Trojan War Research Paper

The Trojan War pitted a loose alliance of independent Greek kings against the city of *Troy (in what today is northwest Turkey) and her allies in Asia Minor. It is said to have begun with an insult to the goddess Eris ("Strife" or "Discord"). When the Greek hero *Peleus married the minor sea-goddess *Thetis, all of the gods were invited to the wedding except Eris. Angry at this, she placed on the banquet table a golden apple inscribed with the words: "For the fairest." Immediately strife broke out between the various goddesses at the wedding, all of whom claimed the apple for themselves. (Today we still refer to the *Apple of Discord: does this story remind you of any other famous apples?) Three goddesses were determined to have the best claim: *Hera, sister and wife of *Zeus, queen of the gods, goddess of marriages, and a force to reckon with; *Athena, daughter of Zeus, a powerful warrior goddess associated
with wisdom and skilled crafts; *Aphrodite, daughter of Zeus, goddess of sexual passion. None of the male gods was willing to judge between these three so they decided to give the job to a mortal. The goddesses were led by the messenger god *Hermes down to Mt. Ida (near Troy) where the handsome young Trojan prince *Paris (also known as Alexander), son of the Trojan king *Priam and his wife *Hecuba, was tending a flock of sheep. (What was a prince doing tending sheep? There was a romantic myth to explain this, but the real reason seems to be that we are dealing with a Greek adaptation of an ancient near eastern myth about a mother goddess and her young male consort.) As we will find, the ancient Greeks are highly competitive, placing more emphasis on success than on means: the three goddesses immediately set about bribing the judge. The queenly Hera offered Paris royal power over Asia and Europe, the martial Athena promised him military prowess and fame, while Aphrodite offered him *Helen, the most beautiful woman in the world. Paris immediately chose the last (perhaps he'd been out with the flocks a bit too long) and, with Aphrodite's help, sailed off to Greece, accompanied by the Trojan hero Aeneas. His destination was *Sparta (in the *Peloponnese: see map 2 in The World of Athens), where Helen was married to *Menelaus, king of Sparta and brother to the powerful *Agamemnon, king of neighboring *Mycenae. Paris stayed at Sparta as Menelaus' guest until Menelaus was forced to leave on business, whereupon Paris promptly made off with his host's wife. This act is known as the *Rape of Helen.
The rape of Helen was an offense against the guest-host relationship and against Zeus Xenios, who oversaw this relationship. [The Greeks not only worshipped a number of gods (polytheism) but attributed to each god a variety of spheres of influence or jurisdictions: thus Zeus in his role as supervisor of the guest-host relationship was distinguished from, e.g., Zeus in his role as protector of suppliants (Zeus Hikesios) or as a chthonic deity associated with the spirits of the dead (Zeus Meilichios).] In violating Menelaus' hospitality, Paris had in effect slighted Zeus, not a good thing to do. Moreover, he had won the hatred of Hera and Athena by awarding Aphrodite the prize for beauty.
To add to Paris' troubles, the various suitors of Helen had sworn an oath that they would honor the rights of whatever man won her hand in marriage and would band together to punish anyone who infringed upon those rights. As the most powerful of the various Greek kings, Agamemnon assumed charge of the expedition that was formed to win Helen back and punish the Trojans.
Various stories were told of the early stages of the expedition. [For example, some of the heroes attempted to avoid going at all: the cunning *Odysseus pretended to be insane; *Achilles (the son of Peleus and Thetis and the greatest of all the Greek heroes) was disguised as a girl and hidden on the island of Scyrus. The first expedition failed when the Greeks landed in Mysia (south of Troy) by mistake and attacked the kingdom of Telephus, thinking it Troy.] Most of these tales are not dealt with specifically in the Homeric poems but many of them were recounted in the so-called *Epic Cycle, a series of shorter epics designed to fill in the parts of the Trojan saga omitted by Homer. We have only the barest fragments of these poems, which post-date Homer but which contained a good deal of material that must have been familiar to Homer's audience.
The most important of these stories involves the sacrifice of Agamemnon's daughter *Iphigenia, which goes as follows. The (second) expedition against Troy began with the Greek forces gathering at Aulis (on the east coast of Boeotia, facing the island of Euboea: see map 2 in The World of Athens). While there, Agamemnon in some way insulted the virginal huntress goddess *Artemis (the traditions vary In her anger, Artemis sent adverse winds to keep the Greek fleet from sailing. The prophet *Calchas finally revealed to Agamemnon that the only way to appease Artemis' anger was to sacrifice his daughter Iphigenia. Agamemnon sent word to his wife *Clytemnestra that Iphigenia was to be married to Achilles as the condition upon which the latter would join the expedition. When Iphigenia arrived, however, she was slaughtered at the altar of Artemis. Clytemnestra later got her revenge: when Agamemnon returned home after the war she led him into his bath and, when he was naked and helpless in the tub, wrapped a large towel around him and hacked him to death.
[Part of Clytemnestra's anger was due to the fact that, in addition to having butchered their daughter, Agamemnon had brought the Trojan princess *Cassandra back with him to be his concubine. Cassandra was a prophetess who had been given her prophetic powers by the god *Apollo. Apollo had granted her these powers on the agreement that she would sleep with him, but Cassandra did not fulfill her part of the deal (a clear exception to the general rule of feminine passivity mentioned above). In his anger, Apollo cursed Cassandra: she would foretell the future accurately but no one would believe or understand her. Today people tend to misuse her name as if it referred to someone who is always gloomily predicting disaster: Cassandra was always correct in her predictions, but no one would listen to her.]
The poem tells of a quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles — the foremost fighter of the Greeks — that leads Achilles to sit out the battle, resulting in a series of Trojan successes. Achilles refuses to reenter the battle but is eventually compelled to provide some assistance to the Greeks or risk seeing the entire expedition wiped out. Accordingly, he sends his friend *Patroclus into battle in his place, only to have him killed at the hands of the Trojan hero *Hector, the most noble of Priam's sons and leader of the Trojan forces. Achilles falls into a rage and goes on a killing spree, slaughtering Trojans by the dozens until eventually he kills Hector in single combat. The poem ends with the burial of Patroclus and the ransoming of Hector's body

The Odyssey (Greek, Odysseia) is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is, in part, a sequel to the Iliad, the other work ascribed to Homer. The poem is fundamental to the modern Western canon, and is the second oldest extant work of Western literature, the Iliad being the first. It is believed to have been composed near the end of the 8th century BC, somewhere in Ionia, the Greek coastal region of Anatolia.
The poem mainly centers on the Greek hero Odysseus (or Ulysses, as he was known in Roman myths) and his journey home after the fall of Troy. It takes Odysseus ten years to reach Ithaca after the ten-year Trojan War. In his absence, it is assumed he has died, and his wife Penelope and son Telemachus must deal with a group of unruly suitors, the Mnesteres (Greek: Μνηστῆρες) or Proci, who compete for Penelope's hand in marriage.
It continues to be read in the Homeric Greek and translated into modern languages around the world. Many scholars believe that the original poem was composed in an oral tradition by an aoidos (epic poet/singer), perhaps a rhapsode (professional performer), and was more likely intended to be heard than read. The details of the ancient oral performance and the story's conversion to a written work inspire continual debate among scholars. The Odyssey was written in a poetic dialect of Greek—a literary amalgam of Aeolic Greek, Ionic Greek, and other Ancient Greek dialects—and comprises 12,110 lines of dactylic hexameter. Among the most noteworthy elements of the text are its non-linear plot, and the influence on events of choices made by women and serfs, besides the actions of fighting men. In the English language as well as many others, the word odyssey has come to refer to an epic voyage.
The Odyssey has a lost sequel, the Telegony, which was not written by Homer. It was usually attributed in Antiquity to Cinaethon of Sparta, but in one source was said to have been stolen from Musaeus by Eugamon or Eugammon of Cyrene.
Exposition
The Odyssey begins ten years after the end of the ten-year Trojan War that is the subject of the Iliad, and Odysseus has still not returned home from the war. Odysseus' son Telemachus is about 20 years old and is sharing his absent father’s house on the island of Ithaca with his mother Penelope and a crowd of 108 boisterous young men, "the Suitors", whose aim is to persuade Penelope to marry one of them, all the while enjoying the hospitality of Odysseus' household and eating up his wealth.
Odysseus’ protectress, the goddess Athena, discusses his fate with Zeus, king of the gods, at a moment when Odysseus' enemy, the god of the sea Poseidon, is absent from Mount Olympus. Then, disguised as a Taphian chieftain named Mentes (otherwise known as “Mentor”), she visits Telemachus to urge him to search for news of his father. He offers her hospitality; they observe the Suitors dining rowdily while the bard Phemius performs a narrative poem for them. Penelope objects to Phemius' theme, the "Return from Troy",because it reminds her of her missing husband, but Telemachus rebuts her objections.
That night Athena, disguised as Telemachus, finds a ship and crew for the true Telemachus. The next morning, Telemachus calls an assembly of citizens of Ithaca to discuss what should be done with the suitors. Accompanied by Athena (still disguised as Mentor), he departs for the Greek mainland and the household of Nestor, most venerable of the Greek warriors at Troy, now at home in Pylos. From there, Telemachus rides overland, accompanied by Nestor's son, Peisistratus, to Sparta, where he finds Menelaus and Helen who are now reconciled. He is told that they returned to Sparta after a long voyage by way of Egypt. There, on the island of Pharos, Menelaus encountered the old sea-god Proteus, who told him that Odysseus was a captive of the nymph Calypso. Incidentally, Telemachus learns the fate of Menelaus’ brother Agamemnon, king of Mycenae and leader of the Greeks at Troy: he was murdered on his return home by his wife Clytemnestra and her lover Aegisthus.

Charles Gleyre, Odysseus and Nausicaä
Escape to the Phaeacians
Then the story of Odysseus is told. He has spent seven years in captivity on Calypso's island, Ogygia. Calypso falls deeply in love with him but he has consistently spurned her advances. She is persuaded to release him by Odysseus' great-grandfather, the messenger god Hermes, who has been sent by Zeus in response to Athena's plea. Odysseus builds a raft and is given clothing, food and drink by Calypso. When Poseidon finds out that Odysseus has escaped, he wrecks the raft but, helped by a veil given by the sea nymph Ino, Odysseus swims ashore on Scherie, the island of the Phaeacians. Naked and exhausted, he hides in a pile of leaves and falls asleep. The next morning, awakened by the laughter of girls, he sees the young Nausicaa, who has gone to the seashore with her maids to wash clothes after Athena told her in a dream to do so. He appeals to her for help. She encourages him to seek the hospitality of her parents, Arete and Alcinous, or Alkinous. Odysseus is welcomed and is not at first asked for his name. He remains for several days, takes part in a pentathlon, and hears the blind singer Demodocus perform two narrative poems. The first is an otherwise obscure incident of the Trojan War, the "Quarrel of Odysseus and Achilles"; the second is the amusing tale of a love affair between two Olympian gods, Ares and Aphrodite. Finally, Odysseus asks Demodocus to return to the Trojan War theme and tell of the Trojan Horse, a stratagem in which Odysseus had played a leading role. Unable to hide his emotion as he relives this episode, Odysseus at last reveals his identity. He then begins to tell the story of his return from Troy.

Odysseus Overcome by Demodocus' Song, by Francesco Hayez, 1813-15
Odysseus' account of his adventures
After a piratical raid on Ismaros in the land of the Cicones, he and his twelve ships were driven off course by storms. They visited the lethargic Lotus-Eaters who gave two of his men their fruit which caused them to forget their homecoming, and then were captured by the Cyclops Polyphemus, escaping by blinding him with a wooden stake. While they were escaping, however, Odysseus foolishly told Polyphemus his identity, and Polyphemus told his father, Poseidon, that Odysseus had blinded him. Poseidon then curses Odysseus to wander the sea for ten years, during which he would lose all his crew and return home through the aid of others. After their escape, they stayed with Aeolus, the master of the winds and he gave Odysseus a leather bag containing all the winds, except the west wind, a gift that should have ensured a safe return home. However, the greedy sailors foolishly opened the bag while Odysseus slept, thinking it contained gold. All of the winds flew out and the resulting storm drove the ships back the way they had come, just as Ithaca came into sight.
After unsuccessfully pleading with Aeolus to help them again, they re-embarked and encountered the cannibalistic Laestrygonians. All of Odysseus’s ships except his own entered the harbor of the Laestrygonians’ Island and were immediately destroyed. He sailed on and visited the witch-goddess Circe. She turned half of his men into swine after feeding them cheese and wine. Hermes warned Odysseus about Circe and gave Odysseus a drug called moly which gave him resistance to Circe’s magic. Circe, surprised by Odysseus' resistance, agreed to change his men back to their human form in exchange for Odysseus' love. They remained with her on the island for one year, while they feasted and drank. Finally, guided by Circe's instructions, Odysseus and his crew crossed the ocean and reached a harbor at the western edge of the world, where Odysseus sacrificed to the dead. He first encountered the spirit of crewmember Elpenor, who had gotten drunk and fallen from a roof to his death, which had gone unnoticed by others, before Odysseus and the rest of his crew had left Circe. Elpenor's ghost told Odysseus to bury his body, which Odysseus promised to do. Odysseus then summoned the spirit of the old prophet Tiresias for advice on how to appease the gods upon his return home. Next Odysseus met the spirit of his own mother, who had died of grief during his long absence. From her, he got his first news of his own household, threatened by the greed of the Suitors. Finally, he met the spirits of famous men and women. Notably he encountered the spirit of Agamemnon, of whose murder he now learned, and Achilles, who told him about the woes of the land of the dead (for Odysseus' encounter with the dead, see also Nekuia).
Returning to Circe’s island, they were advised by her on the remaining stages of the journey. They skirted the land of the Sirens, who sang an enchanting song that normally caused passing sailors to steer toward the rocks, only to hit them and sink. All of the sailors except for Odysseus, who was tied to the mast as he wanted to hear the song, had their ears plugged up with beeswax. They then passed between the six-headed monster Scylla and the whirlpool Charybdis, Odysseus losing six men to Scylla, and landed on the island of Thrinacia. Zeus caused a storm which prevented them leaving. While Odysseus was away praying, his men ignored the warnings of Tiresias and Circe and hunted down the sacred cattle of the sun god Helios as their food had run short. The Sun God insisted that Zeus punish the men for this sacrilege. They suffered a shipwreck as they were driven towards Charybdis. All but Odysseus were drowned; he clung to a fig tree above Charybdis. Washed ashore on the island of Calypso, he was compelled to remain there as her lover until she was ordered by Zeus via Hermes to release Odysseus.
Return to Ithaca
Having listened with rapt attention to his story, the Phaeacians, who are skilled mariners, agree to help Odysseus get home. They deliver him at night, while he is fast asleep, to a hidden harbour on Ithaca. He finds his way to the hut of one of his own slaves, the swineherd Eumaeus. Athena disguises Odysseus as a wandering beggar so he can see how things stand in his household. After dinner, he tells the farm laborers a fictitious tale of himself: He was born in Crete, had led a party of Cretans to fight alongside other Greeks in the Trojan War, and had then spent seven years at the court of the king of Egypt; finally he had been shipwrecked in Thesprotia and crossed from there to Ithaca.
Meanwhile, Telemachus sails home from Sparta, evading an ambush set by the Suitors. He disembarks on the coast of Ithaca and makes for Eumaeus’s hut. Father and son meet; Odysseus identifies himself to Telemachus (but still not to Eumaeus), and they decide that the Suitors must be killed. Telemachus goes home first. Accompanied by Eumaeus, Odysseus returns to his own house, still pretending to be a beggar. He is ridiculed by the Suitors in his own home, especially by one extremely impertinent man named Antinous. Odysseus meets Penelope and tests her intentions by saying he once met Odysseus in Crete. Closely questioned, he adds that he had recently been in Thesprotia and had learned something there of Odysseus’s recent wanderings.
Odysseus’s identity is discovered by the housekeeper, Eurycleia, when she recognizes an old scar as she is washing his feet. Eurycleia tries to tell Penelope about the beggar's true identity, but Athena makes sure that Penelope cannot hear her. Odysseus then swears Eurycleia to secrecy.
Slaying of the Suitors
The next day, at Athena’s prompting, Penelope maneuvers the Suitors into competing for her hand with an archery competition using Odysseus' bow. The man who can string the bow and shoot it through a dozen axe heads would win. Odysseus takes part in the competition himself: he alone is strong enough to string the bow and shoot it through the dozen axe heads, making him the winner. He then turns his arrows on the Suitors and with the help of Athena, Telemachus, Eumaeus and Philoteus the cowherd, he kills all the Suitors. Odysseus and Telemachus hang twelve of their household maids, who had betrayed Penelope or had sex with the Suitors, or both; they mutilate and kill the goatherd Melanthius, who had mocked and abused Odysseus. Now at last, Odysseus identifies himself to Penelope. She is hesitant, but accepts him when he mentions that their bed was made from an olive tree still rooted to the ground. Many modern and ancient scholars take this to be the original ending of the Odyssey, and the rest to be an interpolation.
The next day he and Telemachus visit the country farm of his old father Laertes, who likewise accepts his identity only when Odysseus correctly describes the orchard that Laertes had previously given him.
The citizens of Ithaca have followed Odysseus on the road, planning to avenge the killing of the Suitors, their sons. Their leader points out that Odysseus has now caused the deaths of two generations of the men of Ithaca: his sailors, not one of whom survived; and the Suitors, whom he has now executed. The goddess Athena intervenes and persuades both sides to give up the vendetta, a deus ex machina. After this, Ithaca is at peace once more, concluding the Odyssey.

Atalanta is the female athlete in Greek myth. It is unclear exactly where Atalanta comes from, some sources say that she came from Arcadia and was the daughter of Iasus and Clymene, but Hesiod and other sources attributes Atalanta's origin to Boeotia where her father is Schoeneus. The contradiction over Atalanta's birth contributes to the assumption that there were two maythic women that were merged into one person.

Whoever Atalanta's father was, he wanted a boy so bad that when Atalanta was born, he exposed her on a hill were she was suckled by a she bear, sent by Artemis, until a group of hunters found her and raised her to womanhood.
Atalanta, like Artemis, loved to hunt.
Atalanta is best known for participation in male activities while at the same time having an aura of sexuality surrounding her. For example, some sources say that Atalanta was one of the Argonauts. Atalanta was even wounded in a battle with the Colchians and was healed by Medea, who was also on the voyage. But at the same time, other sources say that Jason refused to let Atalanta go on the voyage because she was a woman.
One male activity Atalanta definitely participated in was the Calydonian Boar Hunt. Other male members of the hunt objected to her presence, but consumed with lust, Meleager insisted that Atalanta be allowed to join. During the hunt, centaurs Hylaeus and Rhaecus tried to rape Atalanta. Atalanta killed both of them, thus the first bloodshed of the Calydonian Boar Hunt was
human.
Atalanta shot the first arrow to pierce the boar. Because of this, Meleager gave Atalanta the boar's pelt. This resulted in even more human bloodshed, Meleager's two uncles protested to Atalanta receiving the pelt, so Meleager killed them. When Meleager's mother heard that Meleager had killed her brothers, she threw an enchanted log on the fire, once the log finished burning Meleager would die.
After Atalanta's success at the boar hunt, Atalanta's father, Iasus or Schoeneus, was proud and claimed her as his daughter. Atalanta was reconciled with her father. Since Atalanta was now a princess, Iasus wanted Atalanta to marry. Atalanta had been warned not to marry by the Oracle. Atalanta came up with a witty plan that would stop her from having to marry. She would race the suitors, the one who beat her in the foot race would be the lucky man to marry her, but if she won, she could kill the man. Atalanta made the bargain knowing that no one could beat her. One day a racer, Melanion or to some sources Hippomenes, fell in love with Atalanta and wanted to marry her, but he knew he could not beat her so he called on Aphrodite, the love goddess, for assistance. Aphrodite provided Melanion with three golden apples to entice Atalanta. During the race, whenever Atalanta would get ahead of Melanion, he would roll one of the golden apples forward, forcing a curious Atalanta to stop and pick the apple up. Atalanta's frequent stops gave Melanion the advantage he needed and he won the race and Atalanta's hand in marriage.
Once married, it seems that Atalanta could not contain her inhibitions any longer, for one day she allowed Melanion to seduce her in the temple of Zeus. Zeus was so angered that he turned them into lions. This was a fitting punishment because lions cannot mate with each other.
Atalanta has a son named Parthenopaeus (son of a pierced maidenhead). Once again, there is a dispute as to who the father is. Some sources say that Atalanta had an affair with Meleagar, other sources attribute Parthenopaues to Ares or Melanion. Parthenpaoues was active in the war known as the Seven Against Thebes.

Two nymphs – Pleasure and Virtue – who offered him a choice between a pleasant life and a severe but glorious life, visited Heracles, in his youth, he chose the latter. One of his challenges was from King Thespius who wanted him to kill the Lion of Cithaeron. As a reward the King offered him the chance to impregnate each of his 50 daughters which he did in one night (sometimes referred to as the 13th labor). Later Heracles married Megara. Hera drove Heracles into mad fits causing him to kill Megara and their children. Heracles fled to the Oracle of Delphi who was guided by Hera unbeknownst to Heracles. He was directed to serve King Eurystheus for 12 years performing any task required of him. This resulted in the Twelve Labors of Heracles.

1. Kill the Nemean Lion The first labor set by Eurystheus (Heracles’ cousin) was to slay the Nemean Lion and bring back the skin. The lion was usually considered the offspring of Typhon and Echidna. The lion had been terrorizing the area around Nemea, and had a skin so thick that it was impenetrable to weapons. When Heracles first tackled it, his weapons – bow and arrow, a club made from an olive tree (which he pulled out of the ground himself) and a bronze sword – were all ineffective. At last Heracles threw away his weapons and wrestled the lion to the ground, eventually killing it by thrusting his arm down its throat and choking it or by some tales he broke its jaw. Heracles was becoming disappointed that he might not complete his first task due to struggling to skin the lion. Athena, in the guise of an old crone, helped Heracles realize the best tools to cut the hide were the creature’s own claws allowing him to complete the first task. He would come to wear the hide as armor thereafter.
2. Destroy the Lernaean Hydra The second labor was to destroy the Lernaean hydra, a sea-creature said to possess so many heads that the vase-painter couldn’t paint them all and it had poisonous breath. Upon reaching the swamp near Lake Lerna, Heracles covered his mouth and nose with a cloth to protect him from the poisonous fumes. He then fired flaming arrows into the spring of Amymone, the creature’s lair, to draw it out. Heracles, wielding a harvesting sickle, attacked the hydra. But as he cut off a head, he found two more grew in its place. Heracles then called on his nephew, Iolaus. His nephew then came to the idea (possibly inspired by Athena) of using a burning firebrand to scorch the neck stumps after decapitation. The creatures own venomous blood was used to burn the heads so they could not grow back. When Eurystheus learned of Heracles’ nephew helping, he declared that the labor had not been completed alone and did not count towards the ten labors set for him.
3. Capture the Ceryneian Hind (Scorpio)

Eurystheus was greatly angered to find that Heracles had managed to escape death on the previous two labors, so he decided to spend more time thinking up a third task that would spell doom for the hero. The third task did not involve killing a beast, as it had been established that Heracles could overcome even the most fearsome opponents. Eurhstheus decided to make him capture the remaining Cerynian Hind. The hind was said to be so fast it could outrun arrows. Heracles noticed the hind on waking by the golden glint of its antlers. Heracles chased the hind on foot for a full year through Greece, Thrace, Istria and the land of the Hyperboreans. He captured the hind when it was unable to run any further. Eurystheus had given Heracles this task hoping to incite Artemis’ anger at Heracles for his desecration of her sacred animal. As he was returning with the hind, Heracles encountered Artemis and her twin Apollo. He begged the goddess for forgiveness, explaining that he had to catch it as part of his penance, but promised to return it. Artemis forgave him. Upon bringing the hind to Eurystheus, he was told that it was to become part of the King’s menagerie. Heracles knew he had to return the hind as promised, so he agreed to hand it over on the condition Eurystheus himself came out and took it from him. The King came out, but the moment Heracles let the hind go, it sprinted back to its mistress.
4. Trap the Erymanthian Boar The fourth labor was to capture the boar. Heracles visited Pholus, a kind and hospitable centaur, on his way there. Heracles ate with him and then asked for wine. Pholus had only one jar, a gift from Dionysus, but Heracles convinced him to open it. The smell attracted the other centaurs that then became drunk on the undiluted wine and attacked. Heracles shot at them with his poisonous arrows causing those remaining to retreat to Chiron’s cave. Pholus, curious about the arrows, picked one up but then dropped it stabbing his own foot. A stray arrow also hit Chiron, who was immortal. Heracles asked Chiron how to catch the boar. Chiron told him to drive it into thick snow. Chiron’s pain from the arrow was so great; he volunteered to give up immortality. Following the advice, Heracles caught the boar and brought it back to the King. Eurystheus became so frightened he ducked down in his chamber pot and begged Heracles to get rid of the beast.

5. Clean the Augean Stables (Capricorn) The fifth labor was to clean the Augean stables in a single day. The reason it was set as a labor was to degrade him in the people’s eyes since all the previous labors exalted Heracles and since the livestock were a divine gift therefore immune from disease the stable had never been cleaned making the amount of filth a surely impossible task. However Heracles succeeded by rerouting the rivers Alpheus and Peneus to wash out the filth. Augeas was irate because he had promised Heracles one-tenth of his cattle if the job was finished in one day. He refused to honor the agreement. Heracles killed him after having completed the task and gave the kingdom to Augeas’ son, Phyleus, who had been exiled for supporting Heracles against his father.
6. Kill the Stymphalian Birds (Sagittarius) This labor was set to kill the man-eating birds. They were pets to Ares and had migrated to Lake Stymphalia to escape a pack of wolves. They bred quickly, taking over the countryside, destroying local crops and fruit trees. The forest they inhabited was dense and extremely dark. Athena and Hephaestus aided Heracles by forging huge bronze clappers. The clappers scared the birds into flight and Heracles shot them down with his arrows. The birds that survived never returned to Greece.
7. Capture the Cretan Bull (Taurus) The seventh task had Heracles sail to Crete where Minos, King of Crete gave him permission to take the bull away. It had been wreaking havoc on Crete. Heracles strangled the bull and shipped it back to Athens. Eurystheus wanted to sacrifice the bull to Hera, who still hated Heracles. She refused the offering because it reflected glory on Heracles. The bull was then released to wander into Marathon. Some tales of this labor say Heracles was to kill the Minotaur.
8. Round up the Mares of Diomedes (Aquaries) This labor was for Heracles to steal the Mares. In some tales Heracles brought Abderus, one of his male lovers and some other youths to help him. They took the mares and were chased by Diomedes and his men. Heracles was unaware that the mares were man-eaters and uncontrollable. He left Abderus in charge of them while he fought Diomedes. Abdera was eaten. In revenge, Heracles fed Diomedes to his own horses.
In another version, Heracles cut the chains binding the horses. Having scared them onto the high ground of a peninsula, Heracles quickly dug a trench through the peninsula, filling it with water, thus making it an island. When Diomedes arrived, Heracles killed him with the axe used to build the trench and fed the body to the horses. Eating made the horses calmer and Heracles took the opportunity to bind their mouths shut and easily took them back to Eurystheus. They were then set free to roam around Argos, having become permanently calmed.
9. Steal the Girdle of Hippolyta The ninth labor was to obtain the girdle at the request of Admete, Eurystheus’ daughter. Hippolyta was so intrigued by Heracles’ muscles and lion skin, that she gave him the girdle without a fight.
10. Herd the Cattle of Geryon (Gemini) Heracles was required to travel to Erytheia in order to obtain the Cattle of Geryon as his tenth labor. On his way there, he crossed the Libyan Desert and became so frustrated with the heat that he shot an arrow at Helios, the Sun. Helios, in admiration of his courage, gave Heracles the golden cup he used to sail across the sea from west to east each night. Heracles used it to reach Erytheia. As soon as Heracles set foot on Erytheia, he was confronted with the two-headed dog, Orthrus. With one huge blow of his olive club, Heracles killed the watchdog. Eurytion, a herdsman, came to assist Orthrus, but Heracles dealt with him the same way. On hearing the commotion, Geryon came carrying three shields and three spears and wearing three helmets. He pursued Heracles at the River Anthemus but fell victim to an arrow that had been dipped in the Lernaean Hydra’s venomous blood. The arrow was shot so forcefully by Heracles that it pierced Geryon’s forehead. Heracles then herded the cattle back to Eurystheus. To annoy Heracles, Hera sent a gadfly to bite the cattle causing them to scatter. Within a year, the hero was able to retrieve them. Hera then sent a flood, which raised the level of a river so much Heracles could not cross with the cattle. He piled stones into the river to make the water shallower. Eurystheus sacrificed the cattle to Hera.
11. Fetch the Apples of Hesperides Eurystheus discounted two of Heracles’ labor because he was aided or paid, so two additional labors were given. The first of these was to steal the apples from the garden of the Hersperides. Heracles first caught Nereus, the shape-shifting sea god, to learn where the garden was located. Heracles tricked Atlas into retrieving some of the golden apples for him by offering to hold up the heavens for a little while. Upon his return, Atlas decided that he did not want to take the heavens back and instead offered to deliver the apples himself. Heracles tricked him again by agreeing to take his place on the condition that Atlas relieved him temporarily so that Heracles could make his cloak more comfortable. Atlas agreed, but Heracles reneged and walked away.

12. Capture Cerberus The last of his labors, Heracles was to capture Cerberus from Hades. Hades was the God of the dead and ruler of the Underworld. After having been given the task, Heracles went to Eleusis to be initiated in the Eleusinian Mysteries so that he could learn how to enter and exit the underworld alive and in passing absolve himself for killing centaurs. He found the entrance to the underworld at Tanaerum. Athena and Hermes helped him to traverse the entrance in each direction. He passed Charon with Hermes’ assistance and his own heavy and fierce frowning. While in the Underworld, Heracles freed Theseus but the earth shook when he tried to liberate Pirithous, so he had to leave him behind. They had been imprisoned by Hades because the attempted to kidnap Persephone and were magically bound to a bench. The magic was so strong that when Heracles pulled Theseus free, part of Theseus’ thighs remained on the bench. Heracles presented himself before the throne of Hades and Persphone and asked permission to take Cerberus to which the gods agreed as long as Heracles did not harm the hound in any way. Some say Persephone gave her consent because Heracles was her own brother. Heracles then wrestled the hound into submission and dragged it out of Hades, passing through a cavern entrance in Peloponnese. When he returned with Cerberus to the palace, Eurystheus was so afraid of the fearsome beast that he jumped into the large storage jar to hide. From the spittle of the dog, which fell upon earth, the first poisonous plants were born including the deadly aconite

also known as The Tale of Amour and Psyche and The Tale of Eros and Psyche, is a myth that first appeared as a digressionary story told by an old woman in Lucius Apuleius' novel, The Golden Ass, written in the 2nd century AD. Apuleius likely used an earlier tale as the basis for his story, modifying it to suit the thematic needs of his novel.
It has since been interpreted as a Märchen, an allegory and a myth. Considered as a fairy tale, it is neither an allegory nor a myth, but the folkloric tradition tends to blend these. Legend Envious and jealous of the beauty of a mortal girl named Psyche, Venus asks her son Cupid (known to the Greeks as Eros) to use his golden arrows while Psyche sleeps, so that when she awakens, Venus (Aphrodite in the Greek tradition) would place a vile creature for her to fall in love with. Cupid finally agrees to her commands after a long debate. As he flies to Psyche's room at night, he becomes invisible so no one can see him fly in through her window. He takes pity on her, for she was born too beautiful for her own safety. As he slowly approaches, careful not to make a sound, he readies one of his golden arrows. He leans over Psyche while she is asleep and before he can pierce her shoulder with the tip of his arrow, she awakens, startling him, for she looks right into his eyes, despite his invisibility. This causes him to scratch himself with his arrow and fall deeply in love with her. He cannot continue his mission, for every passing second he finds her more appealing. He reports back to Venus shortly after and the news enrages her. Venus places a curse on Psyche that prevents her from meeting a suitable husband. Cupid is greatly upset, and decides that, as long as Psyche remains cursed, he will no longer shoot arrows, which will cause the temple of Venus to fall.
After months of no one — man or animal — falling in love, marrying, or mating, the Earth starts to grow old, which causes concern to Venus, for nobody praises her for Cupid's actions. Finally, she agrees to listen to Cupid's demands, allowing him his one desire, which is Psyche. Venus, upset, agrees to his demands only if he begins work immediately. He accepts the offer and takes off, shooting his golden arrows as fast as he can, restoring everything to the way it should be. People again fall in love and marry animals far and wide mate, and the Earth begins to look young once again.
When all continue to admire and praise Psyche's beauty, but none desire her as a wife, Psyche's parents consult an oracle, which tells them to abandon their daughter on the nearest mountain, for her beauty is so great that she is not meant for mortal men. Terrified, they have no choice but to follow the oracle's instructions. But then Zephyrus, the west wind, carries Psyche away to a fair valley and a magnificent palace where she is attended by invisible servants until nightfall, and in the darkness of night the promised bridegroom arrives and the marriage is consummated. Cupid visits her every night to sleep with her, but demands that she never light any lamps, since he does not want her to know who he is until the time is right.
Cupid allows Zephyrus to take Psyche back to her sisters and bring all three down to the palace during the day, but warns that Psyche should not listen to any argument that she should try to discover his true form. The two jealous sisters tell Psyche, then pregnant with Cupid's child, that rumor is that she had married a great and terrible serpent who would devour her and her unborn child when the time came for it to be fed. They urge Psyche to conceal a knife and oil lamp in the bedchamber, to wait till her husband is asleep, and then to light the lamp and slay him at once if it is as they said. Psyche sadly follows their advice. In the light of the lamp Psyche recognizes the fair form on the bed as the god Cupid himself. However, she accidentally pricks herself with one of his arrows, and is consumed with desire for her husband. She starts to kiss him, but after a while, a drop of oil falls from her lamp onto Cupid's shoulder and wakes him. She watches him fly away, and she falls from the window to the ground, sick at heart.
Psyche then finds herself in the city where one of her jealous elder sisters lives. She tells her what had happened, and then tricks her sister into believing that Cupid has chosen her as a wife on the mountaintop. Psyche later meets her other sister and deceives her likewise. Each sister goes to the top of the peak and jumps down eagerly, but Zephyrus does not bear them and they fall to their deaths at the base of the mountain.
Psyche searches far and wide for her lover, finally stumbling into a temple where everything is in slovenly disarray. As Psyche is sorting and clearing the mess, Ceres (Demeter to the Greeks) appears, but refuses any help beyond advising Psyche that she must call directly on

Venus, who caused all the problems in the first place. Psyche next calls on Juno (Hera to the Greeks) in her temple, but Juno gives her the same advice. So Psyche finds a temple to Venus and enters it. Venus then orders Psyche to separate all the grains in a large basket of mixed kinds before nightfall. An ant takes pity on Psyche, and with its ant companions, separates the grains for her.
Venus is outraged at her success and tells her to go to a field where golden sheep graze and to retrieve some golden wool. A river-god tells Psyche that the sheep are vicious and strong and will kill her, but if she waits until noontime, the sheep will go to the shade on the other side of the field and sleep; she can then pick the wool that sticks to the branches and bark of the trees. Venus next asks for water flowing from a cleft that is impossible for a mortal to attain and is also guarded by great serpents. This time an eagle performs the task for Psyche.
Venus, furious at Psyche's survival, claims that the stress of caring for her son, made depressed and ill as a result of Psyche's lack of faith, has caused her to lose some of her beauty. Psyche is to go to the Underworld and ask the queen of the Underworld, Proserpina (Persephone to the Greeks), to place a bit of her beauty in a box that Venus had given to Psyche. Psyche decides that the quickest way to the Underworld is to throw herself off some high place and die, and so she climbs to the top of a tower. But the tower itself speaks to Psyche and tells her the route that will allow her to enter the Underworld alive and return again, as well as telling her how to get past Cerberus (by giving the three-headed dog a small cake); how to avoid other dangers on the way there and back; and most importantly, to eat nothing but coarse bread in the underworld, as eating anything else would trap her there forever. Psyche follows the orders precisely, rejecting all but bread while beneath the Earth.
However, once Psyche has left the Underworld, she decides to open the box and take a little bit of the beauty for herself. Inside, she can see no beauty; instead an infernal sleep arises from the box and overcomes her. Cupid (Eros), who had forgiven Psyche, flies to her, wipes the sleep from her face, puts it back in the box, and sends her back on her way. Then Cupid flies to Mount Olympus and begs Jupiter (Zeus) to aid them. Jupiter calls a full and formal council of the gods and declares that it is his will that Cupid marry Psyche. Jupiter then has Psyche fetched to Mount Olympus, and gives her a drink made from ambrosia, granting her immortality. Begrudgingly, Venus and Psyche forgive each other.
Psyche and Cupid have a daughter, called Voluptas (Hedone in Greek mythology), the goddess of "sensual pleasures", whose Latin name means "pleasure" or "bliss". L'Amour et Psyché,by François-Édouard Picot, 1819

The Norse Gods and Immortals
Aegir
God of the sea. Married to Ran and lives under the waves near the island of Hlesey.
Aesir
A group of warrior gods led by Odin who inhabit Asgard.
Balder
Son of Odin and Frigg. Known as a gentle and wise god. Killed accidentally by his brother Hod. Will return after Ragnarok.
Bolverk
The alias Odin adopted when disguised as a giant to win the mead of poetry.
Bor
Son of Buri and father of Odin, Vili and Ve.
Bragi
God of poetry and eloquence. Son of Odin and husband of Idun.
Buri
Ancestor of the gods. Created by the cow Audmula licking him from ice.
Day
Son of Night and Delling. Said to ride around the earth on his horse Skinfaxi.
Earth
Daughter of Night and Annar.
Einherjar
Band of dead warriors in Valhalla who await Ragnarok.
Eir
Goddess of healing
Fjorgyn
Lover of Odin and mother of Thor. Also referred to as Earth.
Forseti
God of Justice. Son of Balder and Nanna.
Freyja
Main goddess of the Vanir (fertility gods). Daughter of Njord and sister of Freyr.
Freyr
Important god of the Vanir. Son of Njord and brother of Freyja.
Frigg
Main goddess. Wife of Odin and mother of Balder.
Fulla
Goddess servant of Frigg.
Gangnrad
Pseudonym of Odin when he visits Vafthrudnir.
Gefion
Fertility goddess. Associated with the plough. Tricked the king of Sweden out of a tract of his land.
Grimnir
Pseudonym of Odin when he visits his foster son Geirrod, King of the Goths.
Gullveig
A Vanir goddess (probably Freyja) who is burned three times by the Aesir.
Harbard
Odin disguised as a ferryman when he wrangles with Thor.
Heimdall
Watchman of the gods and owner of the horn Gjall. Son of nine mothers. Often identified with Rig, the creator of three races of men.
Hermod
Son of Odin. Rode to Hel to try and rescue his brother Balder.
Hod
Son of Odin. A blind god who accidentally killed his brother Balder. he will return after Ragnarok.
Honir
A long-legged, indecisive god. Sent to the Vanir to seal the truce between them and the Aesir. He will survive Ragnarok.
Idun
Guardian of the golden apples of youth and wife of Bragi.
Lofn
Goddess of ilicit unions.
Loki
The sly, trickster god. Son of two giants. Also known as the Sly One, the Trickster, the Shape Changer and the Sky Traveller. Becomes increasingly more evil. He is responsible for the death of Balder. Bound until Ragnarok.
Magni
Son of Thor and the giantess Jarnsaxa. Will inherit Thor's hammer Mjollnir with his brother Modi after Ragnarok.
Mimir
Wise Aesir god. Sent to the Vanir to seal the truce between the two groups of gods. Killed by the Vanir, his head is kept by Odin.
Modgud
Maiden guardian of the bridge over the river Gjoll in Jotenheim.
Modi
Son of Thor and the giantess Jarnsaxa. Will inherit Thor's hammer Mjollnir with his brother Magni after Ragnarok.
Moon
Son of Mundilfari. Guides the moon on it's course.
Nanna
Wife of Balder and daughter of Nep.
Narvi
Also known as Nari. Son of Loki and Sigyn who was killed by his brother Vali.
Night
Daughter of Narvi and mother of Day. Rides around the earth on her horse Hrimfaxi.
Njord
A Vanir god associated with wind and sea. Husband of Skadi and father of Freyja and Freyr.
Norns
Urd "fate", Skuld "being" and Verandi "necessity". Three goddesses of destiny.
Od
Missing husband of Freyja who she constantly mourns for.
Odin
God of poetry, battle and death. Chief god of the Aesir. Also known as the "all-father", the "terrible one", "one-eyed" and "father of battle".
Ran
Wife of Aegir who dragged drowning men down with her net.
Rig
Pseudonym of Heimdall and the creator of three races of men.
Rind
Goddess and lover of Odin. Mother of Vali.
Saga
Goddess and drinking companion of Odin.
Sif
Wife of Thor whose golden hair was cut off by Loki.
Sigyn
Wife of Loki.
Sjofn
Goddess of human passion.
Sun
Daughter of Mundilfari and guide of the sun.
Syn
Goddess of the accused at trial.
Thor
God of Sky, thunder and fertility. Associated with law and order in Asgard and guardian of the gods. Son of Odin and Earth and husband of Sif. Also known as the "thunder god" and "charioteer".
Thrud
Daughter of Thor. Promised to the dwarf Alvis.
Tyr
War god. Son of Odin who sacrified his hand in the binding of Fenrir.
Ull
God of archery and skiing.
Vali
Son of Loki and Sigyn. Turned into a wolf and killed his brother Narvi.
Vali
Son of Odin and the giantess Rind. Conceived to avenge the death of Balder.
Valkyries
Beautiful women who carried dying warriors to Valhalla.
Vanir
Fertility gods.
Var
Goddess of marriage oaths.
Ve
Son of Bor and brother of Odin and Vili.
Vidar
Son of Odin and the giantess Grid who will avenge Odin's death after Ragnarok.
Vili
Son of Bor and brother of Odin and Ve.
Vor
Goddess who knows all.

The Realms of Norse Mythology

Alfheim
The land of the light elves in Asgard
Algron
Island where Odin (Harbard) stayed for five years
Asgard
Land of the Aesir
BilskBirnir
Thor's hall in Asgard
Birfrost
The flaming rainbow bridge between Asgard and Midgard
Breidablik
Balder's hall in Asgard
Elivagar
The eleven rivers that flow from the spring of Hvergelmir in Niflheim.
Eljudnir
Hel's hall in Nifleheim
Fensalir
Frigg's hall in Asgard
Folkvang
Site of Freyja's hall in Asgard
Franang's Falls
Waterfall in Midgard where Loki, diguised as a salmon, was caught by the gods.
Gimli
Hall of the gods after Ragnarok
Ginnungagap
The void between Muspell and Nifleheim before the creation.
Gladsheim
Sanctuary of the gods on the plain of Ida.
Glitnir
Silver and gold hall of Forseti, son of Balder, in Asgard.
Gnipahellir
Cave in front of Niflheim where the hound Garm is chained up.
Hel
The realm of the dead in Niflheim, ruled over by the monster Hel.
Himinbjorg
Heimdall's hall in Asgard
Hlesey
Island near the undersea hall of Aegir and Ran.
Hlidskjalf
Odin's high thrown in Valaskjalf.
Hnitbjorg
Stronghold of the giant Suttung.
Hvergelmir
Spring in Niflheim under the root of Yggdrasill.
Idavoll
The central plain of Asgard. Contains the halls of Gladsheim and Vingolf.
Iving
River dividing Asgard from Jotunheim
Jotunheim
Land of the giants
Lyfjaberg
Mountain beside Menglad's hall in Jotunheim.
Lyngvi
Island on lake Armsvartnir where Fenrir is bound.
Lyr
Menglad's hall in Jotunheim
Midgard
The realm of mankind.
Mimir's Well
Well of wisdom under the root of Yggdrasill in Asgard which is guarded by the head of Mimir.
Muspell
Southern land of fire guarded by the giant Surt.
Nastrond
Site of the hall of evil-does in Hel. The dragon Nidhogg knaws at corpses here.
Niflheim
Land of freezing mist and darkness and home of Hel.
Okolnir
Land of warmth created after Ragnarok. Site of the hall of Brimnir.
Sessrumnir
Freyja's hall in Asgard.
Sindri
Red gold roofed hall which will appear after Ragnarok.
Sokkvabekk
Saga's hall in Asgard
Svartalfheim
Realm of the dark elves.
Thrudheim
Thor's realm in Asgard and site of his hall Bilskirnir.
Thrymheim
Stronghold of the giant Thiazi which was passed on to his daughter Skadi.
Utgard
Realm in Jotunheim ruled by Utgard-Loki.
Valaskjalf
Odin's hall in Asgard.
Valhalla
Hall presided over by Odin where the Einherjar await Ragnarok.
Vanaheim
Land of the Vanir in Asgard.
Vigrid
Plain in Asgard where the final battle will occur.
Vingolf
Hall of the goddesses in Asgard.
Ydalir
Ull's hall in Asgard.

THOR

In Norse mythology, Thor (from Old Norse Þórr) is a hammer-wielding god associated with thunder, lightning, storms, oak trees, strength, the protection of mankind, and also hallowing, healing, and fertility. The cognate deity in wider Germanic mythology and paganism was known in Old English as Þunor and in Old High German as Donar (runic þonar ᚦᛟᚾᚨᚱ), stemming from a Common Germanic *Þunraz (meaning "thunder").
Ultimately stemming from Proto-Indo-European religion, Thor is a prominently mentioned god throughout the recorded history of the Germanic peoples, from the Roman occupation of regions of Germania, to the tribal expansions of the Migration Period, to his high popularity during the Viking Age, when, in the face of the process of the Christianization of Scandinavia, emblems of his hammer, Mjölnir, were worn in defiance and Norse pagan personal names containing the name of the god bear witness to his popularity. Into the modern period, Thor continued to be acknowledged in rural folklore throughout Germanic regions. Thor is frequently referred to in place names, the day of the week Thursday ("Thor's day") bears his name, and names stemming from the pagan period containing his own continue to be used today.
In Norse mythology, largely recorded in Iceland from traditional material stemming from Scandinavia, numerous tales and information about Thor are provided. In these sources, Thor bears at least fourteen names, is the husband of the golden-haired goddess Sif, is the lover of the jötunn Járnsaxa, and is generally described as fierce-eyed, red-haired and red-bearded.[1] With Sif, Thor fathered the goddess (and possible valkyrie) Þrúðr; with Járnsaxa, he fathered Magni; with a mother whose name is not recorded, he fathered Móði, and he is the stepfather of the god Ullr. The same sources list Thor as the son of the god Odin and the personified earth, Fjörgyn, and by way of Odin, Thor has numerous brothers. Thor has two servants, Þjálfi and Röskva, rides in a cart or chariot pulled by two goats, Tanngrisnir and Tanngnjóstr (that he eats and resurrects), and is ascribed three dwellings (Bilskirnir, Þrúðheimr, and Þrúðvangr). Thor wields the mountain-crushing hammer, Mjölnir, wears the belt Megingjörð and the iron gloves Járngreipr, and owns the staff Gríðarvölr. Thor's exploits, including his relentless slaughter of his foes and fierce battles with the monstrous serpent Jörmungandr—and their foretold mutual deaths during the events of Ragnarök—are recorded throughout sources for Norse mythology.

Freya
In Norse mythology, Freyja (Old Norse the "Lady") is a goddess associated with love, beauty, fertility, gold, seiðr, war, and death. Freyja is the owner of the necklace Brísingamen, rides a chariot pulled by two cats, owns the boar Hildisvíni, possesses a cloak of falcon feathers, and, by her husband Óðr, is the mother of two daughters, Hnoss and Gersemi. Along with her brother Freyr (Old Norse the "Lord"), her father Njörðr, and her mother (Njörðr's sister, unnamed in sources), she is a member of the Vanir. Stemming from Old Norse Freyja, modern forms of the name include Freya, Frejya, Freyia, Frøya, Frøjya, and Freia.
Freyja rules over her heavenly afterlife field Fólkvangr and there receives half of those that die in battle, whereas the other half go to the god Odin's hall, Valhalla. Within Fólkvangr is her hall, Sessrúmnir. Freyja assists other deities by allowing them to use her feathered cloak, is invoked in matters of fertility and love, and is frequently sought after by powerful jötnar who wish to make her their wife. Freyja's husband, the god Óðr, is frequently absent. She cries tears of red gold for him, and searches for him under assumed names. Freyja has numerous names, including Gefn, Hörn, Mardöll, Sýr, Valfreyja, and Vanadís.
Freyja is attested in the Poetic Edda, compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources; in the Prose Edda and Heimskringla, both written by Snorri Sturluson in the 13th century; in several Sagas of Icelanders; in the short story Sörla þáttr; in the poetry of skalds; and into the modern age in Scandinavian folklore, as well as the name for Friday in many Germanic languages.
Scholars have theorized about whether or not Freyja and the goddess Frigg ultimately stem from a single goddess common among the Germanic peoples; about her connection to the valkyries, female battlefield choosers of the slain; and her relation to other goddesses and figures in Germanic mythology, including the thrice-burnt and thrice-reborn Gullveig/Heiðr, the goddesses Gefjon, Skaði, Þorgerðr Hölgabrúðr and Irpa, Menglöð, and the 1st century BCE "Isis" of the Suebi. Freyja's name appears in numerous place names in Scandinavia, with a high concentration in southern Sweden. Various plants in Scandinavia once bore her name, but it was replaced with the name of the Virgin Mary during the process of Christianization. Rural Scandinavians continued to acknowledge Freyja as a supernatural figure into the 19th century, and Freyja has inspired various works of art.

Valkyrie In Norse mythology, a valkyrie (from Old Norse valkyrja "chooser of the slain") is one of a host of female figures who decide who dies and lives in battle. Selecting among half of those who die in battle (the other half go to the goddess Freyja's afterlife field Fólkvangr), the valkyries bring their chosen to the afterlife hall of the slain, Valhalla, ruled over by the god Odin. There, the deceased warriors become einherjar. When the einherjar are not preparing for the events of Ragnarök, the valkyries bear them mead. Valkyries also appear as lovers of heroes and other mortals, where they are sometimes described as the daughters of royalty, sometimes accompanied by ravens, and sometimes connected to swans or horses.
Valkyries are attested in the Poetic Edda, a book of poems compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources; the Prose Edda and Heimskringla (by Snorri Sturluson), and Njáls saga, a Saga of Icelanders, all written in the 13th century. They appear throughout the poetry of skalds, in a 14th century charm, and in various runic inscriptions.
The Old English cognate terms wælcyrge and wælcyrie appear in several Old English manuscripts, and scholars have explored whether the terms appear in Old English by way of Norse influence, or reflect a tradition also native among the Anglo-Saxon pagans. Scholarly theories have been proposed about the relation between the valkyries, the norns, the dísir, Germanic seeresses, and shieldmaidens. Archaeological excavations throughout Scandinavia have uncovered amulets theorized as depicting valkyries. In modern culture, valkyries have been the subject of works of art, musical works, video games and poetry.

Freyr
Freyr (sometimes anglicized Frey, from *frawjaz "lord"[1]) is one of the most important gods of Norse paganism. Freyr was associated with sacral kingship, virility and prosperity, with sunshine and fair weather, and was pictured as a phallic fertility god, Freyr "bestows peace and pleasure on mortals". Freyr, sometimes referred to as Yngvi-Freyr, was especially associated with Sweden and seen as an ancestor of the Swedish royal house.
In the Icelandic books the Poetic Edda and the Prose Edda, Freyr is presented as one of the Vanir, the son of the sea god Njörðr, brother of the goddess Freyja. The gods gave him Álfheimr, the realm of the Elves, as a teething present. He rides the shining dwarf-made boar Gullinbursti and possesses the ship Skíðblaðnir which always has a favorable breeze and can be folded together and carried in a pouch when it is not being used. He has the servants Skírnir, Byggvir, and Beyla.
The most extensive surviving Freyr myth relates Freyr's falling in love with the female jötunn Gerðr. Eventually, she becomes his wife but first Freyr has to give away his magic sword which fights on its own "if wise be he who wields it". Although deprived of this weapon, Freyr defeats the jötunn Beli with an antler. However, lacking his sword, Freyr will be killed by the fire jötunn Surtr during the events of Ragnarök.

Njord

In Norse mythology, Njörðr is a god among the Vanir. Njörðr is father of the deities Freyr and Freyja by his unnamed Van sister, was in an ill-fated marriage with the goddess Skaði, lives in Nóatún and is associated with sea, seafaring, wind, fishing, wealth, and crop fertility.
Njörðr is attested in the Poetic Edda, compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, the Prose Edda, written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson, in euhemerized form as a beloved mythological early king of Sweden in Heimskringla, also written by Snorri Sturluson in the 13th century, as one of three gods invoked in the 14th century Hauksbók ring oath, and in numerous Scandinavian place names. Veneration of Njörðr survived into 18th or 19th century Norwegian folk practice, where the god is recorded as Njor and thanked for a bountiful catch of fish.
Njörðr has been the subject of an amount of scholarly discourse and theory, often connecting him with the figure of the much earlier attested Germanic goddess Nerthus, the hero Hadingus, and theorizing on his formerly more prominent place in Norse paganism due to the appearance of his name in numerous place names. Njörðr is sometimes modernly anglicized as Njord, Njoerd, or Njorth.

Creation myth
In the Japanese creation myth, the first deities which came into existence, appearing at the time of the creation of the universe, are collectively called Kotoamatsukami.
Later, the seven generations of kami, known as Kamiyonanayo ("Seven Generations of the Age of the Gods"), emerged, following the formation of heaven and earth.
The first two generations are individual deities called hitorigami, while the five that followed came into being as male/female pairs of kami: brothers and sisters that were also married couples. In this chronicle, the Kamiyonanayo comprise 12 deities in total.
In contrast, the Nihon Shoki states that the Kamiyonanayo group was the first to appear after the creation of the universe, as opposed to the Kamiyonanayo appearing after the formation of heaven and earth. It also states that the first three generations of deities are hitorigami (individual deities) and that the later generations of deities are pairs of the opposite gender, as compared to the Kojiki's two generations of hitorigami.
Kuniumi and Kamiumi

Japan's creation narrative can be divided into the birth of the deities (Kamiumi) and the birth of the land (Kuniumi).
The seventh and last generation of Kamiyonanayo were Izanagi no Mikoto ("Exalted Male") and Izanami no Mikoto ("Exalted Female"),[2] and they would be responsible for the creation of the Japanese archipelago and would engender other deities.[3][4]
To help them to achieve this, Izanagi and Izanami were given a naginata decorated with jewels, named Ame-no-nuboko ("Heavenly Jeweled Spear"). The two deities then went to the bridge between heaven and earth, Amenoukihashi ("Floating Bridge of Heaven") and churned the sea below with the halberd. Drops of salty water formed the island, Onogoro ("self-forming"). The deities descended from the bridge of heaven and made their home on the island. Eventually, they fell in love and wished to mate. So they built a pillar called Amenomihashira around which they built a palace called Yashirodono ("the hall whose area is 8 arms' length squared"). Izanagi and Izanami circled the pillar in opposite directions, and when they met on the other side, Izanami, the female deity, spoke first in greeting. Izanagi didn't think that this was proper, but they mated anyway. They had two children, Hiruko ("leech child") and Awashima ("pale island"), but the children were badly formed and are not considered gods in their original form. (Hiruko later became the Japanese god, Ebisu.)
The parents, who were dismayed at their misfortune, put the children into a boat and sent them to sea, and then petitioned the other gods for an answer about what they had done wrong. They were informed that Izanami's lack of manners was the reason for the defective births: a woman should never speak prior to a man; the male deity should have spoken first in greeting during the ceremony.[5] So Izanagi and Izanami went around the pillar again, and this time, when they met, Izanagi spoke first. Their next union was successful. Izanagi in the underworld

Izanagi lamented the death of Izanami and undertook a journey to Yomi ("the shadowy land of the dead"). Izanagi found little difference between Yomi and the land above, except for the eternal darkness. However, this suffocating darkness was enough to make him ache for light and life. Quickly, he searched for Izanami and found her. At first, Izanagi could not see her for she was well hidden in the shadows. Nevertheless, he asked her to return with him. Izanami spat at Izanagi and informed him that he was too late. She had already eaten the food of the underworld and now belonged to the land of the dead.
Izanagi was shocked at this news, but he refused to give in to her wishes to be left to the dark embrace of Yomi. Izanami agreed to return to the world but first requested to have some time to rest. She instructed Izanagi to not come into her bedroom. After a long wait, Izanami did not come out of her bedroom, and Izanagi was worried. While Izanami was sleeping, he took the comb that bound his long hair and set it alight as a torch. Under the sudden burst of light, he saw the horrid form of the once beautiful and graceful Izanami. The flesh of her ravaged body was rotting and was overrun with maggots and foul creatures.
Crying out loud, Izanagi could no longer control his fear and started to run, intending to return to the living and to abandon his death-ridden wife. Izanami woke up shrieking and indignant and chased after him. Izanami instructed the shikome, or foul women, hunt for the frightened Izanagi and to bring him back.
Izanagi, thinking quickly, hurled his headdress, which became a bunch of black grapes. The shikome fell on these but continued pursuit. Next, Izanagi threw his comb, which became a clump of bamboo shoots. Now it was Yomi's creatures that began to give chase, but Izanagi urinated against a tree and created a great river that increased his lead. Unfortunately, the shikome still pursued Izanagi, who began to hurl peaches at them. He knew that this would not delay them for long, but he was nearly free, for the boundary of Yomi was now close at hand.
Izanagi burst through the entrance and quickly pushed a boulder to the entrance of Yomi. Izanami screamed from behind this barricade and told Izanagi that, if he left her, she would destroy 1,000 living people every day. He furiously replied that he would give life to 1,500.And so began the existence of Death, caused by the hands of the proud Izanami, the abandoned wife of Izanagi. Amaterasu and Susanoo

Amaterasu, the powerful sun goddess of Japan, is the most well known deity of Japanese mythology. Her feuding with Susanoo, her uncontrollable brother, however, is equally infamous and appears in several tales. One story tells about Susanoo's wicked behavior toward Izanagi, who, tired of Susanoo's repeated complaints, banishes him to Yomi. Susanoo grudgingly acquiesces, but has first to attend some unfinished business. He goes to Takamagahara ("heaven") to bid farewell to his sister, Amaterasu. Amaterasu knows that her unpredictable brother does not have good intentions and is prepared for battle. "For what purpose do you come here?" asks Amaterasu. "To say farewell," answers Susanoo.
But she does not believe him and requests a contest for proof of his good faith. A challenge is set as to who can bring forth more noble and divine children. Amaterasu creates three women from Susanoo's sword, while Susanoo makes five men from Amaterasu's ornament chain. Amaterasu claims the title to the five are attributed to Susanoo.
Both gods declare themselves to be victorious. Amaterasu's insistence in her claim drives Susanoo to violent campaigns that reach their climax when he hurls a half-flayed pony (an animal sacred to Amaterasu) into Amaterasu's weaving hall and causes the death of one of her attendants. Amaterasu, angered by the display, hides in the cave called Iwayado. As the sun goddess disappears into the cave, darkness covers the world.
All of the gods and goddesses strive to coax Amaterasu out of the cave, but she ignores them all. Finally, the kami of merriment, Ame-no-Uzume, hatches a plan. She places a large bronze mirror on a tree, facing Amaterasu's cave. Then, Uzume clothes herself in flowers and leaves, overturns a washtub and begins to dance upon it, drumming the tub with her feet. Finally, Uzume sheds the leaves and flowers and dances naked. All of the male gods roar with laughter, and Amaterasu becomes curious. When she peeks outside, a ray of light called "dawn" escapes and Amaterasu is dazzled by the beautiful goddess that she sees, this being her own reflection in the mirror. The god, Ameno-Tajikarawo, pulls her from the cave, which is sealed with a shimenawa. Surrounded by merriment, Amaterasu's depression disappears, and she agrees to return with her light. Uzume is then known as the kami of dawn as well as of mirth.

Susanoo and Orochi

Susanoo, exiled from heaven, comes to Izumo Province (now part of Shimane Prefecture). It is not long before he meets an old man and an old woman sobbing beside their daughter. The old couple explain that they originally had eight daughters who were devoured, one after the other, by the dragon, Yamata no Orochi ("eight-forked serpent", who is said to originate from Kosi—now Hokuriku region). The terrible dragon had eight heads and eight tails, stretched over eight hills, and is said to have eyes as red as good wine.[7] Kushinada-hime ("rice paddy princess") was the last of the eight daughters.
Susanoo, who knew about the old couple's relation to Amaterasu, offers his assistance in return for their beautiful daughter's hand in marriage. The parents accept, and Susanoo transforms Kushinada into a comb and hides her safely in his hair.[8] He also orders a large fence-like barrier to be built around the house. The fence has eight gates, with eight tables placed at each gate and eight casks placed on each table. Each cask is filled with eight-times-brewed rice wine.
Orochi arrives and finds his path blocked. After boasting about his prowess, he finds that he cannot get through the barrier. His keen sense of smell takes in the sake—which Orochi loves—and the eight heads are now faced with a problem. They want to drink the delicious sake, yet the fence blocks access to the sake. One head suggests that they simply smash the barrier, but that would knock over the sake. Another proposed that they combine their fiery breath and burn the fence to ash, but then the sake would evaporate. The heads begin to search for an opening. They find the hatches, and, eager for the sake, they wish to poke their heads through to drink it. Yet, the eighth head, which is the wisest, warns his brethren about the folly of such an act and volunteers to go through first to ensure that all is well. Susanoo waits for his chance. He allows the head to drink some sake in safety and to report to the others that there is no danger. All eight heads plunge through the hatches and greedily drink every drop of the sake.
As the heads finish, Susanoo launches his attack on Orochi. Drunken from drinking so much sake, the great serpent is no match for the spry Susanoo who decapitates and slays Orochi. A nearby river is said to have turned red with the blood of the defeated serpent. As Susanoo cuts the dragon into pieces, he finds an excellent sword from a tail of the dragon that his sword had been unable to cut. The sword is later presented to Amaterasu and named Ama no Murakumo no Tsurugi (天叢雲剣, "Sword of the Gathering Clouds of Heaven", which was later called Kusanagi, "Grass Mower"[9]). This sword was to feature prominently in many other tales. Luck of the Sea and Luck of the Mountains

Luck of the Mountains meets Toyotama,in Wadatsumi no Iroko no Miya, painting by Shigeru Aoki (1907), Ishibashi Museum(ja)
Main article:Hoderi and Hoori, suggested for merge to Umisachihiko and Yamasachihiko (Discuss)
Ninigi's elder son Hoderi or "Fire-Shine" had the gift of the bounty of the sea, and gained his livelihood by fishing (and bore the nickname Umisachihiko or "Luck of the Sea"). The younger son Howori or "Fire-Fade" had the gift of the bounty of the mountains, and was a hunter (and nicknamed Yamasachihiko or "Luck of the Mountains").[16][17][18]
One day, Luck of the Mountains asked his elder brother Luck of the Sea to exchange their tools and swap places for a day. He wanted to try his bid at fishing. But he did not catch a single fish, and worse, he lost his borrowed fishhook. To make amends, he shattered the very sword he was wearing to make a hundred, then a thousand hooks to replace what he lost, but the elder brother would accept nothing but the original fishhook.
Luck of the Mountains was sitting on a beach balefully weeping, there came to his aid Shiotsuchi-no-oji(ja) (one of the deities now enshrined at Shiogama Jinja[19]). The tide god built him a small ship described as being manashikatsuma "basket without interstices"?), and sent him on a journey to the fish-scaled palace of the Watatsumi (Sea God, often conceived of as a dragon-god). There he had a fateful meeting with the Sea God's daughter Princess Toyotama, and married her. After three years, he remembered his brother and his fishhook, and was longing to return home.
Watatsumi gathered his piscean minions, and soon the fishhook was found in the throat of a bream (tai) and restored to Luck of the Mountains. The Sea God also imparted two magical balls: Shihomitsutama "Tide-flowing ball"?) which could cause a flood, and Shihohirutama "Tide-ebbing ball"?) which could cause water to recede and dry up. And he gave additional strategic advice to gain advantage from his contentious elder brother. So riding on a fathom-long crocodile-fish or shark (hitohiro-wani) they returned to dry land.[20]
The pregnant Princess Toyotama built a cormorant feather-thatched maternity house and pleaded her husband for privacy, as she would be reverting to her true shape while delivering her child. But Howori (Luck of the Mountains) was overcome with curiosity, and peeped inside to discover her transformed into a crawling 8-fathom "croc-fish" (shark, dragon[21]), and scuttered away in fright. Ashamed and disgusted by her husband's breach of trust, she abandoned the newborn and returned to sea. The infant prince was named Ugaya meaning "cormorant house".
Ugaya married his aunt, the sea princess Tamayori and had five children, including Yamatobiko, who was later to become Emperor Jimmu. In the Nihongi, the "Age of the Gods" (kamiyo)section ends here, and is followed by sections under the titles of the reigns of each Emperor.