Unit 2: Communication In Relational And Group Contexts

COM 100 Exam #2 Study Guide

Outline of Testable Material from Unit 2 – Communication in Relational and Group Contexts

• Relational Development and Fostering Closeness (218-238)
Three levels of relational closeness and Knapp’s stages of relational formation/dissolution
Acquaintances: most relationships; involuntary associations
Friendships: few relationships; voluntary attractions
Intimates: rare relationships; valuable allegiances
Fostering (“coming together”)
Initiating: associative interaction
Experimenting: discovering commonalities
Intensifying: discussing future possibilities
Integrating: conjoining goals and purposes
Bonding: establishing commitments
Dissolution (“coming apart)
Differentiating: identifying significant
differences
Circumscribing: allowing for different activities
Stagnating: loss of common ground
Avoiding: deliberately seeking separation
Terminating: discontinuing the relationship
Three theories explaining why people seek relational closeness – social exchange, social reciprocity, and personal needs
Social Exchange Theory (Thibaut & Kelley, “Shopping for relationships”)
Cost-Reward Analysis
Comparison-Level of Alternatives
Why relate?
The bright side of relating – relationships can yield satisfying rewards
The dark side of relating – you’re a real bargain, but I will retain you only as long as you continue to pay off.
Social Reciprocity Theory (Cialdini, “Favors generate obligations”)
Conditional exchange of services
Business-like contractual arrangement
Why relate?
The bright side of relating – relational partners can dependably serve each other
The dark side of relating – Our relationship has worth to me only as long as you equitable uphold your end of the deal.
Personal Needs Theory (Maslow, Schutz, Herzberg, “You – meet my needs!”)
Security needs – longing for belonging, acceptance, and love
Signifance needs – yearning for appreciation esteem and influence
Why relate?
The bright side of relating – fundamental needs can be met in relationships
The dark side of relating – Since you exist for the purpose of my need satisfaction, our relationship has value only as long as you’re meeting my needs.
The “fig leaf syndrome” and relational cover-up – exposure prevention/deflection practices
Social Penetration Theory and the characteristics of effective of self-disclosure
The JoHari window and three communication practices for “dropping fig leaves” in relationships

BOOK NOTES:
Theories of Relationship Development
Attraction Theory: explains three primary forces that draw people together to form relationships – proximity, interpersonal attractiveness, and similarity
Proximity: how close you are to others
Attractiveness: we tend to develop relationships with people who are approximately as attractive as we are (tendency is called the matching hypothesis)
Composed of physical attractiveness, social attractiveness, and task attractiveness
Similarity: people like people who are like them, who enjoy the things they enjoy, who value what they value, and with whom they share a similar background
Social penetration theory: communication, specifically self-disclosure, is the key to relationship development
Uncertainty reduction theory: much of the interaction when we first meet someone is dedicated to reducing uncertainty and determining whether we wish to interact with them again
People are uncomfortable with uncertainty, so they seek to reduce uncertainty
Predicted outcome theory: an adaption of uncertainty reduction theory that attempts to explain how reducing uncertainty can lead to attraction or repulsion
If we predict positive outcomes, we will form a relationship
If we predict negative outcomes, we will de-escelate or end the relationship
Relational Dialectic Theory:
Autonomy/connection: refers to one’s need to connect with others and the simultaneous need to feel independent or
autonomous
If autonomy is insisted upon, the relationship may cease
If there is too much connection, one may feel overwhelmed then withdraw
Expressiveness/privacy: describes the need to be open and to self-disclose while also maintaining some sense of privacy
If too much info is revealed too early, then others may find it inappropriate and shy away
If you fail to open up, others may perceive you as aloof/cold and may not continue the relationship
Change/predictability: delineates the human desire for events that are new, spontaneous, and unplanned while simultaneously needing some aspects of life to be stable and predictable
If relationships become predictable, then it may become boring
If relationships are totally spontaneous, it may become unsettling
Either extreme may render the relationship difficult to sustain

Ending Relationships:
Sudden Death: relationships that end without prior warning
Pass away: relationships more typically pass away or decline over time
Romance Termination Strategies
Negative Identity Management: communicating in ways that arouse negative emotions
De-escalation: conversations that attempt to reframe or change the definition of the relationship
Justification: provide a reason or excuse for why the relationship had failed and should end
Behavioral de-escalation: avoiding the partner
Friends’ Termination Strategies
Withdrawal/avoidance: spend less time together, avoid each other
Machiavellian tactics: use third party to communicate unhappiness
Aversive Communication Behaviors in Relationships
Deception
Jealousy
Interpersonal violence
Sexual coercion (basically rape)

• Love, Sex, and Gender in Communication (68-78)
Common love terms, and how they are ambiguous, distorting, and misleading
“Love”: willfully chosen commitment that transcends the feeling of the moment
“In Love”: possibly a carefully selected dwelling that we move into for shelter/refuge
“Fall in love”: pit fallen into by accident, or a summit climbed upon with intentional dedication and effort
“True love”: adventure undertaken by two imperfect partners
Misleading:
Highlight some aspects of experience, hide others
Our expressions can distort perceptions, lead to confusion, conflict, and disappointed expectations
Our vocab fails to capture/convey an array of relational experiences
Sternberg’s seven types of love in relationships – agape, phileo, eros, and their derivatives

Difference between the terms “sex” and “gender”
Sex is to race (biological, genetic characteristics) as gender is to culture (sociological, learned characteristics)
“female/male” denote sex
“feminine/masculine” denote gender
Radical and liberal feminist perspectives on sex and gender
Radical feminist: there are no natural (genetic) psychological differences between women and men that extend beyond physical/reproductive characteristics
All psychological identity differences are due to the forces of nurture (socially learned norms)
Non-physical differences are socially learned, seek social revision: to expose and de-legitimize oppressive feminine and masculine norms
Liberal feminist: asserts that some psychological and identity differences between women and men are due to the forces of nature (genetic)
Natural differences
Seek social inclusion because non-physical differences are genetically inherited: to legitimize the essential characteristics in a male-dominated world
Constructively dealing with communication differences between women and men

• Managing Relational Conflict
The dual dimensions and goals of conflict communication – subject disagreement (resolution) and relational disharmony (reconciliation)
Characteristics of the five conflict resolution strategies for issue disagreement – competing aggression, conceding acquiescence, concealing avoidance, collaborating argumentation, and compromising negotiation
Components of the three conflict reconciliation strategies for relational disharmony – confrontation, confession, and cancellation

• Team Characteristics and Functions (250-255, 267-274)
Distinctions between groups and teams, and four essential characteristics of a team
Nature of a team – definitional considerations
Not simply a group of people
A co-location of random individuals
A set of people with shared similarities
A social network or a social gathering
A collection of individual efforts
Unique and essential characteristics of a team
Shared cause – mutual understanding and ownership of a task, goal, or mission
Shared contribution – interdependently working together, rather than independently working apart
Shared communication – regular and frequent interaction for task coordination and relational maintenance
Shared consequences – beneficial or detrimental outcomes experienced as a whole
Advantages of individual work and teamwork
Advantage – Individual Work Advantage – Teamwork competitive environment cooperative environment simple, structured task complex, ambiguous task expert available specialists available high individual capability low capabilities – pool resources high self-motivation encouragement/accountability time limited time available

Team staffing and size considerations
Team composition – selection considerations
Task clarity, complexity, and required capabilities
Candidate competence and commitment relative to the task
As group size increases –
Participation level decreases
Satisfaction level decreases
Resource level increases
Team size – smallest number capable of accomplishing the task well
Characteristics and procedures of three team functions – idea generation, decision making, and problem solving
Core Team Functions – What Teams Do Best
Team idea generation – how to reap the benefits
“Brainstorming” – no isolated storms
Idea evaluation spoils idea generation
A “dumb” idea serves as a trigger to spark a “smart” idea
Sparks fly through attentive listening
Team decision-making – “the good, the bad, and the ugly”
The ugly – autocratic decision making (authoritarian rule)
Relinquishes advantages of team-member input
Marginalizes/disenfranchises stakeholders – “Those who bear the consequences ought to share in the decision”
Appropriate when a single stakeholder has most at stake
The bad – democratic decision making (majority rule)
Truncates discussion of options
Creates majority-minority division
Useful for time-critical decision making
Adequate for unimportant decisions
The good – consensus decision making (seeking unanimity)
Extends discussion of options
Unites all members of the team
Requires time and persistence to reach consensus
Best method for significant, consequential decisions
Team problem solving – the functional approach
Define problem – What actually needs to be solved?
Establish solution criteria – What depicts a solved problem?
Generate possible solutions – What solutions are conceivable?
Evaluate possible solutions – Which solutions could work?
Choose best solution – Which solution is most likely to work?
Test/implement solution – Does it work to solve the problem?

• Team and Organizational Leadership (260-267, 286-291)
Dealing with the challenges of unproductive teammates – slackers, achievers, and friends
Slackers
Social loafing due to diffusion of responsibility
Solvable through communication of the value of team members
Achievers
Controlling through dominance or individualism
Solvable through winning the trust of team members
Friends
Destructive decision-making through “groupthink”
Solvable through legitimizing dissent among team members
Situational team leadership – two critical competencies (assess and adapt), three “script” dimensions (capability, commitment, and cohesion), and eight possible leadership roles
Two critical competencies:
Leaders first read the script by assessing team member needs relative to the assigned task
Leaders play a beneficial role by adapting to an appropriate leadership style
Three “script” dimensions:
Capability – level of team knowledge and skills
Commitment – level of team motivation and task ownership
Cohesion – level of team cooperation and coordination
Eight possible leadership roles:

team team team leadership leadership capability commitment cohesion role illustration high high high advisor flight leader low high high teacher survival instructor high low high motivator fitness class trainer high high low coordinator pro sports coach low low high teacher/motivator t-ball coach low high low teacher/coordinator rafting guide high low low motivator/coordinator work crew boss low low low director drill sergeant

Leading teams through the four phases of development – form, storm, norm, and perform
Form
Shared goal
Shared task
Shared identity
Storm
Authenticity and conflict
Resolution and reconciliation
Respect and appreciation
Norm
Standards of excellence
Mutual accountability
Encouragement and support
Perform
Coordinated efforts
Synergistic effects
Beneficial contributions
Natural traits approach to organizational leadership – five capabilities of great leaders
Cognitive clarity (task intelligence) – intellectual ability to grasp situational complexities and anticipate course of direction; visionary problem-solver
Confident conviction (self-confidence) – self-assuredness in the face of challenging, uncertain, and risky outcomes; willingness to lead the way
Commitment to cause (determination) – steadfast perseverance through difficulties, obstacles, and resistance toward goal achievement; motivation and drive
Communication competence (social intelligence) – fluency in appropriate and effective means of social influence; inspiring charisma and relational savvy
Credible character (reliable integrity) – uncompromising commitment to ethical principles and moral practices; consistently constrained, compelled, and propelled by inner value
Mastered skills approach to organizational leadership – three competencies associated with supervisory, managerial, and strategic leadership
Leaders are made (nurture), not born (nature) – leadership is learned
Effective leaders must master core competencies (essential skills) required by their level of organizational responsibilities (Manager & Leader Functions)
Supervisory Leadership Function:
Leadership perspective – views organization like a regulating
bureau
Leadership role – promote and enforce the standards
Leadership focus – seek compliance necessary to satisfy task parameters
Leadership core competencies (DIC) –
Direct workers
Inspect work
Correct workers
Managerial Leadership Function:
Leadership perspective – views organization like a production engine
Leadership role – design and operate the machine
Leadership focus – seek consistency necessary to attain peak efficiencies
Leadership core competencies (POC) –
Plan processes
Organize personnel
Control performance
Strategic Leadership Function:
Leadership perspective – views organization like a growing creature
Leadership role – nurture and train up the child
Leadership focus – seek change necessary to survive, thrive, and multiply
Leadership core competencies (DAL) –
See direction
Secure alignment
Sustain leadership

• Culture and Communication (188-193, 201-206)
Factors impacting need for cultural awar eness
Increased opportunities for intercultural contact
Enhanced business effectiveness
Improved intergroup relations
Enhanced self-awareness
Culture-related terms and their definitions
Culture – distinguishing features shared in common by a group of people due to social learning; normative characteristics that include
How the group thinks (shared language beliefs and values)
How the group talks (shared language and expressions)
How the group acts (shared customs and rituals)
Co- or sub-cultures – unique cultures co-existing within a greater cultural framework
Race – distinguishing features shared in common by a group of people due to biological heritage; genetic characteristics that are not learned
Nationality – distinguishing features shared in common by a group of people due to territorial situation; civic characteristics that overlap cultural norms
Ethnicity – ambiguous label ascribed to the distinguishing features shared in common by a group of people; can encompass aspects of cultural, racial, and national characteristics
Culture-related issues and their implications
Enculturation – acculturation
Importing culture – exporting culture
Cultural enrichment – cultural imperialism
Ethnocentrism – ethnorelativism
Evolving but fractured attitudes toward cultural difference
Cultural homogeneity (Eurocentric “mold”)
Cultural melting pot (“super-alloy”)
Cultural diversity (“tossed salad”)
Cultural fusion (“casserole”)
Dimensions of intercultural communication
Individualism – collectivism
Low power distance – high power distance
Low context – high context
Low contact – high contact
Monochromic - polychronic
Benefits of cross-cultural immersion
Learn best about another culture from the inside looking out
Learn best about your own culture from the outside looking in
Immersing yourself in another culture enables you to simultaneously learn about another culture and my own