio-economic status.”33 The five-year follow-up to the Earth Summit also focuses on “the critical linkages between demographic trends and factors and sustainable development.”34 The Programme for Further Implementation of Agenda 21 states, The current decline in population growth rates must be further promoted through national and international policies that promote economic development, social development, environmental protection, and poverty eradication, particularly the further expansion of basic education, with full and equal access for girls and women, and health care, including reproductive health care, including both family planning and sexual health, consistent with the report of the International Conference on Population and Development.35 The Johannesburg Plan of Implementation, which was issued ten years after the Earth Summit, calls on governments to “[a]ddress effectively, for all individuals of appropriate age, the promotion of healthy living, including their reproductive and sexual health.”36 This must be done “in conformity with human rights and fundamental freedoms and consistent with national laws and cultural and religious values.”37 Rio+20’s The Future We Want emphasizes reproductive health,38 family planning,39 and demographic change.40

31 32

Id. ¶ 5.50. Id. ¶ 5.51. 33 Id. ¶ 6.21. 34 Programme for the Further Implementation of Agenda 21, G.A. Res. S/19-2, ¶ 30, U.N. Doc. A/RES/S-19/2 (Sept. 19, 1997). 35 Id. 36 JPOI, supra note 9, ¶ 54(j). 37 Id. ¶ 54. 38 The Future We Want, supra note 10, ¶¶ 145, 146, 241 39 Id., ¶¶ 145, 146, 241. 40 Id., ¶¶ 136, 144.

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The ICPD Programme of Action emphasizes the importance of “slowing population growth and [ ] achieving early population stabilization.”41 It identifies a direct link between “[d]emographic factors, combined with poverty and lack of access to resources in some areas, and excessive consumption and wasteful production patterns in others” and “environmental degradation and resource depletion,” which in turn “inhibit sustainable development.”42 Given “that the ultimate goal is the improvement of the quality of life of present and future generations,” it calls for the development of policies on population growth, with the objective “to facilitate the demographic transition as soon as possible in countries where there is an imbalance between demographic rates and social, economic and environmental goals, while fully respecting human rights.” 43 This is to help achieve world population stabilization.44

B. Limiting population growth to achieve sustainable development
The Population Bomb, written by Paul and Anne Ehrlich in 1968, is the classic work promoting the idea that the Earth is overpopulated and that overpopulation will lead to humankind’s demise.45 The Ehrlichs were alarmist; the front cover stated, “Population Control or Race to Oblivion?” and “While you are reading these words four people will have died from starvation. Most of them children.”46 They began The Population Bomb with a serious warning: The battle to feed humanity is over. In the 1970s and 1980s hundreds of millions of people will starve to death in spite of any crash programs embarked upon now. At this late date nothing can prevent a substantial increase in the world death rate [ . . . ]. [There is a need for] determined and successful efforts at population control.47 Hundreds of millions of people did not starve to death in the 1970s; forty years later, the Ehrlichs attribute this to the success of the green revolution, and lament that 300 million people have died of hunger and its associated diseases since 1968.48 They continue to promote the idea of a population explosion through books and articles,49 emphasizing “its contribution to the expanding scale of the human enterprise and thus to humanity’s impact on the environmental systems that support civilization.”50 Paul Ehrlich was one of the founders of Zero Population Growth, which is now known as Population Connection, a group that is “America’s voice for population stabilization,” and that voice calls for population stabilization through the provision

41 42

ICPD Report, supra note 11, Ch. I, Res. 1, Annex, ¶ 3.15. Id. Ch. I, Res. 1, Annex, ¶ 3.25. 43 Id. Ch. I, Res. 1, Annex, ¶ 6.3. 44 Id. 45 See PAUL EHRLICH, POPULATION BOMB (1968). 46 Id., Cover. 47 Id. at xi. 48 See Paul R. Ehrlich & Anne H. Ehrlich, The Return of the Population Bomb, Environmental Health News, June 14, 2009, available at http://www.environmentalhealthnews.org/ehs/editorial/the-return-of-the-population-bomb. 49 See, e.g., PAUL R. EHRLICH & ANNE H. EHRLICH, THE POPULATION EXPLOSION (1991). 50 Paul Ehrlich & Anne Ehrlich, The Population Explosion: Why We Should Care and What We Should Do About It, 27 ENVTL. LAW 1187 (1997).

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of contraception and abortion services.51 Environmental organizations are concerned that the more consumers there are, the greater the depletion of natural resources will be, and they therefore encourage policies and programs that will cause women to have fewer children.52 The Sierra Club’s Global Population and Environment Program’s goal is “to protect the global environment and preserve natural resources for future generations by advancing global reproductive health,” including “[i]ncreasing universal access to voluntary family planning services and comprehensive sex education.”53 Population Matters, a non-profit based in the United Kingdom, is concerned with humanity’s “[use of] natural resources at an unsustainable rate and placing [of] unsustainable pressure on the natural environment and the ecosystems on which we depend.”54 It thus encourages people to choose smaller families and supports increased access to contraceptives, including emergency contraception,55 as components of sustainable development.56 In fact, the organization says, “We need to send a clear message that large families are unsustainable.”57 The Center for Biological Diversity distributes “endangered species condoms,” each of which features one of six endangered species.58 The condoms contain messages about how to stabilize the human population, given the group’s concern that human overpopulation is driving the extinction of animals and many other environmental challenges.59 A 2009 study from Oregon State University states that to reduce carbon dioxide emissions, the most effective step is to reduce fertility.60 The study asserts, “a woman in the United States who adopted the six non-reproductive changes [such as increasing her car’s fuel efficiency and driving fewer miles per week] would save about 486 tons of CO2 emissions during her lifetime, but, if she were to have two children, this would eventually add nearly 40 times that amount of CO2 (18,882 t) to the earth’s atmosphere.”61 Another 2009 study, this time from the London School of Economics on behalf of the Optimum Population Trust (Population Matters), performed a cost-benefit analysis of providing contraception to women with unmet need for

51

Population Connection, About Us, http://www.populationconnection.org/site/PageServer?pagename=about_us (last visited Oct. 5, 2012). 52 See, e.g., Bryan Walsh, What Condoms Have to Do with Climate Change, TIME HEALTH, May 12, 2008. 53 Sierra Club, Global Population and the Environment, http://www.sierraclub.org/population/ (last visited Oct. 5, 2012). 54 POPULATION MATTERS, CURRENT POPULATION TRENDS, available at http://www.populationmatters.org/wpcontent/uploads/D12Currentpopulationtrends.pdf?phpMyAdmin=e11b8b687c20198d9ad050fbb1aa7f2f. 55 Population Matters, Reproductive health, http://www.populationmatters.org/solutions/sustainable-population /reproductive-health/ (last visited Oct. 5, 2012). 56 POPULATION MATTERS, MAKING THE CASE FOR SMALLER FAMILIES, available at http://www.populationmatters. org/wp-content/uploads/D29Caseforsmallerfamilies.pdf?phpMyAdmin=e11b8b687c20198d9ad050fbb1aa7f2f. 57 Population Matters, Current campaigns, Ending subsidies for large families, http://populationmatters.org/getinvolved/current-campaigns/ (last visited Oct. 5, 2012). 58 Endangered species condoms, http://www.endangeredspeciescondoms.com/ (last visited Oct. 5, 2012). See also Mireya Navarro, Breaking a Long Silence on Population Control, N.Y. TIMES, Oct. 31, 2011. 59 Id. 60 Paul A. Murtaugh & Michael G. Schlax, Reproduction and the carbon legacies of individuals, 19 GLOBAL ENVTL. CHANGE 14 (2009). 61 Id. at 18.

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family planning62 and found that every $7 spent on contraceptives would reduce CO2 emissions by one ton between 2010 and 2050.63 The study also found that if family planning meets unmet need, this would reduce CO2 emissions by 34 billion tons between 2010 and 2050.64 The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) annual State of World Population 2009 focuses on women, population, and climate and discusses the negative impact of the growing population on the climate.65 It recommends “fully fund[ing] family planning services and contraceptive supplies within the framework of reproductive health and rights.”66 UNFPA’s State of World Population 2011 details challenges in a world of 7 billion people, among them sustaining the Earth’s resources.67 It notes the call for the discussion of population issues at Rio+20.68 In More: Population, Nature, and What Women Want, Robert Engelman links increased access to family planning to smaller families and thus decreased climate change, poverty, and infrastructure problems.69 Engelman also wrote a chapter of the Worldwatch Institute’s State of the World 2012: Moving Toward Sustainable Prosperity, arguing for reproductive rights and contraception as necessities for fertility control and broader population decrease.70 The next section discusses demographic challenges of a world in which the fertility rate is decreasing and the ways in which humanity’s creativity has provided solutions to population pressures.

C. Population control policies as sustainable development “solutions”
The ICPD Programme of Action71 and the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation72 in particular address the need for appropriate population-related policies that respect human rights and cultural traditions. However, many countries have implemented policies and programs that do not accord people their right to determine the number and spacing of their children. 73 Often, countries develop these policies with the understanding that the eradication of poverty requires the eradication of poor people. Their misguided reasoning is that a smaller population will lead to more economic opportunities and more available jobs. Several notable current and recent

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The study defines women with unmet need for family planning as “all women who wish to delay or terminate childbearing but who are not using contraception.” Thomas Wire, Fewer Emitters, Lower Emissions, Less Cost: Reducing Future Carbon Emissions by Investing in Family Planning 1, London School of Economics, Operational Research (Aug. 2009), available at http://populationmatters.org/documents/reducing_emissions.pdf. 63 Id. at 28. 64 Id. 65 See UNFPA, STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 2009: FACING A CHANGING WORLD: WOMEN, POPULATION AND CLIMATE (2009). 66 Id. at 68. 67 See POPULATION 2011, supra note 1. 68 See id. at 95. 69 ROBERT ENGELMAN, MORE: POPULATION, NATURE, AND WHAT WOMEN WANT (2008). 70 WORLDWATCH INSTITUTE, STATE OF THE WORLD 2012: MOVING TOWARD SUSTAINABLE PROSPERITY (2012). 71 ICPD Report, supra note 11, Ch. I, Res. 1, Annex, ¶ 6.3. 72 JPOI, supra note 9, ¶ 54. 73 See Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women art. 16(1)(e), opened for signature Dec. 18. 1979, 1249 U.N.T.S. 13 [hereinafter CEDAW].

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examples of government-imposed policies exist.

1. China
With a population of 1.37 billion, China is the most populous country in the world. 74 The Chinese population has nearly tripled since 1949.75 In order to respond to increasing population growth and to ensure sufficient food supply and economic growth, China initiated its controversial one-child policy in the latter part of the 1970s.76 The policy restricts Chinese Many countries have implemented couples, particularly those residing in urban policies and programs that do not areas, to having only one child.77 The accord people their right to implementation of the policy “depends on determine the number and spacing virtually universal access to contraception and of their children. Often, countries abortion” and it is estimated that it has develop these policies with the prevented about 400 million births between 1979 and 2011.78 Evidence of forced understanding that the eradication abortion, forced sterilization, and infanticide of poverty requires the eradication is well-documented.79 Non-compliance with of poor people. the policy results in punishments such as fines, loss of benefits, more expensive obstetric care, and even the loss of employment for government workers.80 The coercive effect of the one-child policy is aggravated by the ensuing social preference for boys.81 Women who determine the sex of the fetus is female choose to abort in order to ensure that their one child will be a boy.82

2. India
India’s population grew significantly, accompanied by a sharp decline in mortality, in the second half of the twentieth century.83 The population passed the one billion mark at the end of the century,84 and at 1.21 billion people India is now the second-most populated country in the

74

China Today, China Population Statistics and Related Information, http://www.chinatoday.com/data/china. population.htm (last visited Oct. 5, 2012). 75 Id. 76 MARA HVISTENDAHL, UNNATURAL SELECTION: CHOOSING BOYS OVER GIRLS, AND THE CONSEQUENCES OF A WORLD FULL OF MEN 21 (2011). 77 Therese Hesketh, Li Lu, & Zhu Wei Xing, The Effect of China’s One-Child Family Policy After 25 Years, 353 NEW ENG. J. MED. 1171, 1171 (Sept. 2005). 78 Id. 79 See ChinaAid & Women’s Rights Without Frontiers, New Evidence Regarding China’s One-Child Policy, Forced Abortion, Involuntary Sterilization, Infanticide and Coercive Family Planning, Hearing Before the U.S. Congressional Tom Lantos Human Rights Commission (Nov. 10, 2009), available at http://www.pearlsofchinathefilm.com/littlejohn1.pdf. 80 W. X. Zhu, The One Child Family Policy, 88 ARCH. DISEASE IN CHILDHOOD 463 (2003). 81 See, e.g., Shuzhuo Li, Imbalanced Sex Ratio at Birth and Comprehensive Intervention in China , 4th Asia Pacific Conference on Reproductive and Sexual Health and Rights (2007). See also HVISTENDAHL, supra note 76. 82 Id. 83 See, e.g., Population of India (1951-2001), available at http://indiabudget.nic.in/es2006-07/chapt2007/tab97.pdf. 84 See id.

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world.85 India is expected to have the world’s largest population by 2025.86 In the face of the perceived challenges associated with population growth, India changed its National Population Policy in 2000 in order to achieve population stabilization by 2045.87 One of the objectives of the National Rural Health Mission, a government agency, is “population stabilization, gender and demographic balance.”88 The Indian government argues that stabilizing the population is “an essential requirement for promoting sustainable development with more equitable distribution.”89 Although the government purports to be committed to the “voluntary and informed choice and consent of citizens” for family planning and reproductive health services,90 India has consistently implemented coercive programmes. In sterilization camps, initiated under the direction of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi in 1975,91 rural Indians were often paid and sometimes forced to undergo vasectomies, leading to the sterilization of more than 6 million people within one year.92 The people of India are still offered financial incentives to undergo sterilization today.93 Prenatal sex-selection in favor of male children is also a common practice,94 exacerbating population problems due to skewed male-female ratios. According to the 2011 Indian Census, there are 914 females (aged 0-6) for every 1000 males of the same age—an imbalance that is attributed to a culture of son preference and increasing access to prenatal screening.95

3. Vietnam
Starting in the 1960s, Vietnam enforced a two-child policy, which was abandoned in 2003.96 The government considered reviving the policy in 2008.97 There is evidence that the government

85 86

Census of India, http://www.censusindia.gov.in (last visited Oct. 5, 2012). See, e.g., India’s population to surpass China’s by 2025, THE HINDU, Apr. 16, 2011, available at http://www. thehindu.com/news/national/article1701790.ece. 87 United Nations Population Fund – India, Population Development, available at http://india.unfpa.org/drive/ PopulationandDevelopment.pdf. 88 NRHM Objectives, http://chcupputhara.wordpress.com/2011/12/04/nrhm-objectives/ (last visited Oct. 5, 2012). 89 United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, India: National Population Policy, available at http://www.unescap.org/esid/psis/population/database/poplaws/law_india/india1.htm. 90 National Commission on Population (Government of India), National Population Policy 2000 – Introduction, http://populationcommission.nic.in/npp_intro.htm (last visited Oct. 5, 2012). 91 HVISTENDAHL, supra note 76, at 87–88. For a discussion of Indira Gandhi’s population policies, see MATTHEW CONNELLY, FATAL MISCONCEPTION 221–22, 227–28, 317–19, 324–26 (2008). 92 HVISTENDAHL, supra note 76, at 88. 93 See Rajasthan men being duped into sterilisation: NGOs, THAINDIAN NEWS, Mar. 10, 2011, available at http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/uncategorized/rajasthan-men-being-duped-into-sterilisationngos_100512480.html; Jim Yardley, India Tries Using Cash Bonuses to Slow Birthrates, N.Y. TIMES, Aug. 21, 2010, available at http://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/22/world/asia/22india.html; Apurva, In Rajasthan, get sterilised, grab a chance to win Nano, INDIAN EXPRESS, July 2, 2010, available at http://www.indianexpress.com/ news/in-rajasthan-get-sterilised-grab-a-chance/811766/. 94 The Worldwide War on Baby Girls, THE ECONOMIST, Mar. 4, 2010, available at http://www.economist.com/ node/15636231. 95 India’s Sex Ratio: Sons and Daughters, THE ECONOMIST, Apr. 4, 2011, available at http://www.economist.com/ blogs/dailychart/2011/04/indias_sex_ratio. 96 Ian MacKinnon, Vietnam plans return to two-child policy to tackle population growth, THE GUARDIAN, Nov. 21, 2008, available at http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/nov/21/vietnam-population-baby-boom. 97 Id.

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of Vietnam is currently involved in coercive reproductive health programmes in the Central Highland Mountains. The Montagnard Foundation asserts that “the ongoing allegations and personal testimony of Degar Montagnard people indicate that abuse has occurred and continues today in 2012 and such abuse includes forced surgical sterilization.”98 The government informs its people that “surgical sterilization is a way to save themselves,” so that “‘they could have enough food to eat or maintain their population.’”99 In the same report, the Montagnard population describes how they are pressured and manipulated. Women are offered financial incentives to undergo sterilisation and are not aware of the risks of the procedure.100

4. Cambodia
A report issued by the government of Cambodia states that a “specific recommendation for advocacy is to promote a small family norm to help reduce fertility and population growth rates and improve levels of human resources development.”101 The government maintains that “appropriate BCC [Behaviour Change Communication] and advocacy strategies are also needed for users and providers of family planning services to address the high level of unmet need for family planning.”102

IV. People as the solution, not the problem
A. Demographic problems posed by a changing population structure
The world’s population has reached 7 billion.103 The Population Estimates and Projections Section of the Population Division of the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs predicts that the world’s population will reach The growth in the world's 10 billion by 2083.104 This is largely due to population is largely due to an an increase in the average lifetime expectancy, and has occurred even though the increase in the average lifetime fertility rate has declined.105 Between 1950 expectancy, and has occurred even and 2010, life expectancy in more developed though the fertility rate has countries grew by 11 years, by 26 years in declined. less developed regions, and by 19.5 years in

98

MONTAGNARD FOUNDATION, INC., ALTERNATIVE REPORT TO THE COMMITTEE ON THE ELIMINATION OF RACIAL DISCRIMINATION (CERD) FOR ITS 80TH SESSION REVIEW OF VIETNAM (2012), available at www.montagnardfoundation.org/pdf/CERD_MFI_Report_February1012.pdf. 99 Id. 100 Id. 101 The Royal Government of Cambodia Ministry of Planning, Population and Poverty in Asia and the Pacific, Country Report: Cambodia iii (Sept. 2002), available at http://www.un.org.kh/unfpa/dcs/Populationandpoverty.pdf. 102 Id. 103 See POPULATION 2011, supra note 1, at 1. 104 Population Estimates and Projections Section, Population Division, United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Frequently Asked Questions, World Population Prospects, the 2010 Revision, http://esa.un.org/wpp/Other-Information/pr_faq.htm (last visited Oct. 5, 2012). 105 POPULATION 2011, supra note 1, at 3–4; JULIAN SIMON, THE ULTIMATE RESOURCE II: PEOPLE, MATERIALS, AND ENVIRONMENT 228–29 (1998).

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the least developed countries.106 One economist considers this decrease in the world’s death rate “our victory against death, our advancing march toward life being ended mainly by the diseases of old age” and a “triumph of human mind and organization over the raw killing forces of nature.”107 Focusing solely on current and projected population numbers in addition to how rapidly the population has grown ignores problems posed by changing global demographics. In developing countries, the total fertility rate (TFR), which “represents the average number of children born per woman over the course of her childbearing years,”108 is falling faster than ever observed in developed countries.109 For example, in East Asia the total fertility rate was 6.0 in 1950 and is now 1.6, and in Central America the rate has dropped from 6.7 in 1950 to 2.6 today. 110 In many developed countries, the total fertility rate is well below the replacement level of 2.1,111 with a rate of 1.7 in more developed regions.112 While 80 million people are added to the world each year because high birth rates in the 1950s and 1960s expanded base populations around the world,113 the increase in life expectancy combined with the decline in the TFR means that the demographic distribution is uneven. The “graybe boom” signifies that the number of elderly people has increased dramatically; the median age in the U.S. was 30 in 1950 and 35 in 2000, and is expected to be 40 in 2050.114 In Europe it was 29 in 1950 and 38 in 2000, and will be 48 in 2050. In Japan, the projection is even bleaker, going from 22 in 1950 to 41 in 2000 to 53 in 2050.115 An increasingly aging population means that there will be more older persons than children in 2045; however, this has been the case since 1998 in more developed regions.116 The proportion of older persons will be double that of children by 2050 in developed regions.117 Even in the least developed countries, where fertility rates are higher than in the developed world, changes in the age distribution will accelerate, with the proportion of children decreasing from 40 percent in 2009 to 27 percent in 2050, and the proportion of persons over 60 increasing from 5 percent in 2009 to 11 percent in 2050.118 The aging of the population around the world has serious consequences. Pensioners will be supported by an increasingly smaller number of workers, resulting in higher taxes or other measures to continue to support older persons.119 While there will be fewer children and thus

106 107

POPULATION 2011, supra note 1, at 30. SIMON, supra note 105, at 229. 108 BEN WATTENBERG, FEWER: HOW THE NEW DEMOGRAPHY OF POPULATION WILL SHAPE OUR FUTURE 8 (2004). “If the average woman in a given country bears three children, the TFR for that country is 3.0.” Id. 109 WATTENBERG, supra note 108, at 5. 110 POPULATION 2011, supra note 1, at 4. 111 WATTENBERG, supra note 108, at 9. The replacement level is 2.1 because it takes two children to replace the mother and father, plus an additional tenth to account for children who do not reach reproductive age. Id. 112 See POPULATION 2011, supra note 1, at 116–21. 113 POPULATION 2011, supra note 1, at 4. 114 WATTENBERG, supra note 108, at 117. See also World Population Ageing 16–17. 115 WATTENBERG, supra note 108, at 117. 116 DEP’T ECON. & SOC. AFFAIRS, WORLD POPULATION AGEING 2009 viii, available at http://www.un.org/esa/ population/publications/WPA2009/WPA2009_WorkingPaper.pdf [hereinafter AGEING]. See also id. at 15. 117 Id. 118 Id. 119 Id. at 2, 17–22. See also WATTENBERG, supra note 108, at 115–33.

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fewer children that depend on society for education, health care, and other financially burdensome costs, those costs are lower than the costs of caring for older persons. 120 Furthermore, a decreasing domestic population means fewer customers, less demand for goods and services and diminished prospects for local and global businesses.121 Economies are also impacted by skill and manpower shortages; fewer workers are available as the population shifts to older age brackets.122 Currently rapidly growing economies such as China, Russia, and India will be adversely affected by falling fertility rates.123 One of the expressed aims of population control programs is to reduce strain on the environment by limiting the number of people using resources and contributing to carbon emissions. In China, however, falling fertility rates due to the one-child policy have negatively impacted the environment.124 In addition to facing the problems of an aging population, China is also in the midst of an environmental crisis.125 Now that parents only have one dependent, the result is that standards of living have increased significantly.126 One-fourth of the population has entered the middle class due to the fact that parents only have to dedicate resources to one child. 127 The Chinese are consuming more food, energy, and goods than ever before, and China has become the world’s leader in carbon dioxide emissions.128 The depletion of natural resources and tremendous increase in pollution in China demonstrates that population reduction is not a means to better environmental stewardship. In fact, it may result in the opposite outcome by disproportionately increasing consumption levels. Thus, the solution cannot simply be to reduce the number of people on Earth, whether through the provision of family planning services or through other means.

B. Violations of international law and the spirit of the Earth Summit
According to William McGurn, journalist and current columnist at the Wall Street Journal, “the idea that development requires poor nations to limit their populations” directly results in the “horrors of population control in Asia”—forced abortion, sterilization, and infanticide.129 The very first principle of the Rio Declaration is that humans are at the center of concerns for sustainable development.130 This means that sustainable development policies and programs must reflect what is best for the person. Furthermore, they must be “in conformity with human

120 121

AGEING, supra note 116, at 2. WATTENBERG, supra note 108, at 136. 122 Nicholas Eberstadt, The Demographic Future: What Population Growth—and Decline—Means for the Global Economy, 89 FOREIGN AFFAIRS 56–58 (Nov./Dec. 2010). 123 Id. at 58–62. 124 See Kenneth R. Weiss, China’s population and economy are a double whammy for the world, L.A. TIMES, July 22, 2012. 125 Id. 126 Id. 127 Id. 128 Id. 129 William McGurn, Population and the Wealth of Nations, FIRST THINGS, Dec. 1996, available at http://www.first things.com/article/2007/11/004-population-and-the-wealth-of-nations-10. 130 Rio Declaration, supra note 6, Principle 1.

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rights and fundamental freedoms and consistent with national laws and cultural and religious values.”131 Policies aimed at coercing people to have fewer children than they would have otherwise, for sustainable development reasons or any other reason, violate Article 16 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), which guarantees women the right “to decide freely and responsibly on the number and spacing of their children.”132 The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights provides in Article 7 that “no one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. In particular, no one shall be subjected without his free consent to medical or scientific experimentation.”133 The Human Rights Committee, which monitors the ICCPR and does not issue binding recommendations or interpretations, has expressed concern about forced sterilization and forced abortion in the context of Article 7.134 Article 7 of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court categorizes “enforced sterilization” as a “crime against humanity.”135 Coercive population control policies are not the only alarming form of population-related policies. A more subtle approach by governments and activists involves attempts to “override” or “manipulat[e] people’s choices through offering them only some opportunities (the means of family planning) while denying others, no matter what they would have themselves preferred.”136 When countries choose to divert funding from other public services to the provision of family planning services, it “reduces the choices open to parents.”137 Instead, a “collaborative” approach respects people’s rational decisions, which they make assisted by public policies focused on education, health, economic well-being, and family planning.138 Where such public policies are in place, people are more able to escape poverty. Populationreduction policies reject the reality that it is poverty, not population, that causes problems. As noted in the 2012 Millennium Development Goals Report, poverty eradication is possible “if the conditions in which extreme poverty thrives continue to be addressed: poor health and lack of education that deprive people of productive employment; environmental resources that have been depleted or spoiled; and corruption, conflict and bad governance that waste public resources and discourage private investment.”139 Reducing the population does not address and ameliorate the root causes of poverty outlined by the report. It only provides a simple equation that does not add up: reducing the number of poor people does not necessarily reduce poverty or its causes.

131 132

JPOI, supra note 9, ¶ 54. CEDAW, supra note 73, art. 16(1)(e). 133 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights art. 7, opened for signature Dec. 19, 1966, 999 U.N.T.S. 171. 134 See Human Rights Committee, General Comment No. 28: Article 3 (The Equality of Rights Between Men and Women), ¶ 11, U.N. Doc. CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.10 (Mar. 29, 2000). 135 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court art. 7, July 17, 1998, 37 I.L.M. 999. 136 Amartya Sen, Population: Delusion and Reality, in THE NINE LIVES OF POPULATION CONTROL 101, 107 (Michael Cromartie ed., 1995). 137 Id. 138 Id. 139 UNITED NATIONS, THE MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS REPORT 7 (2012), available at http://mdgs.un.org/un sd/mdg/Resources/Static/Products/Progress2012/English2012.pdf.

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C. Rational fertility
It is clear that coercive population control is not an appropriate or legal policy for governments. For a number of reasons, it is also unnecessary. Historically, people have been able to make their own rational decisions about the number of children that they have; they have foresight and can evaluate their future abilities to provide for their families.140 The biggest determinant of family size is how many children women say they want.141 People make decisions about family size taking into consideration their own financial situations and the other resources available to them142; this is evidenced by the fact that actual fertility rarely reaches fecundity, or potential fertility.143 This rational exercise of fertility The biggest determinant of family enhances people’s ability to stay out of size is how many children women poverty. They are also able to “alter the say they want. limit” by increasing the resources available to them.144 For example, they build another 145 school when the local school becomes full. People in rural or developing areas often choose to have more children than those in developed areas, and this is not because poor people breed “naturally,” like flies or rats.146 Matthew Connelly, Professor of History at Columbia University, notes, “When many infants do not survive to adolescence, and those who do survive can pay their own way, it is sensible for couples to have many children, especially when they depend on their offspring for support in old age.”147 On the other hand, when children are considered costly, parents choose to have fewer.148

D. The Earth’s greatest resource
In 1980, Paul Ehrlich, author of The Population Bomb, and Julian Simon, then an environmental economist and Professor of Business Administration at the University of Maryland, made a famous wager about the prices of commodity metals over the next ten years.149 In 1990, Simon won the Simon-Ehrlich wager, as he correctly predicted that the prices of the five selected metals would decrease, instead of increase, Ehrlich’s prediction.150 Ehrlich had argued that overpopulation was leading to depletion of the Earth’s resources, and Simon countered that

140

SIMON, supra note 105, at 240. See also Amartya Sen, Population: Delusion and Reality, in THE 9 LIVES OF POPULATION CONTROL 101, 107 (Michael Cromartie ed., 1995). 141 Nicholas Eberstadt, Henry Wendt Chair in Political Economy, American Enterprise Institute, Presentation at the World Youth Alliance International Solidarity Forum (Apr. 17, 2012); Lant H. Pritchett, Desired Fertility and the Impact of Population Policies, 20 POP. & DEV. REV. 1, 2 (Mar. 1994). 142 SIMON, supra note 105, at 240, JACQUELINE KASUN, THE WAR AGAINST POPULATION: THE ECONOMICS AND IDEOLOGY OF POPULATION CONTROL (1988) 61–63. 143 SIMON, supra note 105, at 242. 144 Id. at 240. 145 Id. 146 See SIMON, supra note 105, at 239. 147 MATTHEW CONNELLY, FATAL MISCONCEPTION 23 (2008). See also KASUN, supra note 142, at 63–64. 148 CONNELLY, supra note 147, at 23; KASUN, supra note 142, at 63–64. 149 John Tierney, Betting on the Planet, N.Y. TIMES MAG., Dec. 2, 1990, available at http://www.nytimes.com/ 1990/12/02/magazine/betting-on-the-planet.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm. 150 Id.

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human ingenuity would create substitutes when necessary.151 The result of the wager was an indication that resources are not as scarce as Ehrlich had claimed, given that the population increased by 800 million while the amount of metals on the planet did not increase. 152 One article explains the reason Simon won: Prices fell for the same Cornucopian reasons they had fallen in previous decades – entrepreneurship and continuing technological improvements. Prospectors found new lodes [ . . . ]. Thanks to computers, new machines and new chemical processes, there were more efficient ways to extract and refine the ores for chrome and the other metals. For many uses, the metals were replaced by cheaper materials [ . . . ].153 Julian Simon explained that humans are able to discover “new deposits, new ways of extracting the resource, and new substitutes for the resource.”154 He continued, “And the more people there are, the more minds that are working to discover new sources and increase productivity, with raw materials as with all other goods.”155 This anecdote about the Simon-Ehrlich wager demonstrates Principle 2 of the ICPD Programme of Action, that humanity’s creativity is the Earth’s greatest resource.156 This requires optimism about people and their ability to contribute to the betterment of society, in place of the pessimistic view that growing population results in increased poverty and depletion of natural resources.

E. Humanity’s creativity in action
Julian Simon found that “[t]he most important economic effect of population size and growth is the contribution of additional people to our stock of useful knowledge. And this contribution is great enough in the long run to overcome all “The most important economic effect the costs of population growth.”157 When faced with population-related problems, of population size and growth is the “[w]e will respond to conditions, whether that contribution of additional people to will involve zoning to prevent overcrowding, our stock of useful knowledge. And or adding people—probably immigrants— this contribution is great enough in where people are needed and wanted. We are the long run to overcome all the costs a responsive species.”158 This basic theory— of population growth.” that humans are creators and problem-solvers and respond to challenges with their

151 152

Id. Id. 153 Id. 154 SIMON, supra note 105, at 277. 155 Id. 156 See ICPD Report, supra note 11, Ch. I, Res. 1, Annex, Ch. 2, Principle 2. 157 SIMON, supra note 105, at 257. 158 WATTENBERG, supra note 108, at 157.

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creativity, rather than continuing to “destroy”159—highlights the incredible value of humanity. This human creativity can provide limitless opportunities to eliminate poverty and povertyinduced problems. Human creativity is evident in many areas, and the pattern is the same: as the population increases, there are short-term negative effects as the existing resources are overtaxed. 160 Then human ingenuity steps in and presents solutions.161 For example, in the area of food supply, a growing population drives up prices in the short run because of increased scarcity, but these higher prices attract potential entrepreneurs who create new solutions, which then causes prices to decrease.162 The supply of food has increased,163 despite Ehrlich’s claim that “the world is rapidly running out of food.”164 This increase resulted from improvements in agricultural knowledge due to research and development and from a better transportation network that can deliver food efficiently and quickly.165 An increase in population also corresponds to an increase in agricultural output because of an increase in farmed land.166 The increase in the amount of land that is farmed is people’s response to the need for more food as the population grows.167 This has occurred in Ireland, China, and Burma.168 The amount of available arable land is ever increasing because people improve poor land, including reclaiming wasteland.169 This is combined with increasing productivity of food per unit of land, with higher crop yields, resulting in less need for agricultural land.170 Furthermore, when the population or the income level of a country grows, there is more demand for the invention and development of capital goods, such as machinery, tools, and factories.171 While demand increases due to a larger population, so does supply, because there are more potential inventors and developers of the needed capital goods.172 Since people need tools to create other goods, the introduction of capital goods facilitates the creation and provision of goods and services to the population.173 An increasing population also requires improved transportation infrastructure and networks, and it makes investment in transportation more cost-effective.174 When the population grows, the

159 160

SIMON, supra note 105, at 56. Id. at 73. 161 Id. 162 Id. at 73. 163 Id. at 66; Amartya Sen, Population: Delusion and Reality, in THE 9 LIVES OF POPULATION CONTROL 101, 112–14 (Michael Cromartie ed., 1995). 164 EHRLICH, supra note 45, at 18. 165 SIMON, supra note 105, at 66. 166 Id. at 284. 167 Id. 168 Id. at 284–85. 169 Id. at 97. 170 Id. at 96–97. 171 Id. at 250. 172 Id. 173 Id. 174 Id. at 252–53.

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transportation system is overtaxed, causing problems in the short term.175 However, responding to these conditions, businesses, the government, and private citizens invest in and create new roads and facilities.176 While this is expensive, it ultimately leads to more economic growth and facilitates communications;177 transportation is critical to any economy because it carries products, people, and messages.178 For instance, an effect of improved transportation is a decrease in disease and famine since people have easier and cheaper access to goods.179 On the other hand, where the population is sparse, good transportation is not necessarily economical and thus transportation is consistently poorer in those locations.180

F. Hong Kong
The case of Hong Kong demonstrates that it is not the population or population density of a country that determines its success or lack thereof. For example, Hong Kong was extremely crowded in the 1950s, where “[d]ensity was at a rate of two thousand persons to an acre in single-story huts [with] no sanitation,” yet it is now a symbol of economic development and opportunity.181 William McGurn states that “[t]he lesson Hong Kong teaches is that there is no fixed level of resources, no natural capacity, no predefined limit to what people might do if given the opportunity to exercise the real factors in development: enterprise, creativity, and risk.”182 This combination—enterprise, creativity, and risk—is what has caused economists, rather than promoting population decrease policies, to recognize that “in an open economy individuals produce more than they consume.”183 Economists recognize “the triumph of the human mind when given the freedom to innovate and respond.”184

G. Japan
Japan is another example of a country that attained very high levels of economic growth and development with a high population density,185 little arable land, and virtually no natural resources.186 The emergence of Japan as a global economic powerhouse is largely due to the success of the free market and minimal government intervention in the post-war period.187 According to economist and former Senior Policy Analyst for Heritage Foundation Katsuro Sakoh, the Japanese economy benefits from a high degree of individual freedom that is

175 176

Id. at 253. Id. 177 Id. 178 Id. at 252. 179 Id. at 70, 253. 180 Id. at 253–54. 181 McGurn, supra note 129. 182 Id. 183 Id. 184 Id. 185 See United Nations Statistics Division, World Statistics Pocketbook: Japan, http://data.un.org/CountryProfile. aspx?crName=JAPAN (last visited Oct. 5, 2012). 186 Katsuro Sakoh, Japanese Economic Success: Industrial Policy or Free Market?, 4 CATO J. 521, 537 (1984). 187 Id.

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conducive to the maximization of human capital.188 The flourishing of the economy in post-war Japan came about as a result of the fact that “[f]or the first time practically any Japanese, regardless of age, class, or family background could venture into business, and succeed if the elements of hard work, imagination, willingness to take risks, and luck were present.” 189 Sakoh notes that although favorable international conditions at the time were important contributors to Japan’s success, it was neither the low prices of raw material imports nor the existence of an open world market for Japanese goods that produced the economic miracle. 190 He emphasizes that the success of Japan’s economy is not the result of any government action or external condition, but is instead due to the efforts of thousands of private firms that aggressively set about importing raw materials and exporting finished products.191 Japan’s economy is thus a testament to the power of a well-educated and ambitious workforce that was able to take advantage of the free market to produce tradable goods to sell the world over.

V. A positive approach to achieving sustainable development
Once again, humanity’s creativity is the Earth’s greatest resource192 and humans are at the center of concerns for development.193 People therefore should not be viewed as a burden; although people contribute to pollution and billions around the world live in poverty, the solution is not to eradicate poor people or reduce the world’s population. Instead, the solution is to eradicate poverty. Further, policies that allow creativity to flourish and that put people at the center of development concerns are essential to achieve sustainable development. A true vision of sustainable development takes into consideration population issues, in addition to environmental impact, but with an understanding of the inherent value of people. The following vision of sustainable development does not provide comprehensive, detailed policies, but shows some key areas of concern for governments and societies.

A. The importance of access to capital
Michael Fairbanks, an advisor to President Paul Kagame of Rwanda, proposes a model for prosperity, which he defines as “the ability of an individual, group, or nation to provide shelter, nutrition, and other material goods that enable people to live a good life, according to their own definition.”194 Essential to the achievement of prosperity is access to seven forms of capital: 1. Natural endowments such as location, subsoil assets, forests, beaches, and climate

188 189

See id. Id. 190 See id. at 538. 191 See id. 192 See ICPD Report, supra note 11, Ch. I, Res. 1, Annex, Ch. 2, Principle 2. 193 Rio Declaration, supra note 6, Principle 1. 194 Michael Fairbanks, Changing the Mind of a Nation: Elements in a Process for Creating Prosperity 270, in CULTURE MATTERS: HOW VALUES SHAPE HUMAN PROGRESS (Lawrence E. Harrington & Samuel P. Huntington eds., 2000).

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2. Financial resources of a nation, such as savings and international reserves 3. Humanly made capital, such as buildings, bridges, roads, and telecommunications assets 4. Institutional capital, such as legal protections of tangible and intangible property, efficient government departments, and firms that maximize value to shareholders and compensate and train workers 5. Knowledge resources, such as international patents, and university and think tank capacities 6. Human capital, which represents skills, insights, capabilities 7. Culture capital, which means not only the explicit articulations of culture like music, language, and ritualistic tradition but also attitudes and values that are linked to innovation195 If they are to be prosperous, it is best for people to cultivate and create these forms of capital and to transform lower forms of capital into higher forms of capital. Fairbanks’ model for prosperity is instructive because these forms of capital are essential for sustainable development. If a country is investing in these seven forms of capital, its citizens are better able to lift themselves out of poverty. Capital goods, or humanly made capital, are a requirement for the delivery of goods and services to the population.196 But they are not enough: of critical importance are human capital, which allows for innovation and problem-solving and is the only infinite resource, and institutional capital, which creates conditions favorable to the utilization of human and other forms of capital, and necessarily includes good governance, which ensures that corruption does not block sustainable development. The highest form of capital a country possesses is culture. It is the ideas, beliefs, values, and knowledge that attach meaning to events and make up the mindset that informs each person’s actions. Culture is how one interprets what happens to and around him and determines what to do about it or how to react to it. It is culture that informs how each person uses all other forms of capital. A culture that celebrates new life and welcomes the seven billionth person with open arms is the culture that will also encourage and enable that person to excel and innovate to create a prosperous society that looks forward to the next generation. Development economist Arthur Lewis makes a parallel argument in his 1954 work Economic Development with Unlimited Supplies of Labor.197 Lewis explains that in order for an economy to grow, excess labor must be shifted from the subsistence level (agriculture) to the capitalist sector (manufacturing).198 When this happens, labor is freed up to focus on generating new capital, and the capitalist sector expands.199 With this comes a corresponding increase in technical knowledge, which in turn contributes to the increased productivity of the subsistence sector.200 According to Lewis, poor countries are poor because their capitalist sector is small.201

195 196

Id. See section IV supra. 197 See Arthur W. Lewis, Economic Development with Unlimited Supplies of Labor, 22 MAN. SCHOOL 139 (1954). 198 See id. at 146 – 152. 199 Id. 200 Id at 173. 201 See id at 159.

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If labor could be channeled into this sector, then it would grow, and the national income would subsequently increase.202 Lewis’ model assumes that there is an unlimited supply of labor available at a subsistence wage in many economies.203 As a result, his approach is well-suited to responding to a growing global population given his findings that excess labor can be reallocated from one sector to another to produce economic growth. Like Fairbanks, Lewis presents a positive vision of human capital that can be harnessed to achieve growth and development.

B. Government policies
In order to create a national mindset that spurs the promotion and creation of these forms of capital, countries must have “[a]n understanding that wealth is based on insight, sophisticated human capital, and attitudes focused on competition as a force that spurs innovation and fosters human initiative, learning, interpersonal trust, and cooperation.”204 They must also have “[a]n understanding that [a country’s] strategies are not a choice between economic growth and There must be appropriate political, social equity, but that economic growth legal, and economic systems that facilitates social equity and vice versa. The allow people to be problem-solvers more we invest in people the better the and entrepreneurs—that allow them chances for growth for a company and the 205 nation.” the freedom to take risks and use Most importantly, there must be appropriate develop innovations. political, legal, and economic systems that allow people to be problem-solvers and entrepreneurs206—that allow them the freedom to take risks and use their creativity to propose and develop innovations. Essential components of these systems are “economic liberty, respect for property, and fair and sensible rules of the market that are enforced equally for all.”207 Political rights and economic freedom foster “[t]he ability to conduct one’s life creatively and productively.”208 Doing Business, an annual publication by the World Bank and the International Finance Corporation, presents an overview of business regulation and property rights protection in 183 countries.209 The Report is premised on the idea that “economic activity requires good rules,” and that good governance allowing for ease of doing business is a crucial factor for economic

their creativity to propose and

202 203

Id. Id. at 140. 204 Fairbanks, supra note 194, at 277. 205 Id. 206 See Agenda 21, supra note 7, ¶¶ 30.17–30.30. 207 SIMON, supra note 105, at 278. 208 Indur Goklany, Economic growth and human well-being, in SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT: PROMOTING PROGRESS OR PERPETUATING POVERTY? 20, 22 (Julian Simon ed., 2002). 209 See WORLD BANK & INT’L FIN. CORP., DOING BUSINESS 2012: DOING BUSINESS IN A MORE TRANSPARENT WORLD (2011), available at http://www.doingbusiness.org/~/media/GIAWB/Doing%20Business/Documents/AnnualReports/English/DB12-FullReport.pdf.

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success.210 The basic finding is that countries that are open, free of corruption, and respect property rights, and where it is easy to engage in business and settle legal disputes, allow for the emergence of a profitable business community and thriving economy. 211 The top 20 economies in the world have benefited from the implementation of “effective yet streamlined procedures for regulatory processes such as starting a business [ . . . ] as well as strong legal protections of property rights.”212 The 2012 Doing Business highlights a positive trend in which more and more developing countries have implemented business regulation reforms in recent years, which bodes well for the growth of their economies.213 For example. sub-Saharan Africa changed their economies’ regulatory environment to make it easier for domestic firms to start up.214 36 out of the 46 subSaharan African economies implemented reforms to increase ease of doing business in the period between June 2010 and May 2011.215 Greater streamlining of business procedures and heightened protections for property will undoubtedly result in increased economic development for these countries.

C. Other social conditions
An emphasis on the value of the ingenuity of the human person needs to recognize the human person’s health and education needs, as people are generally not able to exercise their ingenuity if they are plagued by problems resulting from living in poverty. 216 There has already been an incredible increase in the average life expectancy around the world, but people in rural areas and developing countries have a continuing need for the provision of even the most basic health care services.217 The provision of maternal health care services, including prenatal and postnatal care and emergency obstetric care, protects mothers, who serve in their families and communities as caretakers, providers, and teachers, and whose health impacts the health of their children.218 Reproductive health is essential as well, but not because people need to have smaller families, as many NGOs demand.219 Appropriate reproductive health care allows people to determine for themselves the number and spacing of their children, in accordance with the right afforded them by Article 16 of CEDAW,220 and in respect for both their dignity and their reasoning abilities. Meanwhile, education, which is “an end in itself [and] also adds to human capital and can accelerate the creation and diffusion of technology,”221 in addition to skills training, allows

210 211

Id. at 1. See id. at 1–15. 212 Id . at 5. 213 See id.at 2. 214 Id. 215 Id. 216 See Programme for the Further Implementation of Agenda 21, supra note 34, ¶ 30; Beijing Declaration, supra note 12, ¶ 27; ICPD Report, supra note 11, Ch. I, Res. 1, Annex, ¶ 1.1; Agenda 21, supra note 7, ¶ 3.2. 217 See Agenda 21, supra note 7, ¶¶ 6.3–6.9. 218 UNFPA, Safe Motherhood: Stepping Up Efforts to Save Mothers’ Lives, http://www.unfpa.org/public/mothers (June 15, 2012). 219 See section III supra. 220 CEDAW, supra note 73, art. 16(e). 221 Goklany, supra note 208, at 21.

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people to contribute to achieving economic and social development.222 The potential of youth is immeasurable, and investment in young people will produce equally immeasurable returns. Young people aged 24 years and younger currently make up almost half of the world’s 7 billion people, with 1.2 The potential of youth is billion aged 10 to 19 years.223 Investment in immeasurable, and investment in young people involves ensuring that they “be allowed to develop to their full potential young people will produce equally (including healthy physical, mental and immeasurable returns. spiritual development)” and that they “can develop, establish and maintain healthy lives.”224 Youth are disproportionately burdened by economic problems, particularly unemployment.225 Access to educational opportunities and skills training is thus essential to provide them what they need to succeed.226

VI. Conclusion
Efforts to achieve sustainable development must put the needs of the human person first. In order to “meet[ ] the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs,”227 these efforts must focus on eliminating poverty in order to enable people to live in conditions in which they can flourish. To do so, people must have access to the resources they need to utilize their ingenuity and to make the best decisions for themselves. These resources include access to education, health care, and skills training, and there must be policies that promote the creation of the seven forms of capital, particularly reinvesting gains from lower forms of capital to create higher forms of capital. On the other hand, coercive population policies or policies that emphasize and encourage the reduction of the population are never appropriate because they cannot create solutions to the problems posed by poverty. Governments and societies must choose to invest in the potential of people instead of promoting a world that has fewer people. People are not the problem. People are the solution.

222 223

See Agenda 21, supra note 7, ¶¶ 3.2, 3.6, 3.8(q). POPULATION 2011, supra note 1, at 10. 224 Agenda 21, supra note 7, ¶ 6.23. 225 See Agenda 21, supra note 7, ¶ 6.20; International Year of Youth, Fact sheet: Youth employment, available at http://social.un.org/youthyear/docs/youth-employment.pdf. 226 See, e.g., ICPD Report, supra note 11, Ch. I, Res. 1, Annex, ¶¶ 6.14. 11.4. 227 Our Common Future, supra note 14, Ch. 2, ¶ 1.