The Historic Evolution (Ob Theory)

What is OB
Organizational Behavior’ can be defined as the study of what people think, feel, and do in and around organizations. The study of Organizational Behavior facilitates the process of explaining, understanding, predicting, maintaining, and changing employee behavior in an organizational setting. The value of organizational behavior is that it isolates important aspects of the manager’s job and offers specific perspective on the human side of management :

* people as organizations * people as resources, * people as people.
The historical Evolution of OB 1. Early practice- around 1700-1900 2. Classical practice around 1900-1930 3. Behavioral era- around 1930-1950 4. Behabioural science theorist
Early practice- around 1700-1900
Major influence in shaping the direction and boundaries of OB: * Adam Smith * Charles Babbage * Robert Owen
ADAM SMITH
Adam Smith is more typically cited by economists for his contributions to classical economic doctrine, but his discussion in The Wealth of Nations, published in 1776, included a brilliant argument on the economic advantages that organizations and society would reap from the division of labor (also called work specialization) .Smith used the pin-manufacturing industry for his examples. He noted that 10 individuals, each doing specialized task, could produce about 48,000 pins a day among them. He proposed, however, that if each were working separately and independently, the 10 workers together would be lucky to make 10 pins in one day .If each had to draw the wire, straighten it, cut it, pound heads for each pin, sharpen the point, and solder the head and pin shaft, it would be quite a feat to produce 10 pins a day!
Smith concluded that division of labor raised productivity by increasing each worker’s skill and dexterity, by saving time that is commonly lost in changing tasks, and by encouraging the creation of labor-saving inventions and machinery .The extensive development of assembly-line production processes during the twentieth century was undoubtedly stimulated by the economic advantages of work specialization cited over 2 centuries ago
Advantages of division of labour * Raised productivity by increasing each workers skill and dexterity * Saved time lost in changing tsaks * Helped in creation of labour saving invention and machinery

CHARLES BABBAGE
Charles Babbage was a British mathematics professor who expanded on the virtues of division of labor first articulated by Adam Smith .In his book On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures, published in 1832; Babbage added the following to Smith’s list of the advantages that accrue from division of labor.
1.It reduces the time needed for learning a job.
2.It reduces the waste of material during the learning stage.
3.It allows for the attainment of high skill levels.
4.It allows a more careful matching of people’s skills and physical abilities with specific tasks.
Moreover, Babbage proposed that the economies from specialization should be as relevant to doing, mental work as physical labor. Today, for example, we take specialization for granted among professionals. When we have a skin rash, we go to a dermatologist .When we buy a home, we consult a lawyer who specializes in real estates tax accounting, entrepreneurship, marketing research, and organization behavior .These applications of division of labor were unheard of in eighteenth century England .But contemporary organizations around the World—in both manufacturing and service industries –make wide use of division of labor
ROBERT OWEN
Robert Owen was a Welsh entrepreneur who bought his first factory in 1789, at the age of 18. He is important in the history of OB because he was one of the first industrialists to recognize how that growing factory system was demeaning to workers.
Repulsed by the harsh practices he saw in factories—such as the employment of young children (many under the age of 10 with 13- hour workdays, and miserable working conditions—Owen became a reformer. He chided factory owners for treating their equipment better than their employees. He criticized them for buying the best machines but then employing the cheapest labor to run them. Owen argued that money spent on improving labor was one of the best investments that business executives could make. He claimed that showing concern for employees both was profitable for management and would relieve human misery.
For his time, Owen was an idealist. What he proposed was a utopian workplace that would reduce the sufferings of the working class. He was more than a hundred years ahead of his time when he argued, in 1852, * for regulated hours of work for all, * child labor laws, * public education, * company-furnished meals at work, * business involvement in community projects.
The history which has become a past now shows how each management wizard contributed towards welfare of employees, their working conditions and hence eventually increasing the productivity.
The classical era
First general theories of management began to evolve. The classical contributors who laid the foundation for contemporary management practice were 1. Frederick Taylor 2. Henry Ford 3. Henry Fayol 4. Max webber 5. Mary parker Follet 6. Chester barnard
Frederick Taylor
His main focus was on finding one best way of doing a job. He gave importance on selecting the right people for the right job and train them to do the job in one best way. His scientific principles of management highlighted the following principles
• Shift all responsibility for the organizational work from worker to manager.
• Use scientific methods to find the most efficient way of doing work.
• Select the best person to do the job.
• Train the worker to do the work effectively.
• Observe the performance of workers to make sure that proper work methods are used and correct results are obtained.
Frederick Taylor four principles of management or scientific management

1.They develop a science for each element of a man's work, which replaces the old rule-of-thumb method.
2. They scientifically select and then train, teach, and develop the workman, whereas in the past he chose his own work and trained himself as best he could.
3. They heartily cooperate with the men so as to insure all of the work being done in accordance with the principles of the science which has been developed.
4. There is an almost equal division of the work and the responsibility between the management and the workmen. The management take over all work for which they are better fitted than the workmen, while in the past almost all of the work and the greater part of the responsibility were thrown upon the men.
Henry Ford
Fordism, named after Henry Ford, is a modern economic and social system based on industrial mass production. The concept is used in various social theories about production and related socio-economic phenomena. In a Fordist system the worker is paid relatively high wages in order to buy in large quantity the products turned out in mass production. Ford introduced the first assembly line to small automobile factory and with it began the era of mass production.
Fordism
* Applied taylorism into production * The pace of assembly line was determined the rate of productivity * The workers had to adjust to that pace- performing simple operations last few seconds as the line passed him
Henry Fayol
He was a mining engineer and a manager by profession. He defined the nature and working patterns of twentieth century organizations in his book. General and Industrial Management published in 1916.In this book 14 principles of management are defined.
They are-—

Adminsitrative theory by Henry Fayol
Principles of Management 1. Division of work. This principle is the same as Adam Smith's 'division of labour'. Specialisation increases output by making employees more efficient. 2. Authority. Managers must be able to give orders. Authority gives them this right. Note that responsibility arises wherever authority is exercised. 3. Discipline. Employees must obey and respect the rules that govern the organization. Good discipline is the result of effective leadership, a clear understanding between management and workers regarding the organization's rules, and the judicious use of penalties for infractions of the rules. 4. Unity of command. Every employee should receive orders from only one superior. like from top to bottom in an organization. 5. Unity of direction. Each group of organisational activities that have the same objective should be directed by one manager using one plan. 6. Subordination of individual interests to the general interest. The interests of any one employee or group of employees should not take precedence over the interests of the organization as a whole. 7. Remuneration. Workers must be paid a fair wage for their services. 8. Centralisation. Centralisation refers to the degree to which subordinates are involved in decision making. Whether decision making is centralized (to management) or decentralized (to subordinates) is a question of proper proportion. The task is to find the optimum degree of centralisation for each situation. 9. Scalar chain. The line of authority from top management to the lowest ranks represents the scalar chain. Communications should follow this chain. However, if following the chain creates delays, cross-communications can be allowed if agreed to by all parties and superiors are kept informed. 10. Order. People and materials should be in the right place at the right time. 11. Equity. Managers should be kind and fair to their subordinates. 12. Stability of tenure of personnel. High employee turnover is inefficient. Management should provide orderly personnel planning and ensure that replacements are available to fill vacancies. 13. Initiative. Employees who are allowed to originate and carry out plans will exert high levels of effort. 14. Esprit de corps. Promoting team spirit will build harmony and unity within the organization.
Fayol's work has stood the test of time and has been shown to be relevant and appropriate to contemporary management. Many of today’s management texts including Daft[4] have reduced the six functions to four: (1) planning; (2) organizing; (3) leading; and (4) controlling. Daft's text is organized around Fayol's four functions. He even argued management as an activity common to all humans undertaking in business, in government and even at home
Structural theory by max weber
His theory is also known as bureaucratic theory in management. He described an ideal kind of organization and called it bureaucracy.
The features of Weber's bureaucratic structure are-
• Areas of authority should be clearly specified.
• Organizations follow principle of hierarchy where subordinates follow instructions of superiors but have a right to appeal.
• Abstract rules guide decisions and actions.
• Officials are selected on the basis of technical qualifications.
• Employment by the organization is a career.

Social man Theory by Mary Parker Follet......
• The view that people are important to the world of business was given by Mary Parker Follet. With this the concept of human relations movement started.
• Follet believed that organizations should be based on collectivism (group ethics) rather than individualism.
• The manager's task was to coordinate group efforts.
• Managers and workers should be like partners.
Chester Barnard
Chester Irving Barnard (1886�1961) was a telecommunications executive and author of Functions of the Executive, an influential 20th century management book, in which Barnard presented a theory of organization and the functions of executives in organizations.
Chester Barnard looked at organizations as systems of cooperation of human activity, and was worried about the fact that they are typically rather short-lived. Firms that last more than a century are rather few, and the only organization that can claim a substantial age is the Catholic Church.
According to Chester Barnard, this happens because organizations do not meet the two criteria necessary for survival: effectiveness and efficiency.
Effectiveness, is defined the usual way: as being able to accomplish the explicit goals. In contrast, his notion of organizational efficiency is substantially different from the conventional use of the word. He defines efficiency of an organization as the degree to which that organization is able to satisfy the motives of the individuals. If an organization satisfies the motives of its participants, and attains its explicit goals, cooperation among them will last.
Two of his theories are particularly interesting: the theory of authority and the theory of incentives. Both are seen in the context of a communication system that should be based in seven essential rules: * The Channels of communication should be definite * Everyone should know of the channels of communication * Everyone should have access to the formal channels of communication * Lines of communication should be as short and as direct as possible * Competence of persons serving as communication centers should be adequate * The line of communication should not be interrupted when organization is functioning * Every communication should be authenticated
THE BEHAVIORAL ERA
PERSONNEL OFFICE
The birth of the "personnel office"
In response to the growth of trade unionism at the turn of the century, a few firms - for example, HJ Heinz, Colorado ruel, Iron, and International Harvester - created the position of "welfare secretary'. Welfare secretaries were supposed to assist workers by suggesting Improvements in working conditions, housing, medical care, educational facllilles, and recreation. These people, who were the fore-runners of today's personnel or human resource manage-ment directors, acled as a buffer between the organization and its employees. The B.F. tiootlrich Co. developed the first employment department in 1900, but its responsibilities consisted only of hiring.
In 1902, the National Cash Register Company established the first comprehensive labour department responsible for wage administration, grievances, employment and working conditions, health conditions, recordkeeping, and worker Improvement.

PERSONNEL OFFICE In india * 1918- tata medical association in Mumbai appointed medical officer * After WW II calico mills – ahemada nbad textile association appointed doctors * 1930 the millowners association appointed 1st labour officer’ * 1931 royal commistion of labour recommended * 1937 TISCO appointed welfare officers

The behavioral era- Hugo Munsterberg
The birth of industrial psychology Hugo Munsterberg created the field of industrial psychology. The publication of his text Psychology and Industrial Efficiency in 191. He argued for the scientific study of human behavior to identity general patterns and to explain individual differences. Interestingly, Munsterberg saw a link between scientific managernent and industrial psychology.
So he sought increased efficiency through scientific work analyses and though alignment of individual skills and abilities with the demands of various jobs.
Munsterberg suggested the use of psychological test to improve employee selection, the value of learning theory in the development of training methods,
The study of human behavior in order to understand what techniques are most effective (or motivating workers.
Much of our current knowledge of selection techniques, employee training, work design, and motivation is built on Munsterberg’s work.

The Magna Carta of Labour- The Wagner Act
Following the stock market crash ol 1929, the United States and ninth of the world's economy entered the Great Depression, to help relieve the effects of the depression on the U.S. labour force. President Franklin D. Roosevelt supported the Wagner Act, which was passed In 1935.
This act recognized unions as the authorized representatives of workers, able to bargain collectively with employers in the interests of their members. The Wagner Act would prove to be the Guru of labour.
It legitimized the Role of trade unions and encouraged rapid growth in union membership.
In response to this legislation, managers in industry became much more open to finding new ways to handle their employees.
Having lost the battle to keep unions out of their factories, management tried to improve working conditions and seek better relations with its workforce.

The Howthome studies
A set of studies done at Western Electrics Hawthorne plant would the prime stimulus for the human relations movement that swept American industry from the late 1930s through the 1950s.
The essence of the human relations movement was thebelief that the key to higher productivity in organizations was increasing employee satisfaction.
The Howthome studies
The most important contribution to the human relations movement within organisational behaviour came out of the Hawthorne studies undertaker) at the Western electric Company’s Hawthorne Works in Cicero,Illinois. * These studies, originally begun in 1924 but eventually expanded and carried on through the early 1930s * were Initially devised by Western electric industrial engineers to examine the effect of various Illumination levelson worker productivity. Control and experimental groups were established. The experimental group was presented with varying illumination Intensities, while the control group worked under a constant intensity. The engineers had expected Individual output to be directly related to the intensity of light. however, they found that as the light level was Increased In the experimental group, output for both groups rose. To the surprise of the engineers, as the light level was dropped In the experimental group, productivity continued to increase in both groups. In fact,a productivity decrease was observed in the experimental group only when the light intensity had been reduced to that moonlight. The engineers concluded that illumination intensity was not directly related to group productivity, but they could not explain the behaviour they had witnessed. * Western Met and asked Harvard professor Elton Mayo and his associates in 1927 to join the study as consultants, thus began a relationship that would last through 1932 and encompass numerous experiments covering the redesign of jobs, changes In the length of the work day and work week, introduction of rest periods, and individual versus group wage plans.'* For example, one experiment was designed to evaluate the effect of a group piecework incentive pay system on group productivity. The results indicated that the incentive plan had less effect on a worker's output than did group pressure and acceptance and the concomitant security. Social norms or Standards of the group, therefore, were concluded to be the key determinants of individual work behavior.
RELAY-ASSEMBLY TESTS
In order to observe the impact of these other factors, a second set of tests was begun before the completion of the illumination studies on April 25, 1987. The relay-assembly tests were designed to evaluate the effect rest periods and hours of work would have on efficiency. Researchers hoped to answer a series of questions concerning why output declined in the afternoon: Did the operators tire out? Did they need brief rest periods? What was the impact of changes in equipment? What were the effects of a shorter work day? What role did worker attitudes play? Hawthorne engineers led by George Pennock were the primary researchers for the relay-assembly tests, originally intended to take place for only a few months. Six women operators volunteered for the study and two more joined the test group in January 1928. They were administered physical examinations before the studies began and then every six weeks in order to evaluate the effects of changes in working conditions on their health. The women were isolated in a separate room to assure accuracy in measuring output and quality, as temperature, humidity, and other factors were adjusted. The test subjects constituted a piece-work payment group and efforts were made to maintain steady work patterns. The Hawthorne researchers attempted to gain the women's confidence and to build a sense of pride in their participation. A male observer was introduced into the test room to keep accurate records, maintain cordial working conditions, and provide some degree of supervision.
The women were employed in assembling relays or electromagnetic switches used in switching telephone calls automatically. The women assembled the more than 35 parts of the relay by hand. The relays were then carefully inspected. The entire process was highly labor intensive and the speed of assembly had an obvious effect on productivity.
Initially the women were monitored for productivity, then they were isolated in a test room. Finally, the workers began to participate in a group payment rate, where extra pay for increased productivity was shared by the group. The other relay assemblers did not share in any bonus pay, but researchers concluded this added incentive was necessary for full cooperation. This single difference has been historically criticized as the one variable having the greatest significance on test results. These initial steps in the relay-assembly studies lasted only three months. In August, rest periods were introduced and other changes followed over the rest of the test period, including shortened work days and weeks. As the test periods turned from months into years, worker productivity continued to climb, once again providing unexpected results for the Hawthorne team to evaluate.
Productivity increased in excess of 30 percent over the first two and-a-half years of the studies and remained steady for the duration of the tests. The physicals indicated improved worker health and absenteeism decreased. By their own testimony, the women expressed increased satisfaction with all aspects of their jobs. Researchers tentatively concluded that performance and efficiency improved because of the rest periods, relief from monotonous working conditions, the wage incentive, and the type of supervision provided in the test environment. After additional study and consideration, the first two factors were rejected and further tests were conducted in an attempt to verify the effects of incentives and working conditions. The results were still not totally conclusive. Finally, researchers realized worker attitudes within the group were influential as was the more personal atmosphere of the test room. They concluded factors such as lighting, hours of work, rest periods, bonus incentives, and supervision affected workers, but the attitudes of the employees experiencing the factors were of greater significance. As a result, the Hawthorne team decided not to pursue similar studies. Almost as significant during the relay assembly tests was the introduction of a team of academics from the Harvard Business School into the experiments. Led by professors Elton Mayo and F. J. Roethlisberger, this new group of researchers would have an enormous impact on the Hawthorne studies and the future of human relations in the workplace.
Mayo's contributions became increasingly significant in the experiments during the interviewing stages of the tests. Early results from the illumination tests and the relay-assembly tests led to surveys of worker attitudes, surveys not limited to test participants. From 1928 to 1931, more than 21,000 individuals were interviewed to survey worker morale in an attempt to determine specific features of their jobs workers either liked or disliked. The objective was to identify areas where reasonable improvements might lead to greater job satisfaction and thus increased efficiency and productivity.
The initial conclusions were disappointing. Interviewers looked for factors concerning job satisfaction, working conditions, and supervision. What they found was a complex battery of attitudes influenced by outside factors such as conditions at home or within the community, as well as one's social situation at work. Researchers began to conclude that prior life experience had an important influence on worker attitudes, and that manipulation of lighting, pay, supervision, and working conditions could not solely bring about a desired change. The one consistent conclusion was that employees felt more positive about the work environment when an interviewer or listener showed interest. This interviewing technique, the nondirective method, proved useful to later researchers at Hawthorne and eventually led to an employee counseling program, now widely practiced in personnel management circles.
BANK-WIRING TESTS
The final stage of the studies was the bank-wiring tests, which began in November 1931. The foreman of the bank-wiring department resisted the intrusion of observers into his work space and a bank-wiring test room was set up. The test room housed nine wirers, three solderers, and two inspectors. All were male between the ages of 20 and 25. Their job was to wire conductor banks, a repetitive and monotonous task. The banks were one of the major components of automatic telephone exchange. Between 3,000 and 6,000 terminals had to be wired for a set of banks. The work was tiring and required the workers to stand for long periods of time. Pay incentives and productivity measures were removed, but a researcher was placed into the test room as an observer and the workers were interviewed. The purpose of the bank-wiring tests was to observe and study social relationships and social structures within a group, issues raised by two other significant members of the research team, W. Lloyd Warner and William J. Dickson. Warner was on Mayo's Harvard team, trained as an anthropologist and primarily interested in Hawthorne from an entirely different perspective, that of an observer of the social behavior of a group. Dickson was a Hawthorne employee, with an even keener interest in the tests than the Harvard team; he remained with the company until retiring in 1969. Their contributions were to adapt social anthropology research methods to industrial conditions. Dickson conducted the interview phase of the tests. Perhaps the most revealing aspect of the bank-wiring tests was that the workers combined to slow down production clear indication of the need for analysis of the social relationships of workers. Research showed the most admired worker among the group was the one who demonstrated the greatest resentment of authority by slowing down production the most.
The bank-wiring tests were shut down in the spring of 1932 in reaction to layoffs brought on by the deepening depression. Layoffs were gradual, but by May the bank-wiring tests were concluded. These tests were intended to study the group as a functioning unit and observe its behavior. The study findings confirmed the complexity of group relations and stressed the expectations of the group over an individual's preference. The conclusion was to tie the importance of what workers felt about one another to worker motivation. Industrial plants were a complex social system with significant informal organizations that played a vital role in motivating workers. Employees had physical as well as social needs, and the company gradually developed a program of human relations including employee counseling and improved supervision with an emphasis on the individual workers. The results were a reinterpretation of industrial group behavior and the introduction of what has become human relations.

Findings from bank wiring room study was opposite of the relay room experiment * No increase of productivity; output was actually restricted by the bank wires * Through scientific management analysis the industrial engeneers arrived at standard of 7312 terminal connections per day. This represented 2 ½ equipment (mgmt norm) * But the workers decided 2 equipment (the informal group norm and the actual ouyput not a lack of ability)
From a group dynamics stand point * the social pressure were used to gain compliance with the group norms * the incentive system the more one produces the more money he would earn * the best producer would be laid off last and thus they could be more secure by producting more * yet all the workers restricted output
Social ostracism ridicule and name calling were major sanctions used by the groups to enforce this restrictions
Actual physical pressure in form of a game called “binging” was applied- forcing rate busters to play the game became an effective sanction.
The important reasons for their choice in order of preference were 1. Small Group 2. Type of supervision 3. Earning 4. Novelty of situation 5. Interest in the experiment 6. Attention received in test room
Novelty, interest and attention (relegated to the 4,5,6 positions)are associated with the famous Hawthorne effect

Dale Carnegie
Dale Carnegie’s Book How to Win Friends and Influence People was read by millions during I be 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s. During (his same period, tens of thousands of managers and aspiring managers attended his management speeches and seminars. So Carnegie's Ideas deserve attention because of the wide audience they commanded.
Carnegie's essential theme was that the way to success was through winning the cooperation of others. He ad- vised his audience to: 1. Make others feel important through a sincere appreciation of their efforts; 2. Strive to make a good first Impression; 3. Win people to their way of thinking by letting others do the talking, being sympathetic, and "never telling a man he is wrong"; 4. change people by praising their good traits and giving the offender the opportunity to save face.

Abraham Maslow
Maslow proposed the theory of need hierarchy: physiological, safely, social, esteem, and self actualization. From a motivation standpoint, Maslow argued that each step in the hierarchy must be satisfied before the next can be activated, and that once a need was substantially satisfied, it no longer motivated behavior. Moreover, he believed that self-actualisation - that is, achieving one's full potential - was the summit of a human being's existence. Managers who accepted Maslow's hierarchy attempted to alter their organisations and management practices to reduce barriers to employees' self actualization

Douglas Mc Gregor
Douglas McGregor is known for his formulation of two sets of assumptions - Theory' X and Theory Y – about human nature."* Briefly. Theory X tests on an essentially negative view of people. It assumes that they have little ambition, dislike work, want to avoid responsibility, and need to be closely directed to work effectively. Theory y, on the other hand, rests on a positive view of people. It assumes they can exercise self-direction, accept responsibility, and consider work to be as natural as rest or play.
McGregor personally believed that Theory Y assumptions better captured the true nature of workers and should guide management practice. As a result, he argued that manager, should free up their employees to unleash their full creative and productive potential.

Behavioral science theorist
Jacob L. Moreno
Sociometry is a quantitative method for measuring social relationships. It was developed by psychotherapist Jacob L. Moreno in his studies of the relationship between social structures and psychological well-being.
The term sociometry relates to its Latin etymology, socius meaning companion, and metrum meaning measure. Jacob Moreno defined sociometry as "the inquiry into the evolution and organization of groups and the position of individuals within them." He goes on to write "As the ...science of group organization, it attacks the problem not from the outer structure of the group, the group surface, but from the inner structure. "Sociometric explorations reveal the hidden structures that give a group its form: the alliances, the subgroups, the hidden beliefs, the forbidden agendas, the ideological agreements, the ‘stars’ of the show".
He developed sociometry within the new sciences, although its ultimate purpose is transcendence and not science. 'By making choices based on criteria, overt and energetic, Moreno hoped that individuals would be more spontaneous, and organisations and groups structures would become fresh, clear and lively'.
One of Moreno's innovations in sociometry was the development of the sociogram, a systematic method for graphically representing individuals as points/nodes and the relationships between them as lines/arcs. Moreno, who wrote extensively of his thinking, applications and findings, also founded a journal entitled Sociometry.
Moreno's Criteria for Sociometric Tests
In 'Sociometry, Experimental Method and the Science of Society: An Approach to a New Political Orientation', Moreno describes the depth to which a group needs to go for the method to be "sociometric". The term for him had a qualitative meaning and did not apply unless some group process criteria were met. One of these is that there is acknowledgment of the difference between process dynamics and the manifest content. To quote Moreno: "there is a deep discrepancy between the official and the secret behavior of members". Moreno advocates that before any "social program" can be proposed, the sociometrist has to "take into account the actual constitution of the group."
Other criteria are: the Rule of adequate motivation: "Every participant should feel about the experiment that it is in his (or her) own cause . . . that it is an opportunity for him (or her) to become an active agent in matters concerning his (or her) life situation." and the Rule of "gradual" inclusion of all extraneous criteria. Moreno speaks here of "the slow dialectic process of the sociometric experiment".[1]
[edit] Anthropological applications of sociometry
Given that sociometry is concerned with group allegiances and cleavages, it is not surprising that sociometric methods have been used to study ethnic relationships and way individuals identify with ethnic groups.[2] For instance, using sociometric research, Joan Criswell investigated white-black relationships in US classrooms,[3] Gabriel Weimann researched ethnic relationships in Israel,[4] and James Page has investigated intra-ethnic and inter-ethnic identification within the Pacific.[5]

Sociogram

Learning : is a relatively permanent Which occurs as a result of experience
BF Skinner Behavior science theory BF Skinner: Operant Conditioning
Classical conditioning. In conditioning, stimulus generalization is the tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses after the response has been conditioned. For example, if a child has been conditioned to fear a stuffed white rabbit, it will exhibit fear of objects similar to the conditioned stimulus such as a white toy rat. In the classic Little Albert experiment, researchers John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner conditioned a little boy to fear a white rat. The researchers observed that the boy experienced stimulus generalization by showing fear in response to similar stimuli including a dog, a rabbit, a fur coat, a white Santa Claus beard and even Watson's own hair.
Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work was based on Thorndike’s law of effect. Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of Effect - Reinforcement. behavior which is reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e. strengthened); behavior which is not reinforced tends to die out-or be extinguished (i.e. weakened).
Skinner (1948) studied operant conditioning by conducting experiments using animals which he placed in a “Skinner Box” which was similar to Thorndike’s puzzle box.
B.F. Skinner (1938)coined the term operant conditioning; it means roughly changing of behavior by the use of reinforcement which is given after the desired response. Skinner identified three types of responses or operant that can follow behavior.
Skinner coined the term operant conditioning; it means roughly changing of behavior by the use of reinforcement which is given after the desired response. Skinner identified three types of responses or operant that can follow behavior.
• Neutral operants: responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the probability of a behavior being repeated.
• Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.
• Punishers: Response from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Punishment weakens behavior.
We can all think of examples of how our own behavior has been affected by reinforcers and punishers. As a child you probably tried out a number of behaviors and learnt from their consequences. For example, if when you were younger you tried smoking at school, and the chief consequence was that you got in with the crowd you always wanted to hang out with, you would have been positively reinforced (i.e. rewarded) and would be likely to repeat the behavior. If, however, the main consequence was that you were caught, caned, suspended from school and your parents became involved you would most certainly have been punished, and you would consequently be much less likely to smoke now.

Learned helplessness is a technical term that refers to the condition of a human or animal that has learned to behave helplessly, failing to respond even though there are opportunities for it to help itself by avoiding unpleasant circumstances or by gaining positive rewards. Learned helplessness theory is the view that clinical depression and related mental illnesses may result from a perceived absence of control over the outcome of a situation.[1] Organisms which have been ineffective and less sensitive in determining the consequences of their behavior are defined as having acquired learned helplessness.[2]
Cognitive framework: Edward Tolman: Cognitive Framework

Cognitive approach emphasizes the positive and freewill aspects of human behavior and uses concepts such as expectancy, demand, and intention. Cognition can be simply defined as the act of knowing an item of information. In cognitive framework, cognitions precede behavior and constitute input into the person’s thinking, perception, problem solving, and information processing.
The work of Edward Tolman can be used to represent the cognitive theoretical approach. According to Tolman, learning consists of the expectancy that a particular event will lead to a particular consequence. This cognitive concept of expectancy implies that organism is thinking about, or is conscious or aware of the goal and result of a behavior exhibited by it. It means that a person desires a goal and also knows the behavior that will lead to achievement of the goals.
In the subject of organizational behavior, cognitive approach dominates the units of analysis such as perception, personality and attitudes, motivation, behavioral decision making and goal setting

We can use the work of Edward Tolman to explain the cognitive framework
Although Tolman believed behaviour to be appropriate unit of analysis, he felt that behaviour is purposeful, that it is directed towards a goal * He felt that cognitive learning consists of a relationship between cognitive environmental cues and expectations
Tolman Experiment * Through experimentation, he found out that a rat could learn to run through an intricate maze, with purpose and direction, towards goal (food) * Tolman observed that at each point in the maze, expectations were established - in other words, the rat learned to expect a certain cogitative cue associated with the choice point might eventually lead to the food * If the rat actually received the food, the association between the cue and the expectancy was strengthen, and leaning occurred * Tolman's approach could be depicted that learning is an association between the cue and the expectancy)
In his laboratory experiment, he found that animals learned to expect a certain event would follow another - for example, animal learned to behaviour as if they expect food when a certain cue appeared. Thus, Tolman believed that learning consist of expectancy that a particular event will lead to a particular consequence This cognitive concept of expectancy implies that the organisms is thinking about or is conscious or aware of, the goal Thus Tolman and others espousing the cognitive approach felt hat behaviour is best explained by these cognitions
Applied to OB. cognitive approach has dominated unit of analysis such as perception,personality and attitudes, motivation, decision making and goal setting

Social learning theory: Social learning theory is a perspective that states that people learn within a social context. It is facilitated through concepts such as modeling and observational learning.[1]
According to Social Learning theory, models are an important source for learning new behaviors and for achieving behavioral change in institutionalized settings. [2] Social learning theory is derived from the work of Albert Bandura which proposed that observational learning can occur in relation to three models: [3]
• Live model – in which an actual person is demonstrating the desired behaviour
• Verbal instruction – in which an individual describes the desired behaviour in detail, and instructs the participant in how to engage in the behavior
• Symbolic – in which modeling occurs by means of the media, including movies, television, Internet, literature, and radio. This type of modeling involves a real or fictional character demonstrating the behaviour.

An important factor of Bandura’s social learning theory is the emphasis on reciprocal determinism. This notion states that an individual’s behaviour is influenced by the environment and characteristics of the person. In other words, a person’s behaviour, environment, and personal qualities all reciprocally influence each other.[3]

Bandura proposed that the modeling process involves several steps:[3]
1. Attention – in order for an individual to learn something, they must pay attention to the features of the modeled behaviour.
2. Retention – humans need to be able to remember details of the behaviour in order to learn and later reproduce the behaviour.
3. Reproduction – in reproducing a behavior, an individual must organize his or her responses in accordance with the model behavior. This ability can improve with practice.
4. Motivation – there must be an incentive or motivation driving the individual’s reproduction of the behaviour. Even if all of the above factors are present, the person will not engage in the behaviour without motivation.
Bandura is known for his 1961-1963 experiments utilizing an inflatable clown known as a Bobo doll in order to test modeling behaviours in children. Children were divided into three groups – one of which was exposed to an aggressive adult model, one which was exposed to a passive adult model, and a control group, which was not exposed to an adult model. Adults in the aggressive group were asked to verbally and physically attack the doll, while those in the passive group were asked to play peacefully. Once the children were given the opportunity to play, results showed that those exposed to the aggressive model were more likely to imitate what they had seen, and to behave aggressively toward the doll. It was found that boys were four times more likely than girls to display physical aggression, but levels of verbal aggression were about the same. The results of Bandura’s studies provided support for the influence of modeling on learning. Further, a later study in 1965 showed that witnessing the model being punished for the aggressive behavior decreased the likelihood that children would imitate the behaviour.[4]
Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement occurs when a particular stimulus is presented after a behavior, and the behavior increases as a result. The word positive does not mean "good" in this case, but means that something is added.
Positive reinforcement comes in many forms, including concrete reinforcers, social reinforcers, and activity reinforcers.

A concrete reinforcer is something tangible that can be seen. For example, if Charlotte does all of her homework, her mom gives her a sticker.

A social reinforcer is a gesture from another person in response to a behavior. For example, if Adam slam-dunks a basketball, his friend gives him a high five.

An activity reinforcer is an opportunity to engage in a fun activity. People will do something they don't enjoy for a chance to do something that they do enjoy. For example, if Jennifer cleans her room, her mom will take her out for icecream.

Negative reinforcement is when a particular stimulus is removed after a behavior, and this causes the behavior to increase as a result. Negative in this sense does not mean "bad", but that something is subtracted or taken away.
For example, if Megan's mom is always nagging her to wash the dishes (nagging is the stimulus) and when Megan does the dishes, her mom stops nagging her, then negative reinforcement has occurred. From now on, Megan is more likely to do the dishes if only to avoid her mother's nagging.

Behavior management ABCDEF of behavior management * Antecedent: Johnny is given a vocational bin and asked to assemble the parts. * Behavior: Johnny sweeps the bin with all the parts onto the floor. * Consequence: Johnny is taken to time out and the classroom aide picks up the pieces. Johnny has avoided the task, so the function of the behavior is avoidance. * Disputes with the employees on the behavior of his * Experimentation on behavior of the employees * Firm It make the behavior a part and parcel of the employee
Behavior science Theorist- David Mclelland
David C. McClelland (May 20 1917 – March 27 1998) was an American psychological theorist. Noted for his work on need theory, he published a number of works from the 1950s until the 1990s and developed new scoring systems for the Thematic Apperception Test and its descendants.[1] McClelland is credited with developing the Achievement Motivation Theory commonly referred to as need achievement or n-achievement theory.[2]
The Thematic Apperception Test, or TAT, is a projective psychological test. Proponents of this technique assert that a person's responses to the TAT cards can provide information about his or her views of the self, the world, and interpersonal relationships.[1] Historically, it has been among the most widely researched, taught, and used of such tests.
Procedure
The TAT is popularly known as the picture interpretation technique because it uses a series of provocative yet ambiguous pictures about which the subject is asked to tell a story. The subject is asked to tell as dramatic a story as they can for each picture presented, including the following: * what has led up to the event shown * what is happening at the moment * what the characters are feeling and thinking * what the outcome of the story was
If these elements are omitted, particularly for children or individuals of low cognitive abilities, the evaluator may ask the subject about them directly. Otherwise, the examiner is to avoid interjecting and should not answer questions about the content of the pictures. The examiner records stories verbatim for later interpretation.
The complete version of the test contains 31 picture cards. Some of the cards show male figures, some female, some both male and female figures, some of ambiguous gender, some adults, some children, and some show no human figures at all. One card is completely blank and is used to elicit both a scene and a story about the given scene from the storyteller. Although the cards were originally designed to be matched to the subject in terms of age and gender, any card may be used with any subject.
Although Murray recommended using 20 cards, most practitioners choose a set of between 8 and 12 selected cards, either using cards that they feel are generally useful, or that they believe will encourage the subject's expression of emotional conflicts relevant to their specific history and situation.[5] However, the examiner should aim to select a variety of cards in order to get a more global perspective of the storyteller and to avoid confirmation bias (i.e., finding only what you are looking for).
Scoring Systems
When he created the TAT, Murray also developed a scoring system based on his need-press theory of personality. However, implementing this scoring system is time-consuming and was not widely used. Rather, examiners have traditionally relied on their clinical intuition to come to conclusions about storytellers.[6]
Although not widely used in the clinical setting, several formal scoring systems have been developed for analyzing TAT stories systematically and consistently. Two common methods that are currently used in research are the: * Defense Mechanisms Manual DMM.[7] This assesses three defense mechanisms: denial (least mature), projection (intermediate), and identification (most mature). A person's thoughts/feelings are projected in stories involved. * Social Cognition and Object Relations SCOR[8] scale. This assesses four different dimensions of object relations: Complexity of Representations of People, Affect-Tone of Relationship Paradigms, Capacity for Emotional Investment in Relationships and Moral Standards, and Understanding of Social Causality.
Examiners are encouraged to explore information obtained from the TAT stories as hypotheses for testing rather than concrete facts.
Motivation research has long considered human motives and needs. However, isolating people's motivational needs can be a difficult process because most people are not explicitly aware of what their motives are.
In attempting to understand employee motivation, Abraham Maslow proposed a hierarchy of needs. David McClelland furthered this idea in his learned needs theory. McClelland's experimental work identified sets of motivators present to varying degrees in different people. He proposed that these needs were socially acquired or learned. That is, the extent to which these motivators are present varies from person to person, and depends on the individual and his or her background.

McClelland's experiment -- the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) -- consisted of showing individuals a series of pictures and asking them to give brief descriptions of what was happening in the pictures. The responses were analyzed in terms of the presence or absence of certain themes. The themes McClelland and his associates were looking for revolved around the following motivators: achievement, affiliation and power.

According to David McClelland, regardless of culture or gender, people are driven by three motives:

achievement, affiliation, and influence. Since McClelland's first experiments, over 1,000 studies relevant to achievement motivation have been conducted. These studies strongly support the theory. . Achievement (nAch)
. The need for achievement is characterized by the wish to take responsibility for finding solutions to problems, master complex tasks, set goals, get feedback on level of success.
. Affiliation (nAff)
. The need for affiliation is characterized by a desire to belong, an enjoyment of teamwork, a concern about interpersonal relationships, and a need reduce uncertainty.
. Power (nP)
. The need for power is characterized by a drive to control and influence others, a need to win arguments, a need to persuade and prevail.
. According to McClelland, the presence of these motives or drives in an individual indicates a predisposition to behave in certain ways. Therefore, from a manager's perspective, recognizing which need is dominant in any particular individual affects the way in which that person can be motivated.
Behavioral Science Theorist- Fred fiedler Fred E. Fiedler’s contingency theory of leadership effectiveness was based on studies of a wide range of group effectiveness, and concentrated on the relationship between leadership and organizational performance. This is one of the earliest situation-contingent leadership theories given by Fiedler. According to him, if an organization attempts to achieve group effectiveness through leadership, then there is a need to assess the leader according to an underlying trait, assess the situation faced by the leader, and construct a proper match between the two.Leader’s traitIn order to assess the attitudes of the leader, Fiedler developed the ‘least preferred co-worker’ (LPC) scale in which the leaders are asked about the person with whom they least like to work. The scale is a questionnaire consisting of 16 items used to reflect a leader’s underlying disposition toward others. The items in the LPC scale are pleasant / unpleasant, friendly / unfriendly, rejecting / accepting, unenthusiastic / enthusiastic, tense / relaxed, cold / warm, | helpful / frustrating, cooperative / uncooperative, supportive / hostile, quarrelsome / harmonious, efficient / inefficient, gloomy / cheerful, distant / close, boring / interesting, self-assured / hesitant, open / guarded. Each item in the scale is given a single ranking of between one and eight points, with eight points indicating the most favorable rating. |

Friendly | | Unfriendly | | 8 | 7 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 1 | |
Fiedler states that leaders with high LPC scores are relationship-oriented and the ones with low scores are task-oriented. The high LPC score leaders derived most satisfaction from interpersonal relationships and therefore evaluate their least preferred co-workers in fairly favorable terms. These leaders think about the task accomplishment only after the relationship need is well satisfied. On the other hand, the low LPC score leaders derived satisfaction from performance of the task and attainment of objectives and only after tasks have been accomplished, these leaders work on establishing good social and interpersonal relationships.
Situational factor
According to Fiedler, a leader’s behavior is dependent upon the favorability of the leadership situation. Three factors work together to determine how favorable a situation is to a leader. These are: * Leader-member relations - The degree to which the leaders is trusted and liked by the group members, and the willingness of the group members to follow the leader’s guidance * Task structure - The degree to which the group’s task has been described as structured or unstructured, has been clearly defined and the extent to which it can be carried out by detailed instructions * Position power - The power of the leader by virtue of the organizational position and the degree to which the leader can exercise authority on group members in order to comply with and accept his direction and leadership
With the help of these three variables, eight combinations of group-task situations were constructed by Fiedler. These combinations were used to identify the style of the leader.

Figure 1: Correlation between leader’s LPC scores and group effectiveness
Leadership Effectiveness
The leader’s effectiveness is determined by the interaction of the leader’s style of behavior and the favorableness of the situational characteristics. The most favorable situation is when leader-member relations are good, the task is highly structured, and the leader has a strong position power.
Research on the contingency model has shown that task-oriented leaders are more effective in highly favorable (1, 2, 3) and highly unfavorable situation (7, 8), whereas relationship-oriented leaders are more effective in situations of intermediate favorableness (4, 5, 6).
Fiedler also suggested that leaders may act differently in different situations. Relationship-oriented leaders generally display task-oriented behaviors under highly favorable situations and display relationship-oriented behaviors under unfavorable intermediate favorable situations. Similarly, task-oriented leaders frequently display task-oriented in unfavorable or intermediate favorable situations but display relationship-oriented behaviors in favorable situations.
LPC: Least preferred coworker test

Behavioral science theorist: Fredrick herzbereg
The Two-factor theory (also known as Herzberg's motivation-hygiene theory and Dual-Factor Theory) states that there are certain factors in the workplace that cause job satisfaction, while a separate set of factors cause dissatisfaction. It was developed by Frederick Herzberg, a psychologist, who theorized that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction act independently of each other.[1]
Two-factor theory fundamentals: Attitudes and their connection with industrial mental health are related to Maslow's theory of motivation. His findings have had a considerable theoretical, as well as a practical, influence on attitudes toward administration.[2] According to Herzberg, individuals are not content with the satisfaction of lower-order needs at work, for example, those associated with minimum salary levels or safe and pleasant working conditions. Rather, individuals look for the gratification of higher-level psychological needs having to do with achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, and the nature of the work itself. So far, this appears to parallel Maslow's theory of a need hierarchy. However, Herzberg added a new dimension to this theory by proposing a two-factor model of motivation, based on the notion that the presence of one set of job characteristics or incentives lead to worker satisfaction at work, while another and separate set of job characteristics lead to dissatisfaction at work. Thus, satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not on a continuum with one increasing as the other diminishes, but are independent phenomena. This theory suggests that to improve job attitudes and productivity, administrators must recognize and attend to both sets of characteristics and not assume that an increase in satisfaction leads to decrease in unpleasurable dissatisfaction.
The two-factor, or motivation-hygiene theory, developed from data collected by Herzberg from interviews with a large number of engineers and accountants in the Pittsburgh area. From analyzing these interviews, he found that job characteristics related to what an individual does — that is, to the nature of the work he performs — apparently have the capacity to gratify such needs as achievement, competency, status, personal worth, and self-realization, thus making him happy and satisfied. However, the absence of such gratifying job characteristics does not appear to lead to unhappiness and dissatisfaction. Instead, dissatisfaction results from unfavorable assessments of such job-related factors as company policies, supervision, technical problems, salary, interpersonal relations on the job, and working conditions. Thus, if management wishes to increase satisfaction on the job, it should be concerned with the nature of the work itself — the opportunities it presents for gaining status, assuming responsibility, and for achieving self-realization. If, on the other hand, management wishes to reduce dissatisfaction, then it must focus on the job environment — policies, procedures, supervision, and working conditions.[1] If management is equally concerned with (as is usually the case), then managers must give attention to both sets of job factors.
The theory was based around interviews with 203 American accountants and engineers in Pittsburgh, chosen because of their professions' growing importance in the business world. The subjects were asked to relate times when they felt exceptionally good or bad about their present job or any previous job, and to provide reasons, and a description of the sequence of events giving rise to that positive or negative feeling.
Here is the description of this interview analysis:
Briefly, we asked our respondents to describe periods in their lives when they were exceedingly happy and unhappy with their jobs. Each respondent gave as many "sequences of events" as he could that met certain criteria—including a marked change in feeling, a beginning and an end, and contained some substantive description other than feelings and interpretations…
The proposed hypothesis appears verified. The factors on the right that led to satisfaction (achievement, intrinsic interest in the work, responsibility, and advancement) are mostly unipolar; that is, they contribute very little to job dissatisfaction. Conversely, the dis-satisfiers (company policy and administrative practices, supervision, interpersonal relationships, working conditions, and salary) contribute very little to job satisfaction.[3]
Two-factor theory distinguishes between: * Motivators (e.g. challenging work, recognition, responsibility) that give positive satisfaction, arising from intrinsic conditions of the job itself, such as recognition, achievement, or personal growth,[4] and * Hygiene factors (e.g. status, job security, salary, fringe benefits, work conditions) that do not give positive satisfaction, though dissatisfaction results from their absence. These are extrinsic to the work itself, and include aspects such as company policies, supervisory practices, or wages/salary.[4][5]
Essentially, hygiene factors are needed to ensure an employee is not dissatisfied. Motivation factors are needed to motivate an employee to higher performance. Herzberg also further classified our actions and how and why we do them, for example, if you perform a work related action because you have to then that is classed as movement, but if you perform a work related action because you want to then that is classed as motivation.
Unlike Maslow, who offered little data to support his ideas, Herzberg and others have presented considerable empirical evidence to confirm the motivation-hygiene theory, although their work has been criticized on methodological grounds.
Behaviour science theories- J Richard hackman & greg Oldham
The Job Characteristics Theory studies the factors that make a particular job satisfying. The theory was developed by J Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham in 1976 and refined again in 1980. Faturochman (1997) defined the Job Characteristics Theory as describing “the relationship between job characteristics and individual responses to work. The theory specifies the task condition in which individuals are predicted to prosper in their work” (p. 1).

A primary component of the Job Characteristics Theory are five job characteristics that can be studied to help predict job satisfaction. Here are the five characteristics, listed in the order as presented by Faturochman (1997). To my knowledge, the list is not rank-ordered. 1. Skill variety: How many different skills and talents does the job require of a person. Are they asked to do a lot of different things, or is it a monotonous, repetitive job? 2. Task identity: Is there a clearly defined beginning, middle and end to a given task? Does a worker know what he or she is supposed to do, and when he or she is successfully completed the task? 3. Task significance: Does the job have “a substantial impact?” (Faturochman, p. 1)? Will it matter to people, either within the organization or to society? Is this job/given task meaningful? 4. Autonomy: How much freedom does an individual have to accomplish his or her tasks? This freedom includes the ability to schedule work as well as figuring out how to get the tasks done. 5. Job feedback: Is an employee kept in the loop about their performance Are the being told when they are doing well and when they are not?

When present, those five characteristics will lead to three psychological states: 1. Experiencing the work as meaningful - which Faturochman defined as feeling the work he or she does is "generally worthwhile, valuable or important by some system of values he or she finds acceptable." 2. Experiencing personal responsibility - where a worker is accountable for the results of the work done. 3. Knowledge of the results - a worker must know and understand how well he or she is doing the job.

As Faturochman writes, "all three psychological states must be experienced by an individual if desirable outcomes are to emerge. If any of the three psychological states is not present, several outcome variables such as motivation and satisfaction will be weakened." (p. 2).

When the five characteristics lead to the three psychological states in a positive manner, an employee will feel satisfied. When any are lacking, job satisfaction becomes lower.