The Discords Of The 1849 Chinese Immigrants In California
The Discords of the 1849 Chinese Immigrants in California
The California Gold Rush was one of most monumental events in the history of the United States. It was responsible for shaping the foundation of the modern class and social system while also creating the first big immigrant trend after the colonial period. The events which followed James W Marshall’s discovery of gold in Coloma, California during the year of 1848 were important not only because of the fact that it generated the expatriation of approximately 300,000 people (who were commonly referred to as the 49er’s to signify their arrival during 1849) to the state of California but also made San Francisco grow from a small settlement of around 200 people to a boomtown …show more content…
of about 36000 people by 1852 and the immigrants helped forge the modern American culture that is eminent today.1 The massive expansion of population in California also helped designate California as a state by transpiring the creation of the Compromise of 1850.2 One of the most important aspects of the Gold Rush was the immigration process and the benefits along with problems it brought. None of the development of the contemporary American culture along with the geography of the Western US could have developed to the place it is today without the colossal influx of immigrants from Asia, specifically China. While these immigrants initially planned to make their fortune in the United States and then travel back to their native country to spend their wealth, many of them were stranded in the United States because of the competitiveness of gold mining and therefore settled in California and pursued numerous careers. The Chinese were faced with stiff oppression in California because of the competitiveness of the jobs during the antebellum era and also due to the extremely different cultural traits that the two communities possessed. Eventually in 1882, President Chester Arthur prohibited the entry of any more Chinese immigrants and effectively closed the doors for any more Chinese emigrants by passing the Chinese Exclusion Act.3 Even though that the Chinese were met by stiff oppression in the 19th century in California, they managed to craft a unique community become successful by taking up jobs that Americans did not wish to do while living in extremely substandard circumstances.
An important aspect of the Chinese immigration trend in the 1800s was the way that the Chinese population viewed California and the opportunities that it provided.
The Chinese immigrants did not solely choose to immigrate to the United States because of the financial prosperity that the democratic society offered, but also by the rising social and political tensions that China faced in the 1800s. The decline of imperial China caused the political structure of the government to reshape rapidly and resulted in violence and economic insecurity. The first and second opium wars devastated the people of the Qing Empire as China was regarded as an invincible power before it’s defeat. Because of the loss, many people looked to reform away from China’s traditionalist and anti-modern roots but were prosecuted by the Qing Empress, Cixi. Because of the Empress’s unwillingness to develop modern technologies and reform the Chinese’s tradition ways of life, the society atrophied during the 1800’s and was plagued by defeats with wars against other countries. The sense of nationalism faltered in China and thus many people determined to create better lives elsewhere. The news of gold in California presented a valuable opportunity for those struggling in China and is the reason why the overwhelming majority of the 1849 immigrants were Chinese. 4 The Chinese immigrants overwhelmingly chose California as their new home because of the economic opportunity that it presented itself as. However, the majority of the Chinese immigrants did not view California as a permanent home but rather as a short-term residence that would allow them to acquire enough currency to support a better lifestyle in China. The Chinese managed to learn about the Gold Rush in China through trading vessels that spread the news of the discovery of gold throughout Mainland China. Interestingly, the news spread with just word of the mouth instead of advertisements and most importantly, none of the information were
reliable or verified. This caused some potential immigrants to be fearful of the conditions in California because instead of information coming from trustworthy authority, they had to put their faith into a foreign country which the Chinese previously had bad experiences with during the Opium War. Although this capricious nature of the news of the gold rush was a disincentive for many prospective emigrants, it did not stop some 25000 Chinese men who had ventured to the US by 1850, the first year of seceding the Gold Rush.5
The only way from China to America during the 19th century was a brutal two month long boat ride that killed the majority of immigrants who travelled aboard. "Some Chinese emigrants had come to California in sailing ships even before the discovery of gold. American brig 'Eagle ' was the first vessel to bring Chinese settlers to California. Even at its best the trip from China to California in sailing ships must have been miserable. The poor people were herded in the hold of the ship like a flock of sheep, with no sanitation; their food consisted of a rice cooked in water with some pork fat. Water was very scarce as the ship did not have huge water tanks; on long trips they depended on rain after the initial supply of water ran out. The Chinese were permitted to come on deck in small numbers when the weather was good, but during heavy wind and waves they remained in the hold of the ship with almost no light, save the little that came through the openings for air. In storms even those openings were tightly closed and the people in the hold remained in utter darkness till the storm abated. In the darkness, with ship rolling, the Chinese were thrown against the side of the ship and on top of each other. Even during a trip with fair weather, many Chinese emigrants died and were thrown into the sea. If the ship sank during the storm everyone in the hold was drowned. How many died and drowned will never be known." 6 This quote comes from one American sailor’s recount of the circumstances of the trip. When the Chinese did arrive in California, the immigrants were subject to cruel administrative processes that the Californian state imposed such as erratic and overkill medical scrutiny that often lasted for months.
The relationship between the Americans and the Chinese was not prosperous as it is plagued by mistrust and rivalry. The compelling encounter between the Asian immigrants and the Americans could be traced back to the unhealthy relationship that has sprouted between the two communities during the conflicts of the first and second Opium War during the 1840’s. The Americans believed that the Chinese people were a crude and underdeveloped race and set out to make sure that they could not take over the employment and social opportunities that are reserved for the American people. Moreover, the Americans concluded that the social and economic problems in China would manifest itself in California if the Chinese managed to become to big a part of the Society. These Chinese unskilled laborers provided many aspects of industry that the Americans could not for the local culture. One of the major reasons why the Chinese were successful economically in the US was their ability to work for far less profit than the Americans would and also started up areas of industry that were not prominent in the mid 1800’s. Because that most Chinese did not bring their families along with them, they had to work for whatever wages was offered and thus could provide service for a much lower amount than the non-Chinese could.7
It is interesting to note, however, that the first group of Chinese who immigrated to the US before the Gold Rush era who were wealthy merchants bonded well with the American population. It was only the gold miners who undermined this alliance because of their competition for the local workmen.
The way of living in the United States was far different than what the Chinese planned. In the 1850’s, the gold mining business was a highly fierce one and was generally dominated by white southern corporations and gold farms. During the antebellum period, the Southern whites were generally hostile towards the Chinese and often used violence to drive them away from the business. Moreover, a number of laws that imposed numerous taxes on the foreign miners further thwarted Chinese gold mining operations. Due to the drawbacks of mining in California, the Chinese rather had to take on jobs such as cooking, peddling and those that do not require an extensive skillset. The immigrants soon replaced the white population working in the worst paying jobs of the society that many deemed to be too dirty and tiresome. However, by 1870, when the gold mines were mostly exhausted, the Americans spurred sentiment that the immigrants are playing too big of a role in the economy and that the Americans are not getting enough jobs.8 Because racial factors were deemed to be the catalyst of the decaying gold mines, the government eventually set up numerous immigration laws in response to the Americans. The Chinese Exclusion act of 1882 was passed by the parliament due the fears of overpopulation as well as the diminishing of American fertility in the economy. The act fundamentally prohibited any future Chinese immigrants from becoming residents of the United States. It was the first time that a federal law has been placed to restrict and oppress against a specific ethnic group on the premise that they are endangering the prosperity of the local ethnic group. The Magnuson Act eventually repealed the act in 1943, during a time when China was an ally of the United States in WWII against Japan.9
The Chinese managed to occupy employment positions that the Americans did not wish to engage in because of the low pay and dehumanizing work. The Chinese crafted a very immense and complex prostitution and drug manufacturing business that was so profitable that the business inundated almost 68% of all Chinese women in the US by 1870 to work as prostitutes.10 These brothels were found in vastly different places such as mining outposts, railroad camps and Chinatowns. The situation of life for the prostitutes also was incredibly diverse as the ‘high grade’ prostitutes were endorsed in lavish clothing and diets so that they may appeal more for the wealthy clients. However, the prostitutes who worked in the slums were savagely beaten and treated virtually like slaves. So why was the prostitution business so attractive for the Chinese women? In reality, the vast majority of the prostitutes did not willingly enter the business despite the moderately high pay. The preponderance of prostitutes was instead forced by the economic and social hardships in China at the time. Poor families would sell their daughters into servitude for small exchanges of money, often for sums around 150$.11 Others could be kidnapped and captured off the streets by Chinese gangs and be forced to work. In whichever case, the condition of life for these prostitutes were dreadful and their life expectance for the career was a mere 5 years.12 If the women did not die by the age that was considerable to be young, they would often be sold as wives to the local Chinese men. These operations were ran mostly by gangs and organizations that were all intertwined with the Chinese community. However, at the heart of the community resides the Six Companies, which was a major organization that dealt with a myriad of diplomatic issues and provided services of it’s own. What was important about the Six Companies was that it regulated the situation of life for those who resided in the Chinese communities.
The Chinese participated in an array of labor projects such as the construction of the First Transcontinental railroad and were underpaid to accomplish tasks that white Americans would not take up. The Chinese workers would be paid 27 dollars a month minus the cost of living in the dwells that the workers have constructed next to the railroads, contrasted to the 35 to 40 dollar wage that the Americans would be normally paid.13 The condition of life while working on the railroad was harsh and long. The Chinese workers had to conquer vastly changing landscapes and also survive the cruel weather conditions. Many Chinese perished during the construction of the railroad and even when they worked to their fullest they would still be subject to racial discrimination and be berated for not working hard enough by their American project leaders. The Chinese also participated in a myriad of labor projects other than the transcontinental railroad such as the construction of the Earthen and Chabot Dam, during which they were too faced with discrimination and rough working conditions.
To endure the hardships that the Chinese faced, the immigrants created communities in their worksites and lived the way they did back in China, including wearing traditional Chinese garbs and cooking customary cuisine. This caused even more racial tension between the white workers and the Chinese workers due to the incompatibility of cultures and the cultural shock that many Americans experienced when seeing the Chinese establish vast communities in workplaces. This practically laid the foundation of the Yellow Peril which manifested itself clearly by the end of the 1800’s and resulted in numerous legislative laws being imposed limiting the Chinese’s role in the American society.14 The differences between the cultures include many different aspects of life. The Chinese placed a strong value in a collectivist conception of self. They were highly cooperative in California and managed to create strong bonds in communities due to the destitution that they faced, sacrificing individual success for the better of the community. The Americans, on the other hand, wanted an individualist society, with heuristic and placed individuality ahead of cooperative work. These fundamental different views of the way society should function undermined relationships between the two societies and created inevitable friction.
While the Chinese Immigrants were met with fierce maltreatment and did not live the American dream but had to take up cruel jobs that did not pay well, they managed to create opportunities for themselves and forge many important projects that are the fundamentals of American prosperity such as the transcontinental railway and the mining industry. Because of the differences in the way of living, they were also subject to unfair legislative burdens that were placed to restrict the growth of Chinese immigrants. Ultimately, they managed to create opportunities for themselves despite the defective circumstances that they were in.
Prospectus:
Sources: http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=47 http://ocp.hul.harvard.edu/immigration/goldrush.html http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/goldrush/peopleevents/p_chinese.html http://www.sfmuseum.net/hist6/chinhate.html http://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/connections/chinese-cal/history.html http://www.dartmouth.edu/~hist32/History/S02%20-%20Early%20Chinese%20Prostitution.htm http://www.calisphere.universityofcalifornia.edu/calcultures/ethnic_groups/subtopic2a.html http://www.goldenventuremovie.com/Chinese_Immigration.htm http://history.state.gov/milestones/1866-1898/chinese-immigration http://library.thinkquest.org/20619/Chinese.html http://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/connections/chinese-cal/history.html Primary source: Letters and diary entries: http://www.library.ca.gov/goldrush/
Bibliography
Cole, L. Cheryl."Chinese Exclusion: The Capitalist Perspective of the Sacramento Union, 1850-1882".California History, Vol. 57, No. 1, The Chinese in California (Spring, 1978), pp. 8-31. Published by: California Historical Society
Elaine Low, “An Unnoticed Struggle”, Japanese Americans Citizen League. http://www.jacl.org/public_policy/documents/An%20Unnoticed%20Struggle.pdf "For Teacher - An Introduction to Asian American History". Apa.si.edu. 19 February 1942. Accessed December 24th, 2013. http://apa.si.edu/Curriculum%20Guide-Final/teacherhistory.htm Henry Norton, The Museum of the City of San Francisco, “The Chinese”, Accessed December 24th, 2013. http://www.sfmuseum.net/hist6/chinhate.html Joshua, Paddison. University of California, "Gold Rush, Statehood, and the Western Movement." Last modified 03 04, 2006. Accessed December 23, 2013. http://www.calisphere.universityofcalifornia.edu/calcultures/eras/era4.html.
Joseph, Spivalo, ed. s.v. "Chinese and Westward Expansion." Undated. http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/cic:@field(DOCID+@lit(brk4877))
Library of Congress, "The Chinese In California: 1850-1925." Accessed December 24, 2013. http://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/connections/chinese-cal/history.html. Mohini Sridharan, Dartmouth College, “Prostitution in the Early Chinese Community”, Accessed Decemeber 23, 2013. http://www.dartmouth.edu/~hist32/History/S02%20%20Early%20Chinese%20Prostitution.htm Out of Many, 5th Edition Volume 1, Faragher 2006
PBS, "Workers of the Central Pacific Railroad." Accessed December 24, 2013. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/general-article/tcrr-cprr/) .
W. J. Spillman (January 1904). "ADJUSTMENT OF THE TEXAS BOUNDARY IN 1850.". Quarterly of the Texas State Historical Association 7.
Word Press,“Chinese Prostitution in America in the Late 1800s & Social Perception in Regards to Cultural Attitudes and Filial Piety”, Accessed December 23, 2013 http://scientiasexualis.wordpress.com/2010/07/15/chinese-prostitution-in-america-in-the-late-1800s-social-perception-in-regards-to-cultural-attitudes-and-filial-piety/ United States Office of the Historian, “Chinese Immigration and the Chinese Exclusion Acts”, Accessed December 24th, 2013.
http://history.state.gov/milestones/1866-1898/chinese-immigration/
The California Gold Rush was one of most monumental events in the history of the United States. It was responsible for shaping the foundation of the modern class and social system while also creating the first big immigrant trend after the colonial period. The events which followed James W Marshall’s discovery of gold in Coloma, California during the year of 1848 were important not only because of the fact that it generated the expatriation of approximately 300,000 people (who were commonly referred to as the 49er’s to signify their arrival during 1849) to the state of California but also made San Francisco grow from a small settlement of around 200 people to a boomtown …show more content…
of about 36000 people by 1852 and the immigrants helped forge the modern American culture that is eminent today.1 The massive expansion of population in California also helped designate California as a state by transpiring the creation of the Compromise of 1850.2 One of the most important aspects of the Gold Rush was the immigration process and the benefits along with problems it brought. None of the development of the contemporary American culture along with the geography of the Western US could have developed to the place it is today without the colossal influx of immigrants from Asia, specifically China. While these immigrants initially planned to make their fortune in the United States and then travel back to their native country to spend their wealth, many of them were stranded in the United States because of the competitiveness of gold mining and therefore settled in California and pursued numerous careers. The Chinese were faced with stiff oppression in California because of the competitiveness of the jobs during the antebellum era and also due to the extremely different cultural traits that the two communities possessed. Eventually in 1882, President Chester Arthur prohibited the entry of any more Chinese immigrants and effectively closed the doors for any more Chinese emigrants by passing the Chinese Exclusion Act.3 Even though that the Chinese were met by stiff oppression in the 19th century in California, they managed to craft a unique community become successful by taking up jobs that Americans did not wish to do while living in extremely substandard circumstances.
An important aspect of the Chinese immigration trend in the 1800s was the way that the Chinese population viewed California and the opportunities that it provided.
The Chinese immigrants did not solely choose to immigrate to the United States because of the financial prosperity that the democratic society offered, but also by the rising social and political tensions that China faced in the 1800s. The decline of imperial China caused the political structure of the government to reshape rapidly and resulted in violence and economic insecurity. The first and second opium wars devastated the people of the Qing Empire as China was regarded as an invincible power before it’s defeat. Because of the loss, many people looked to reform away from China’s traditionalist and anti-modern roots but were prosecuted by the Qing Empress, Cixi. Because of the Empress’s unwillingness to develop modern technologies and reform the Chinese’s tradition ways of life, the society atrophied during the 1800’s and was plagued by defeats with wars against other countries. The sense of nationalism faltered in China and thus many people determined to create better lives elsewhere. The news of gold in California presented a valuable opportunity for those struggling in China and is the reason why the overwhelming majority of the 1849 immigrants were Chinese. 4 The Chinese immigrants overwhelmingly chose California as their new home because of the economic opportunity that it presented itself as. However, the majority of the Chinese immigrants did not view California as a permanent home but rather as a short-term residence that would allow them to acquire enough currency to support a better lifestyle in China. The Chinese managed to learn about the Gold Rush in China through trading vessels that spread the news of the discovery of gold throughout Mainland China. Interestingly, the news spread with just word of the mouth instead of advertisements and most importantly, none of the information were
reliable or verified. This caused some potential immigrants to be fearful of the conditions in California because instead of information coming from trustworthy authority, they had to put their faith into a foreign country which the Chinese previously had bad experiences with during the Opium War. Although this capricious nature of the news of the gold rush was a disincentive for many prospective emigrants, it did not stop some 25000 Chinese men who had ventured to the US by 1850, the first year of seceding the Gold Rush.5
The only way from China to America during the 19th century was a brutal two month long boat ride that killed the majority of immigrants who travelled aboard. "Some Chinese emigrants had come to California in sailing ships even before the discovery of gold. American brig 'Eagle ' was the first vessel to bring Chinese settlers to California. Even at its best the trip from China to California in sailing ships must have been miserable. The poor people were herded in the hold of the ship like a flock of sheep, with no sanitation; their food consisted of a rice cooked in water with some pork fat. Water was very scarce as the ship did not have huge water tanks; on long trips they depended on rain after the initial supply of water ran out. The Chinese were permitted to come on deck in small numbers when the weather was good, but during heavy wind and waves they remained in the hold of the ship with almost no light, save the little that came through the openings for air. In storms even those openings were tightly closed and the people in the hold remained in utter darkness till the storm abated. In the darkness, with ship rolling, the Chinese were thrown against the side of the ship and on top of each other. Even during a trip with fair weather, many Chinese emigrants died and were thrown into the sea. If the ship sank during the storm everyone in the hold was drowned. How many died and drowned will never be known." 6 This quote comes from one American sailor’s recount of the circumstances of the trip. When the Chinese did arrive in California, the immigrants were subject to cruel administrative processes that the Californian state imposed such as erratic and overkill medical scrutiny that often lasted for months.
The relationship between the Americans and the Chinese was not prosperous as it is plagued by mistrust and rivalry. The compelling encounter between the Asian immigrants and the Americans could be traced back to the unhealthy relationship that has sprouted between the two communities during the conflicts of the first and second Opium War during the 1840’s. The Americans believed that the Chinese people were a crude and underdeveloped race and set out to make sure that they could not take over the employment and social opportunities that are reserved for the American people. Moreover, the Americans concluded that the social and economic problems in China would manifest itself in California if the Chinese managed to become to big a part of the Society. These Chinese unskilled laborers provided many aspects of industry that the Americans could not for the local culture. One of the major reasons why the Chinese were successful economically in the US was their ability to work for far less profit than the Americans would and also started up areas of industry that were not prominent in the mid 1800’s. Because that most Chinese did not bring their families along with them, they had to work for whatever wages was offered and thus could provide service for a much lower amount than the non-Chinese could.7
It is interesting to note, however, that the first group of Chinese who immigrated to the US before the Gold Rush era who were wealthy merchants bonded well with the American population. It was only the gold miners who undermined this alliance because of their competition for the local workmen.
The way of living in the United States was far different than what the Chinese planned. In the 1850’s, the gold mining business was a highly fierce one and was generally dominated by white southern corporations and gold farms. During the antebellum period, the Southern whites were generally hostile towards the Chinese and often used violence to drive them away from the business. Moreover, a number of laws that imposed numerous taxes on the foreign miners further thwarted Chinese gold mining operations. Due to the drawbacks of mining in California, the Chinese rather had to take on jobs such as cooking, peddling and those that do not require an extensive skillset. The immigrants soon replaced the white population working in the worst paying jobs of the society that many deemed to be too dirty and tiresome. However, by 1870, when the gold mines were mostly exhausted, the Americans spurred sentiment that the immigrants are playing too big of a role in the economy and that the Americans are not getting enough jobs.8 Because racial factors were deemed to be the catalyst of the decaying gold mines, the government eventually set up numerous immigration laws in response to the Americans. The Chinese Exclusion act of 1882 was passed by the parliament due the fears of overpopulation as well as the diminishing of American fertility in the economy. The act fundamentally prohibited any future Chinese immigrants from becoming residents of the United States. It was the first time that a federal law has been placed to restrict and oppress against a specific ethnic group on the premise that they are endangering the prosperity of the local ethnic group. The Magnuson Act eventually repealed the act in 1943, during a time when China was an ally of the United States in WWII against Japan.9
The Chinese managed to occupy employment positions that the Americans did not wish to engage in because of the low pay and dehumanizing work. The Chinese crafted a very immense and complex prostitution and drug manufacturing business that was so profitable that the business inundated almost 68% of all Chinese women in the US by 1870 to work as prostitutes.10 These brothels were found in vastly different places such as mining outposts, railroad camps and Chinatowns. The situation of life for the prostitutes also was incredibly diverse as the ‘high grade’ prostitutes were endorsed in lavish clothing and diets so that they may appeal more for the wealthy clients. However, the prostitutes who worked in the slums were savagely beaten and treated virtually like slaves. So why was the prostitution business so attractive for the Chinese women? In reality, the vast majority of the prostitutes did not willingly enter the business despite the moderately high pay. The preponderance of prostitutes was instead forced by the economic and social hardships in China at the time. Poor families would sell their daughters into servitude for small exchanges of money, often for sums around 150$.11 Others could be kidnapped and captured off the streets by Chinese gangs and be forced to work. In whichever case, the condition of life for these prostitutes were dreadful and their life expectance for the career was a mere 5 years.12 If the women did not die by the age that was considerable to be young, they would often be sold as wives to the local Chinese men. These operations were ran mostly by gangs and organizations that were all intertwined with the Chinese community. However, at the heart of the community resides the Six Companies, which was a major organization that dealt with a myriad of diplomatic issues and provided services of it’s own. What was important about the Six Companies was that it regulated the situation of life for those who resided in the Chinese communities.
The Chinese participated in an array of labor projects such as the construction of the First Transcontinental railroad and were underpaid to accomplish tasks that white Americans would not take up. The Chinese workers would be paid 27 dollars a month minus the cost of living in the dwells that the workers have constructed next to the railroads, contrasted to the 35 to 40 dollar wage that the Americans would be normally paid.13 The condition of life while working on the railroad was harsh and long. The Chinese workers had to conquer vastly changing landscapes and also survive the cruel weather conditions. Many Chinese perished during the construction of the railroad and even when they worked to their fullest they would still be subject to racial discrimination and be berated for not working hard enough by their American project leaders. The Chinese also participated in a myriad of labor projects other than the transcontinental railroad such as the construction of the Earthen and Chabot Dam, during which they were too faced with discrimination and rough working conditions.
To endure the hardships that the Chinese faced, the immigrants created communities in their worksites and lived the way they did back in China, including wearing traditional Chinese garbs and cooking customary cuisine. This caused even more racial tension between the white workers and the Chinese workers due to the incompatibility of cultures and the cultural shock that many Americans experienced when seeing the Chinese establish vast communities in workplaces. This practically laid the foundation of the Yellow Peril which manifested itself clearly by the end of the 1800’s and resulted in numerous legislative laws being imposed limiting the Chinese’s role in the American society.14 The differences between the cultures include many different aspects of life. The Chinese placed a strong value in a collectivist conception of self. They were highly cooperative in California and managed to create strong bonds in communities due to the destitution that they faced, sacrificing individual success for the better of the community. The Americans, on the other hand, wanted an individualist society, with heuristic and placed individuality ahead of cooperative work. These fundamental different views of the way society should function undermined relationships between the two societies and created inevitable friction.
While the Chinese Immigrants were met with fierce maltreatment and did not live the American dream but had to take up cruel jobs that did not pay well, they managed to create opportunities for themselves and forge many important projects that are the fundamentals of American prosperity such as the transcontinental railway and the mining industry. Because of the differences in the way of living, they were also subject to unfair legislative burdens that were placed to restrict the growth of Chinese immigrants. Ultimately, they managed to create opportunities for themselves despite the defective circumstances that they were in.
Prospectus:
Sources: http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=47 http://ocp.hul.harvard.edu/immigration/goldrush.html http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/goldrush/peopleevents/p_chinese.html http://www.sfmuseum.net/hist6/chinhate.html http://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/connections/chinese-cal/history.html http://www.dartmouth.edu/~hist32/History/S02%20-%20Early%20Chinese%20Prostitution.htm http://www.calisphere.universityofcalifornia.edu/calcultures/ethnic_groups/subtopic2a.html http://www.goldenventuremovie.com/Chinese_Immigration.htm http://history.state.gov/milestones/1866-1898/chinese-immigration http://library.thinkquest.org/20619/Chinese.html http://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/connections/chinese-cal/history.html Primary source: Letters and diary entries: http://www.library.ca.gov/goldrush/
Bibliography
Cole, L. Cheryl."Chinese Exclusion: The Capitalist Perspective of the Sacramento Union, 1850-1882".California History, Vol. 57, No. 1, The Chinese in California (Spring, 1978), pp. 8-31. Published by: California Historical Society
Elaine Low, “An Unnoticed Struggle”, Japanese Americans Citizen League. http://www.jacl.org/public_policy/documents/An%20Unnoticed%20Struggle.pdf "For Teacher - An Introduction to Asian American History". Apa.si.edu. 19 February 1942. Accessed December 24th, 2013. http://apa.si.edu/Curriculum%20Guide-Final/teacherhistory.htm Henry Norton, The Museum of the City of San Francisco, “The Chinese”, Accessed December 24th, 2013. http://www.sfmuseum.net/hist6/chinhate.html Joshua, Paddison. University of California, "Gold Rush, Statehood, and the Western Movement." Last modified 03 04, 2006. Accessed December 23, 2013. http://www.calisphere.universityofcalifornia.edu/calcultures/eras/era4.html.
Joseph, Spivalo, ed. s.v. "Chinese and Westward Expansion." Undated. http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/cic:@field(DOCID+@lit(brk4877))
Library of Congress, "The Chinese In California: 1850-1925." Accessed December 24, 2013. http://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/connections/chinese-cal/history.html. Mohini Sridharan, Dartmouth College, “Prostitution in the Early Chinese Community”, Accessed Decemeber 23, 2013. http://www.dartmouth.edu/~hist32/History/S02%20%20Early%20Chinese%20Prostitution.htm Out of Many, 5th Edition Volume 1, Faragher 2006
PBS, "Workers of the Central Pacific Railroad." Accessed December 24, 2013. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/general-article/tcrr-cprr/) .
W. J. Spillman (January 1904). "ADJUSTMENT OF THE TEXAS BOUNDARY IN 1850.". Quarterly of the Texas State Historical Association 7.
Word Press,“Chinese Prostitution in America in the Late 1800s & Social Perception in Regards to Cultural Attitudes and Filial Piety”, Accessed December 23, 2013 http://scientiasexualis.wordpress.com/2010/07/15/chinese-prostitution-in-america-in-the-late-1800s-social-perception-in-regards-to-cultural-attitudes-and-filial-piety/ United States Office of the Historian, “Chinese Immigration and the Chinese Exclusion Acts”, Accessed December 24th, 2013.
http://history.state.gov/milestones/1866-1898/chinese-immigration/