The Ottoman Empire: Largest And Longest Lasting Empires In History
THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE
Introduction
The Ottoman Empire was the one of the largest and longest lasting Empires in history. It was an empire inspired and sustained by Islam, and Islamic institutions. It replaced the Byzantine Empire as the major power in the Eastern Mediterranean.
The Ottoman Empire reached its height under Suleiman the Magnificent (reigned 1520-66), when it expanded to cover the Balkans and Hungary, and reached the gates of Vienna.
The Empire began to decline after being defeated at the Battle of Lepanto (1571) and losing almost its entire Navy. It declined further during the next centuries, and was effectively finished off by the First World War and the Balkan Wars.
One legacy of the Islamic Ottoman Empire is the robust secularism …show more content…
of modern Turkey.
At its peak it included: Turkey, Egypt, Greece, Bulgaria, Romania, Macedonia, Hungary, Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, and parts of Arabia, much of the coastal strip of North Africa
Origin
After Baghdad fell to the Mongols, the Seljuks declared an independent Sultanate in east and central Asia Minor.
In 1301, Uthman, an Uzbek of the Ottoman clan, overthrew the Seljuk aristocracy and proclaimed himself the Sultan of Asia Minor.
There were many reasons why the Ottoman Empire was so successful:
• Highly centralised
• Power was always transferred to a single person, and not split between rival princes
• The Ottoman Empire was successfully ruled by a single family for 7 centuries.
• Religion was incorporated in the state structure, and the Sultan was regarded as "the protector of Islam".
• State-run Judicial System, State-run education system
• Ruthless in dealing with local leaders
• Promotion to positions of power largely depended on merit
• Created alliances across political and racial groups
• United by Islamic ideology
• United by Islamic warrior code with ideal of increasing Muslim territory through Jihad.
• United by Islamic organizational and administrative structures
• Highly pragmatic, taking the best ideas from other cultures and making them their own
• Encouraged loyalty from other faith groups
• Private power and wealth were controlled
• Very strong military Strong slave-based army
• Expert in developing gunpowder as a military tool
• Military ethos pervaded whole administration
ADMINISTRATION
The Millet System
Non-Muslim communities were organized according to the millet system, which gave minority religious/ethnic/geographical communities a limited amount of power to regulate their own affairs - under the overall supremacy of the Ottoman administration.
The first Orthodox Christian millet was established in 1454. This brought Orthodox Christians into a single community under the leadership of the Patriarch who had considerable authority given to him by the Sultan. Armenian Christian, Jewish and other millets followed in due course.
Some millets paid tax to the state as Dhimmis, while others were exempted because they were seen to be performing services of value to the state.
The devshirme system
Non-Muslims in parts of the empire had to hand over some of their children as a tax under the devshirme ('gathering') system introduced in the 14th century. Conquered Christian communities, especially in the Balkans, had to surrender twenty percent of their male children to the state. These children were converted to Islam and served as slaves.
The devshirme played a key role in Mehmet's conquest of Constantinople, and from then on regularly held very senior posts in the imperial administration. The devshirme system continued until the end of the seventeenth century.
Fratricide
Sultan Selim introduced the policy of fratricide (the murder of brothers).
Under this system whenever a new Sultan ascended to the throne his brothers would be locked up. As soon as the Sultan had produced his first son the brothers (and their sons) would be killed. The new Sultan's sons would be then confined until their father's death and the whole system would start again.
This often meant that dozens of sons would be killed while only one would become Sultan. In the later centuries of Ottoman rule, the brothers were imprisoned rather than executed.
Influences and Structure
Although the Ottoman Empire was widely influenced by the faiths and customs of the peoples it incorporated, the most significant influences came from Islam.
The ruling elite worked their way up the hierarchy of the state madrassahs (religious schools) and the palace schools. They were trained to be concerned with the needs of government and to be mindful of the restrictions of Islamic law.
In its structure the ruling elite reflected a world of order and hierarchy in which promotion and status were rewarded on merit. Thus birth and genealogy, aristocracy or tribe became almost irrelevant to success in the system. Only one post that of the Sultan was determined by birth.
Short-termism
Ottoman rulers had a very short-term policy. They rejected the idea of developing territory and investing in it for gain at some time in the future; land and peoples were exploited to the point of exhaustion and then more or less abandoned in favour of new ground.
This policy meant that the Ottoman Empire relied on continuous expansion for stability. If it did not grow, it was likely to collapse.
DECLINE
The power of the empire was waning by 1683 when the second and last attempt was made to conquer Vienna. It failed. Without the conquest of Europe and the acquisition of significant new wealth the Empire lost momentum and went into a slow decline.
Several other factors contributed to the Empire's decline:
• Ottoman Empire became less centralised, and central control weakened
• Sultans being less severe in maintaining rigorous standards of integrity in the administration of the Empire
• Sultans becoming less sensitive to public opinion
• The low quality Sultans of the 17th and 18th centuries
• The ending of the execution of Sultan's sons and brothers, imprisoning them instead
• This apparently humane process led to men becoming Sultan after spending years in prison - not the best training for absolute power
• Economic problems
• Rising unemployment within the Empire
• The European powers wanted to expand
• Competition from trade from the Americas
• Competition from cheap products from India and the Far East
• Development of other trade routes
Soon the very word Turk became synonymous with treachery and cruelty. This led Turks like Kemal Ataturk, who was born late in the nineteenth century, to be repelled by the Ottoman Turkish political system and the culture it had evolved. Seeing little but decay and corruption, he led the Turks to create a new modern identity.
The empire officially ended on the 1st November 1922, when the Ottoman sultanate was abolished and Turkey was declared a republic. The Ottoman caliphate continued as an institution, with greatly reduced authority, until it too was abolished on the 3rd March 1924.
Muhammad Al-Fateh
Introduction
Muhammad Al-Fatih was born in 1432. He was brought up under the supervision of his father, Sultan Murad-II, the seventh Ottoman Sultan. His father prepared and trained him to shoulder the responsibilities of the position of a Sultan. Muhammad Al-Fatih memorized all the Quran, learnt the Prophetic narrations, Islamic Jurisprudence, mathematics, astronomy and the skills required for war.
He also learnt Arabic, Persian, Latin and Greek languages. He joined his father in his battles and conquests.
Character
Muhammad Al-Faatih was a committed Muslim who abode by the rulings of Islamic jurisprudence.
Because of the way he was brought up, he was a pious man. As for his military conduct, it was very civilized and it was unfamiliar to Europe in its Medieval Ages.
Owing to his ambition fostered by his teacher Shaykh Aaq Shamsd-Deen, who always encouraged him to be the conqueror of Constantinople, he managed to make the greatest of his achievements by conquering this city.
Muhammad Al-Faatih, managed to realize his dreams through hard, continuous work, and well-organized planning. For example, before besieging Constantinople, he prepared for the war by making cannons, preparing his fleet, and making use of all the factors that might render him victorious.
He was a strong young man, only twenty years old, very enthusiastic and ambitious.
Through high ambition, determination, and the effort to achieve his goals, he managed to materialize his dream, make his hope an existing reality which made him one of the great Muslim heroes and conquerors.
Muhammad Al-Faatih, was known for his love for literature. He was a good poet and a regular reader. He liked the company of scholars and poets and made some of them ministers. Whenever he heard about a great scholar in any field, he would help and support him or ask him to come to Istanbul in order to benefit of his …show more content…
knowledge.
Achievements
Taking power and his efforts to achieve the glad tiding:
After the death of his father, Sultan Murad-II, he took over and became the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire. He planned conquest of Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire.
The first step in achieving his dream was to take control of the Strait of Bosporus so that he could prevent any support or supplies that might come to Constantinople from Europe. So he built a huge castle on the European seashore of the Strait of Bosporus. Along with top senior officials, he personally participated in building the castle. It took three months to build this castle that came to be known as the Roman Castle. On the other bank of the Strait of Bosporus, there was the Castle of Anatolia. It then became impossible for any ship to cross unless it obtained permission from the Ottoman forces.
At that time, a talented engineer managed to make a number of huge cannons for the Sultan.
The conquest of Constantinople and the realization of the glad tidings
After completing his preparations, Sultan marched to Constantinople with an army of two hundred and sixty-five thousand fighters. This army had infantry forces as well as horsemen. Huge cannons supported this army. The army besieged Constantinople and the Ottoman cannons started to fire their missiles at the fortified walls of the city day and night. From time to time, the Sultan surprised the enemy with a new war plan until the city defenders lost control and their forces gave up in 1453.
The Sultan's procession marched until it reached Hagia Sophia church. The Sultan ordered that the church be turned into a mosque and for the first time, the call for prayer was heard from this place. Until now, this mosque is still known as the Mosque of Hagia Sophia. He also decided to take Constantinople as a capital of his country. It was called Islambul, meaning the House of Islam. Later on the word was viciously twisted to become Istanbul.
The Sultan was very tolerant and merciful with the people of the city.
The aftermath of the conquest of Constantinople
Muhammad Al-Fatih attained this victory when he was twenty three years old. This indicated his early military genius. He also deserved the glad tidings of the Prophet, sallallaahu alayhi wa sallam, who foretold that a good person would conquer that city.
Later on, Muhammad Al-Faatih headed to complete his conquests in the Balkan. He managed to conquer Serbia, Greece, Romania, Albania and Bosnia Herzegovina. He also looked forward to conquering Rome so that he would have another source of pride in addition to the conquest of Constantinople.
In order to achieve this great hope, he needed to conquer Italy. He prepared a tremendous fleet for this mission. He managed to land his forces and a large number of cannons near the Italian city Otarant. Consequently he managed to capture its castle in Jumaadaa Al-Awwal 885 A.H., July 1480 A.C.
Muhammad Al-Fatih, decided to take Otarant as a base for his northern military operations until he could reach Rome. The European world was terrified because of this attempt and they expected the fall of the historical city, Rome, into the hands of Muhammad Al-Fatih. However, he died suddenly (on 4th Rabee' Al-Awwal, 886 A.H., 3rd May, 1481 A.C.) while he was preparing to realize this dream. All Europe was very happy when they knew about his death. The Pope of Rome ordered that thankfulness prayer be held in churches as a means of expressing joy and happiness over the news.
He made the Ottoman State reach the boundaries that it had never done before.
Muhammad II’s legal system
Through the help of some of his loyal men, he managed to establish a constitution based on the Book of Allah and the Sunnah of His Prophet (PBUH). He utilized the law codes of Byzantines as models for legislation and codification in his reign. Civil and military laws were specially codiefied and imposed with effect. The Ottoman state adhered to this constitution for about four centuries.
Architectural developments
Although he was very busy, he managed to establish more than 300 mosques, 192 of which were in Istanbul alone. He also built 57 schools. Among his most famous architectural monuments are the Mosque of Sultan Muhammad, the Mosque of Abu Ayyoob Al-Ansaari, and Sarai Tub-Qabu Palace.
Economic development
Under his rule native industry flourished enormously. Cotton and Silk especially in Basra, Istanbul and Salonica. He expanded the circle of trade internationally. He minted new coins and appointed executive officers for it.
Development of Science and Literature
He constructed several libraries and an especial observatory adjacent to his palace. He invited a number of artists, scientists, writers, musicians and scholars to his capital. He patronized religious activities as well and made Constantinople a cultural center.
SULEIMAN THE MAGNIFICENT
Introduction
Suleman the Magnificent was the tenth and longest-reigning Emperor, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, from 1520 to his death in 1566. He is known in the West as Suleiman the Magnificent and in the East, as "The Lawgiver" for his complete reconstruction of the Ottoman legal system. He was an able administrator and an enterprising soldier. He conqured lands and consolidated his occupied territories. Suleiman personally led Ottoman armies to conquer the Christian strongholds of Belgrade, Rhodes, and most of Hungary before his conquests were checked at the Siege of Vienna in 1529. He annexed most of the Middle East in his conflict with the Safavids and large swathes of North Africa as far west as Algeria. Under his rule, the Ottoman fleet dominated the seas from the Mediterranean to the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. He had under his belt many epithets. The most prominent among all were, ‘Law-giver’, ‘Grand Turk’ and ‘Magnificent’.
Unrivaled Glory of Suleiman
The elongated reign of Suleiman underscored unparalleled glory of the mighty kings. He excelled all his contemporary rulers which include Charles-V. Henry-VIII, Elizabeth, Sigismund of Poland, Shah Ismail of Persia and Akbar the Great. It was his acumen which enabled him to emerge from the conflicts stronger and triumphant than ever. His reign saw enormous progress in culture, economy and legislation.
Suleimans Gracious Rule
He was well known for his clemency and justice. He punished evil-doers and rewarded virtuous. He showed great prudence in administering the rights to his subjects as well as strengthening his authority. His magnanimity and altruism were proverbial.
ACHIEVEMENTS
Suleiman as a law giver
A vast number of religious scholars and jurists served in his court who joined their efforts to bring out the best justice system which suits everyone in the empire. Thus, laws and codes were written, specified and institutionalized. Various punishments and penalties were designed for number of crimes including robbery, adultery, murder etc. A Qanunnama was also drawn up in Suleiman’s name which registered and authenticated punishments and legalities. This famous code for which he was given the title of law-giver was the law of land for the next 300 years.
Economic reforms
Sulaiman had the sense to tax everyone accordingly. Therefore, taxes were levied according to taxpayer’s ability to pay. Out of way taxes and confiscations were strictly forbidden. The conquered territories had a governor to oversee the smooth functioning of revenue system and ensure a fixed amount to be sent to state exchequer.
Cultural Achievements
Suleiman was himself a poet. His renowned contribution in poetry was Mohibbi in Persian. His verses became Turkish proverbs in the later years.
Architectural Developments
Ottoman architecture reached its zenith in Suleimans period. His chief architect Mimar Sinan was responsible for the construction of great masterpieces like Sulaimani mosque, Salimiye mosque. He also authorized the restoration of the Dome of the Rock and renovation of Kaaba.
The Ottoman Empire went through a flowering of art, literature and architecture during the reign of Suleiman-I and the Sultan himself was quite an accomplished poet. One subject he wrote about was his famous wife Roxolana, a harem slave girl who he had broken with tradition to marry and elevate to the role of consort. It was a son by Roxolana that succeeded Suleiman-I when he died in 1566 on his way to another campaign in Hungary.
CONCLUSION
His rule was like his name magnanimous. Justice, rule of law, fraternity and liberty was ensured to everyone. It is a mark of the greatness of the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent that he was widely admired by friends and enemies alike. To his own people and his allies he was known as a wise and just ruler while his enemies had to admire his talent, wealth and power. Under his rule the Ottoman Empire reached a peak in both political power and cultural achievement. He was regarded as sacrosanct throughout his empire. Unfortunately, with the death of Suleiman the power of the Turks began to wane.
TANZIMAT
Tanzimat, refers to the series of reforms promulgated in the Ottoman Empire between 1839 and 1876 under the reigns of the sultans Abdülmecid I and Abdülaziz. These reforms were intended to effectuate a fundamental change of the empire from the old system based on theocratic principles to that of a modern state.
Many of the key provisions of the Tanzimat reforms were set forth in the Hatt-ı Şerif of Gülhane (1839; “Noble Edict of the Rose Chamber”). This document called for the establishment of new institutions that would guarantee security of life, property, and honour to all subjects of the empire regardless of their religion or race. It also authorized the development of a standardized system of taxation to eliminate abuses and established fairer methods of military conscription and training. The reforms included the development of a new secular school system, the reorganization of the army based on the Prussian conscript system, the creation of provincial representative assemblies, and the introduction of new codes of commercial and criminal law, which were largely modeled after those of France. These laws, moreover, were administered by newly established state courts independent of the ulamā, the Islāmic religious council.
The Tanzimat reform movement came to a halt by the mid-1870s during the last years of Abdülaziz’s reign. Under the Tanzimat effort to centralize administration, all legal authority became concentrated in the hands of the sultan. As a result, little could be done when Abdülaziz began abusing his power and adopted revisionary policies. This fact notwithstanding, the Tanzimat reforms succeeded in laying the groundwork for the gradual modernization of the Ottoman state.
Reforms
Guarantees to ensure the Ottoman subjects perfect security for their lives, honour, and property
Introduction of the first Ottoman paper banknotes (1840)
Reorganization of the army and a regular method of recruiting, levying the army, and fixing the duration of military service (1843–44)
Adoption of an Ottoman national anthem and Ottoman national flag (1844)
Reorganization of the finance system according to the French model
Reorganization of the Civil and Criminal Code according to the French model
Establishment of the Meclis−i Maarif−i Umumiye (1845), the prototype of the First Ottoman Parliament (1876)
Institution of a council of public instruction (1846)
Establishment of the first modern universities and academies (1848)
Abolition of the capitation tax on non−Muslims, with a regular method of establishing and collecting taxes (1856)
Non−Muslims were allowed to become soldiers (1856)
Various provisions for the better administration of the public service and advancement of commerce
The establishment of railroads
Replacement of guilds with factories
The first Stock Exchange in Istanbul was established (1866)
Effects
Overall, Tanzimat reforms had far-reaching effects.
Those educated in the schools established during the Tanzimat period included Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and other progressive leaders and thinkers of the Republic of Turkey and of many other former Ottoman states in the Balkans, the Middle East and North
Africa.
State institutions were reorganized; laws were updated according to the needs of the changing world; modern education, clothing, architecture, arts, and lifestyle were encouraged.
Religious Freedom- prevailed.
Introduction
The Ottoman Empire was the one of the largest and longest lasting Empires in history. It was an empire inspired and sustained by Islam, and Islamic institutions. It replaced the Byzantine Empire as the major power in the Eastern Mediterranean.
The Ottoman Empire reached its height under Suleiman the Magnificent (reigned 1520-66), when it expanded to cover the Balkans and Hungary, and reached the gates of Vienna.
The Empire began to decline after being defeated at the Battle of Lepanto (1571) and losing almost its entire Navy. It declined further during the next centuries, and was effectively finished off by the First World War and the Balkan Wars.
One legacy of the Islamic Ottoman Empire is the robust secularism …show more content…
of modern Turkey.
At its peak it included: Turkey, Egypt, Greece, Bulgaria, Romania, Macedonia, Hungary, Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, and parts of Arabia, much of the coastal strip of North Africa
Origin
After Baghdad fell to the Mongols, the Seljuks declared an independent Sultanate in east and central Asia Minor.
In 1301, Uthman, an Uzbek of the Ottoman clan, overthrew the Seljuk aristocracy and proclaimed himself the Sultan of Asia Minor.
There were many reasons why the Ottoman Empire was so successful:
• Highly centralised
• Power was always transferred to a single person, and not split between rival princes
• The Ottoman Empire was successfully ruled by a single family for 7 centuries.
• Religion was incorporated in the state structure, and the Sultan was regarded as "the protector of Islam".
• State-run Judicial System, State-run education system
• Ruthless in dealing with local leaders
• Promotion to positions of power largely depended on merit
• Created alliances across political and racial groups
• United by Islamic ideology
• United by Islamic warrior code with ideal of increasing Muslim territory through Jihad.
• United by Islamic organizational and administrative structures
• Highly pragmatic, taking the best ideas from other cultures and making them their own
• Encouraged loyalty from other faith groups
• Private power and wealth were controlled
• Very strong military Strong slave-based army
• Expert in developing gunpowder as a military tool
• Military ethos pervaded whole administration
ADMINISTRATION
The Millet System
Non-Muslim communities were organized according to the millet system, which gave minority religious/ethnic/geographical communities a limited amount of power to regulate their own affairs - under the overall supremacy of the Ottoman administration.
The first Orthodox Christian millet was established in 1454. This brought Orthodox Christians into a single community under the leadership of the Patriarch who had considerable authority given to him by the Sultan. Armenian Christian, Jewish and other millets followed in due course.
Some millets paid tax to the state as Dhimmis, while others were exempted because they were seen to be performing services of value to the state.
The devshirme system
Non-Muslims in parts of the empire had to hand over some of their children as a tax under the devshirme ('gathering') system introduced in the 14th century. Conquered Christian communities, especially in the Balkans, had to surrender twenty percent of their male children to the state. These children were converted to Islam and served as slaves.
The devshirme played a key role in Mehmet's conquest of Constantinople, and from then on regularly held very senior posts in the imperial administration. The devshirme system continued until the end of the seventeenth century.
Fratricide
Sultan Selim introduced the policy of fratricide (the murder of brothers).
Under this system whenever a new Sultan ascended to the throne his brothers would be locked up. As soon as the Sultan had produced his first son the brothers (and their sons) would be killed. The new Sultan's sons would be then confined until their father's death and the whole system would start again.
This often meant that dozens of sons would be killed while only one would become Sultan. In the later centuries of Ottoman rule, the brothers were imprisoned rather than executed.
Influences and Structure
Although the Ottoman Empire was widely influenced by the faiths and customs of the peoples it incorporated, the most significant influences came from Islam.
The ruling elite worked their way up the hierarchy of the state madrassahs (religious schools) and the palace schools. They were trained to be concerned with the needs of government and to be mindful of the restrictions of Islamic law.
In its structure the ruling elite reflected a world of order and hierarchy in which promotion and status were rewarded on merit. Thus birth and genealogy, aristocracy or tribe became almost irrelevant to success in the system. Only one post that of the Sultan was determined by birth.
Short-termism
Ottoman rulers had a very short-term policy. They rejected the idea of developing territory and investing in it for gain at some time in the future; land and peoples were exploited to the point of exhaustion and then more or less abandoned in favour of new ground.
This policy meant that the Ottoman Empire relied on continuous expansion for stability. If it did not grow, it was likely to collapse.
DECLINE
The power of the empire was waning by 1683 when the second and last attempt was made to conquer Vienna. It failed. Without the conquest of Europe and the acquisition of significant new wealth the Empire lost momentum and went into a slow decline.
Several other factors contributed to the Empire's decline:
• Ottoman Empire became less centralised, and central control weakened
• Sultans being less severe in maintaining rigorous standards of integrity in the administration of the Empire
• Sultans becoming less sensitive to public opinion
• The low quality Sultans of the 17th and 18th centuries
• The ending of the execution of Sultan's sons and brothers, imprisoning them instead
• This apparently humane process led to men becoming Sultan after spending years in prison - not the best training for absolute power
• Economic problems
• Rising unemployment within the Empire
• The European powers wanted to expand
• Competition from trade from the Americas
• Competition from cheap products from India and the Far East
• Development of other trade routes
Soon the very word Turk became synonymous with treachery and cruelty. This led Turks like Kemal Ataturk, who was born late in the nineteenth century, to be repelled by the Ottoman Turkish political system and the culture it had evolved. Seeing little but decay and corruption, he led the Turks to create a new modern identity.
The empire officially ended on the 1st November 1922, when the Ottoman sultanate was abolished and Turkey was declared a republic. The Ottoman caliphate continued as an institution, with greatly reduced authority, until it too was abolished on the 3rd March 1924.
Muhammad Al-Fateh
Introduction
Muhammad Al-Fatih was born in 1432. He was brought up under the supervision of his father, Sultan Murad-II, the seventh Ottoman Sultan. His father prepared and trained him to shoulder the responsibilities of the position of a Sultan. Muhammad Al-Fatih memorized all the Quran, learnt the Prophetic narrations, Islamic Jurisprudence, mathematics, astronomy and the skills required for war.
He also learnt Arabic, Persian, Latin and Greek languages. He joined his father in his battles and conquests.
Character
Muhammad Al-Faatih was a committed Muslim who abode by the rulings of Islamic jurisprudence.
Because of the way he was brought up, he was a pious man. As for his military conduct, it was very civilized and it was unfamiliar to Europe in its Medieval Ages.
Owing to his ambition fostered by his teacher Shaykh Aaq Shamsd-Deen, who always encouraged him to be the conqueror of Constantinople, he managed to make the greatest of his achievements by conquering this city.
Muhammad Al-Faatih, managed to realize his dreams through hard, continuous work, and well-organized planning. For example, before besieging Constantinople, he prepared for the war by making cannons, preparing his fleet, and making use of all the factors that might render him victorious.
He was a strong young man, only twenty years old, very enthusiastic and ambitious.
Through high ambition, determination, and the effort to achieve his goals, he managed to materialize his dream, make his hope an existing reality which made him one of the great Muslim heroes and conquerors.
Muhammad Al-Faatih, was known for his love for literature. He was a good poet and a regular reader. He liked the company of scholars and poets and made some of them ministers. Whenever he heard about a great scholar in any field, he would help and support him or ask him to come to Istanbul in order to benefit of his …show more content…
knowledge.
Achievements
Taking power and his efforts to achieve the glad tiding:
After the death of his father, Sultan Murad-II, he took over and became the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire. He planned conquest of Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire.
The first step in achieving his dream was to take control of the Strait of Bosporus so that he could prevent any support or supplies that might come to Constantinople from Europe. So he built a huge castle on the European seashore of the Strait of Bosporus. Along with top senior officials, he personally participated in building the castle. It took three months to build this castle that came to be known as the Roman Castle. On the other bank of the Strait of Bosporus, there was the Castle of Anatolia. It then became impossible for any ship to cross unless it obtained permission from the Ottoman forces.
At that time, a talented engineer managed to make a number of huge cannons for the Sultan.
The conquest of Constantinople and the realization of the glad tidings
After completing his preparations, Sultan marched to Constantinople with an army of two hundred and sixty-five thousand fighters. This army had infantry forces as well as horsemen. Huge cannons supported this army. The army besieged Constantinople and the Ottoman cannons started to fire their missiles at the fortified walls of the city day and night. From time to time, the Sultan surprised the enemy with a new war plan until the city defenders lost control and their forces gave up in 1453.
The Sultan's procession marched until it reached Hagia Sophia church. The Sultan ordered that the church be turned into a mosque and for the first time, the call for prayer was heard from this place. Until now, this mosque is still known as the Mosque of Hagia Sophia. He also decided to take Constantinople as a capital of his country. It was called Islambul, meaning the House of Islam. Later on the word was viciously twisted to become Istanbul.
The Sultan was very tolerant and merciful with the people of the city.
The aftermath of the conquest of Constantinople
Muhammad Al-Fatih attained this victory when he was twenty three years old. This indicated his early military genius. He also deserved the glad tidings of the Prophet, sallallaahu alayhi wa sallam, who foretold that a good person would conquer that city.
Later on, Muhammad Al-Faatih headed to complete his conquests in the Balkan. He managed to conquer Serbia, Greece, Romania, Albania and Bosnia Herzegovina. He also looked forward to conquering Rome so that he would have another source of pride in addition to the conquest of Constantinople.
In order to achieve this great hope, he needed to conquer Italy. He prepared a tremendous fleet for this mission. He managed to land his forces and a large number of cannons near the Italian city Otarant. Consequently he managed to capture its castle in Jumaadaa Al-Awwal 885 A.H., July 1480 A.C.
Muhammad Al-Fatih, decided to take Otarant as a base for his northern military operations until he could reach Rome. The European world was terrified because of this attempt and they expected the fall of the historical city, Rome, into the hands of Muhammad Al-Fatih. However, he died suddenly (on 4th Rabee' Al-Awwal, 886 A.H., 3rd May, 1481 A.C.) while he was preparing to realize this dream. All Europe was very happy when they knew about his death. The Pope of Rome ordered that thankfulness prayer be held in churches as a means of expressing joy and happiness over the news.
He made the Ottoman State reach the boundaries that it had never done before.
Muhammad II’s legal system
Through the help of some of his loyal men, he managed to establish a constitution based on the Book of Allah and the Sunnah of His Prophet (PBUH). He utilized the law codes of Byzantines as models for legislation and codification in his reign. Civil and military laws were specially codiefied and imposed with effect. The Ottoman state adhered to this constitution for about four centuries.
Architectural developments
Although he was very busy, he managed to establish more than 300 mosques, 192 of which were in Istanbul alone. He also built 57 schools. Among his most famous architectural monuments are the Mosque of Sultan Muhammad, the Mosque of Abu Ayyoob Al-Ansaari, and Sarai Tub-Qabu Palace.
Economic development
Under his rule native industry flourished enormously. Cotton and Silk especially in Basra, Istanbul and Salonica. He expanded the circle of trade internationally. He minted new coins and appointed executive officers for it.
Development of Science and Literature
He constructed several libraries and an especial observatory adjacent to his palace. He invited a number of artists, scientists, writers, musicians and scholars to his capital. He patronized religious activities as well and made Constantinople a cultural center.
SULEIMAN THE MAGNIFICENT
Introduction
Suleman the Magnificent was the tenth and longest-reigning Emperor, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, from 1520 to his death in 1566. He is known in the West as Suleiman the Magnificent and in the East, as "The Lawgiver" for his complete reconstruction of the Ottoman legal system. He was an able administrator and an enterprising soldier. He conqured lands and consolidated his occupied territories. Suleiman personally led Ottoman armies to conquer the Christian strongholds of Belgrade, Rhodes, and most of Hungary before his conquests were checked at the Siege of Vienna in 1529. He annexed most of the Middle East in his conflict with the Safavids and large swathes of North Africa as far west as Algeria. Under his rule, the Ottoman fleet dominated the seas from the Mediterranean to the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. He had under his belt many epithets. The most prominent among all were, ‘Law-giver’, ‘Grand Turk’ and ‘Magnificent’.
Unrivaled Glory of Suleiman
The elongated reign of Suleiman underscored unparalleled glory of the mighty kings. He excelled all his contemporary rulers which include Charles-V. Henry-VIII, Elizabeth, Sigismund of Poland, Shah Ismail of Persia and Akbar the Great. It was his acumen which enabled him to emerge from the conflicts stronger and triumphant than ever. His reign saw enormous progress in culture, economy and legislation.
Suleimans Gracious Rule
He was well known for his clemency and justice. He punished evil-doers and rewarded virtuous. He showed great prudence in administering the rights to his subjects as well as strengthening his authority. His magnanimity and altruism were proverbial.
ACHIEVEMENTS
Suleiman as a law giver
A vast number of religious scholars and jurists served in his court who joined their efforts to bring out the best justice system which suits everyone in the empire. Thus, laws and codes were written, specified and institutionalized. Various punishments and penalties were designed for number of crimes including robbery, adultery, murder etc. A Qanunnama was also drawn up in Suleiman’s name which registered and authenticated punishments and legalities. This famous code for which he was given the title of law-giver was the law of land for the next 300 years.
Economic reforms
Sulaiman had the sense to tax everyone accordingly. Therefore, taxes were levied according to taxpayer’s ability to pay. Out of way taxes and confiscations were strictly forbidden. The conquered territories had a governor to oversee the smooth functioning of revenue system and ensure a fixed amount to be sent to state exchequer.
Cultural Achievements
Suleiman was himself a poet. His renowned contribution in poetry was Mohibbi in Persian. His verses became Turkish proverbs in the later years.
Architectural Developments
Ottoman architecture reached its zenith in Suleimans period. His chief architect Mimar Sinan was responsible for the construction of great masterpieces like Sulaimani mosque, Salimiye mosque. He also authorized the restoration of the Dome of the Rock and renovation of Kaaba.
The Ottoman Empire went through a flowering of art, literature and architecture during the reign of Suleiman-I and the Sultan himself was quite an accomplished poet. One subject he wrote about was his famous wife Roxolana, a harem slave girl who he had broken with tradition to marry and elevate to the role of consort. It was a son by Roxolana that succeeded Suleiman-I when he died in 1566 on his way to another campaign in Hungary.
CONCLUSION
His rule was like his name magnanimous. Justice, rule of law, fraternity and liberty was ensured to everyone. It is a mark of the greatness of the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent that he was widely admired by friends and enemies alike. To his own people and his allies he was known as a wise and just ruler while his enemies had to admire his talent, wealth and power. Under his rule the Ottoman Empire reached a peak in both political power and cultural achievement. He was regarded as sacrosanct throughout his empire. Unfortunately, with the death of Suleiman the power of the Turks began to wane.
TANZIMAT
Tanzimat, refers to the series of reforms promulgated in the Ottoman Empire between 1839 and 1876 under the reigns of the sultans Abdülmecid I and Abdülaziz. These reforms were intended to effectuate a fundamental change of the empire from the old system based on theocratic principles to that of a modern state.
Many of the key provisions of the Tanzimat reforms were set forth in the Hatt-ı Şerif of Gülhane (1839; “Noble Edict of the Rose Chamber”). This document called for the establishment of new institutions that would guarantee security of life, property, and honour to all subjects of the empire regardless of their religion or race. It also authorized the development of a standardized system of taxation to eliminate abuses and established fairer methods of military conscription and training. The reforms included the development of a new secular school system, the reorganization of the army based on the Prussian conscript system, the creation of provincial representative assemblies, and the introduction of new codes of commercial and criminal law, which were largely modeled after those of France. These laws, moreover, were administered by newly established state courts independent of the ulamā, the Islāmic religious council.
The Tanzimat reform movement came to a halt by the mid-1870s during the last years of Abdülaziz’s reign. Under the Tanzimat effort to centralize administration, all legal authority became concentrated in the hands of the sultan. As a result, little could be done when Abdülaziz began abusing his power and adopted revisionary policies. This fact notwithstanding, the Tanzimat reforms succeeded in laying the groundwork for the gradual modernization of the Ottoman state.
Reforms
Guarantees to ensure the Ottoman subjects perfect security for their lives, honour, and property
Introduction of the first Ottoman paper banknotes (1840)
Reorganization of the army and a regular method of recruiting, levying the army, and fixing the duration of military service (1843–44)
Adoption of an Ottoman national anthem and Ottoman national flag (1844)
Reorganization of the finance system according to the French model
Reorganization of the Civil and Criminal Code according to the French model
Establishment of the Meclis−i Maarif−i Umumiye (1845), the prototype of the First Ottoman Parliament (1876)
Institution of a council of public instruction (1846)
Establishment of the first modern universities and academies (1848)
Abolition of the capitation tax on non−Muslims, with a regular method of establishing and collecting taxes (1856)
Non−Muslims were allowed to become soldiers (1856)
Various provisions for the better administration of the public service and advancement of commerce
The establishment of railroads
Replacement of guilds with factories
The first Stock Exchange in Istanbul was established (1866)
Effects
Overall, Tanzimat reforms had far-reaching effects.
Those educated in the schools established during the Tanzimat period included Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and other progressive leaders and thinkers of the Republic of Turkey and of many other former Ottoman states in the Balkans, the Middle East and North
Africa.
State institutions were reorganized; laws were updated according to the needs of the changing world; modern education, clothing, architecture, arts, and lifestyle were encouraged.
Religious Freedom- prevailed.