violence on video games

Aggression and Violent Behavior, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 203–212, 1999
Copyright © 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd
Printed in the USA. All rights reserved
1359-1789/99/$–see front matter

PII S1359-1789(97)00055-4

VIOLENT VIDEO GAMES
AND AGGRESSION:
A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Mark Griffiths
Nottingham Trent University

ABSTRACT. One of the main concerns that has constantly been raised against video games is that most of the games feature aggressive elements. This has led many people to assert that this may have a detrimental effect on individuals who play such games. Despite continuing controversy for over 15 years, there has been little in the way of systematic research. This article reviews the empirical studies in this area, including research methodologies such as the observation of free play, self-report methods, and experimental studies.
The article argues that all the published studies on video game violence have methodological problems and that they only include possible short-term measures of aggressive consequences. The one consistent finding is that the majority of the studies on very young children—as opposed to those in their teens upwards—tend to show that children do become more aggressive after either playing or watching a violent video game. However, all of these come from the use of one particular research methodology (i.e., observation of children’s free play). © 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd
KEY WORDS. Video games, violence, aggression, adolescence
ONE OF THE MAIN concerns that has constantly been raised against video and computer games is that most of the games are claimed to feature aggressive elements. This has led some people to state that children become more aggressive after playing such games (e.g.,
Koop, 1982; Zimbardo, 1982). However, these assertions have been made without the backup of empirical evidence. Despite the continuing controversy for over 15 years, there has been relatively little systematic research. The issue is ever more important because new games like Mortal Kombat are using more explicit representations of extreme and realistic violence.
There has been a much reported (and debated) link between television violence and violence in children’s behavior, that is, those children who view television violence subsequently show increases in their aggressive actions (e.g., Andison, 1977; Berkowicz, 1970;

Correspondence should be addressed to Mark Griffiths, Psychology Division, Nottingham Trent University,
Burton Street, Nottingham NG1 4BU, UK.

203

204

M. Griffiths

Eron, 1982). With this in mind, Silvern, Williamson, and Countermine (1983) noted that there were similarities between television and video games in that they both have (a) entertainment value, (b) violent content, and (c) various physical feature similarities (e.g., action, pace and visual change).
Many authors claim that most computer games are violent in nature and feature death and destruction (e.g., Dominick, 1984; Loftus & Loftus, 1983). In a survey reported by
Bowman and Rotter (1983), 85% of games that were examined (n ϭ 28) involved participants in acts of simulated destruction, killing or violence. A more recent study of computer game content by Provenzo (1991) reported that of the 47 leading Nintendo games that he analyzed, only seven of them did not involve violence. He reported that video games were populated by terrorists, prizefighters, SWAT teams, robotic cops, and the like, and that women were cast as “victims,” and foreigners as “baddies.” Findings, such as this, led Provenzo to conclude that video games encourage sexism, violence and racism by conditioning children to view the world in a way that they see on the computer screen.
Although analyses of video game content have led researchers to conclude that most computer games are violent, their choice of games for analysis does not necessarily coincide with those games which are the best selling. By looking at any of the “Top 10 Games” charts in the mass of monthly video game magazines, it can be seen that many of the most popular games are definitely not “violent” (e.g., Super Mario in which the actor jumps on mushrooms and turtles killing neither, Sonic the Hedgehog in which the actor jumps on shapes and spiky creatures to reveal cute animals, Pacmania in which the actor eats dots or spots etc.).
At present little is known about the long-term effects of playing violent video games, but great concern has been raised that video games may have a greater adverse effect on children than television because of the child’s active involvement. Television is only a passive, one-way communicative medium (Bowman & Rotter, 1983). Greenfield (1984) has further pointed out that children prefer games over television because there is greater control.

THEORETICAL CONCERNS
Theoretically, video games might have the capacity to promote aggressive tendencies (as predicted by social learning theory) or to release aggressive tendencies (as predicted by catharsis theory). Put more simply, social learning theory (e.g., Bandura, 1986) would hypothesize that playing aggressive video games would lead to the stimulation of aggressive behavior; that is, children will imitate what they see on screen. In direct contradiction to this, catharsis theory (e.g., Feshbach & Singer, 1971) would hypothesize that playing aggressive video games would have a relaxing effect by channelling latent aggression and therefore have a positive effect on a child’s behavior. Despite continuing controversy, there has been relatively little empirical research published in the area. There are a growing number of studies examining the possible “aggression” link between video games and children’s subsequent behavior, but these have only examined the short-term effects.
The rest of this article attempts to examine the growing body of research that has been carried out in order to put the debate into an empirical context. It is not the author’s intention to review every single study in the area, although it is hoped that all the major ones which highlight the issues involved are included.

Violent Video Games and Aggression

205

TABLE 1. Summary of Self-Report Studies Examining the Relationship Between
Video Games and Aggression
Researchers

n

Age

Main Finding(s)

Studies on adolescents
Lin & Lepper (1987)

210

9–11 years

Rushbrook (1986)

Not stated

10–16 years

Kestenbaum &
Weinstein (1985)
Fling et al. (1992)

208

11–14 years

153

11–17 years

Griffiths & Hunt (1993)

387

12–16 years

Dominick (1984)

250

15–16 years

Significant relationship between amount of
(arcade) video game play and aggressiveness/impulsivity.
Significant relationship between amount of video game play and violent attitudes.
Aggressive video games have a calming effect.a Regular players think they are more aggressive as do their teachers.
Self-reported aggression significantly correlated with video game playing frequency.
Significant correlation between video game playing and aggressive delinquency. However, correlation was insignificant when control variables partialled out.

100
60

Mean age ϭ
18 years
Undergraduates

280

12–34 years

Studies on young adults
Mehrabian & Wixen
(1986)
Anderson & Ford
(1986)
Study on mixed sample
Gibb et al. (1983)

Hostile feelings increased in college students while imagining playing video games.
Higher aggression video games increased hostility.b No relationship between amount of video game play and hostility.

a

Eysenck shortform Extroversion and Neuroticism Scale (Eysenck, 1958); Singer and Antrobus Day Dreaming
Scale (Singer & Antrobus, 1970). b Multiple Affect Adjective Checklist.

SELF-REPORT METHODS
Presence of increased aggression has been measured by self-report in a number of studies
(see Table 1). Lin and Lepper (1987) found a positive relationship between self-reported video game use in males (4th to 6th grade) and their teachers’ ratings of aggressiveness and impulsiveness. Rushbrook (1986) reported a correlation between the amount of video game play and violent attitudes that were more favorable to war in a group of 5th to 11th grade males. In a questionnaire study of teenage boys (10th to 11th grade), Dominick
(1984) found that video game playing was correlated with aggression. However, when effects of other factors were taken out, the correlation between video games and aggression became nonsignificant. Anderson and Ford (1986) measured hostility using the Multiple
Affect Adjective Checklist after undergraduates had played either very aggressive or mildly aggressive video games. Their results indicated that playing of aggressive video games can have short-term negative effects on the players’ emotional state and that players of the highly aggressive video game showed increased hostility and anxiety. A similar result was found by Mehrabian and Wixen (1986) who reported that hostile feelings increased in college students while imagining playing video games. However, a self-report study on 12- to 34-year-olds by Gibb, Bailey, Lambirth, and Wilson (1983) found no relationship between the amount of video game play, hostility and self-esteem and a study

206

M. Griffiths

by Kestenbaum and Weinstein (1985) on 208 teenagers (aged 11 to 14 years) found that video games had a calming effect.
In a study by Fling et al. (1992) on 153 sixth to twelfth graders, it was reported that amount of video game play correlated with self-reported levels of aggression (although not self-esteem). Evidence of a relationship between amount of video game play and aggressiveness is consistent with other researchers (e.g., Dominick, 1984; Lin & Lepper,
1987). Further to this it was reported that self-esteem and aggression were positively correlated on teacher ratings but negatively on self-ratings.
Griffiths and Hunt (1993, 1995) have also reported that when video game playing adolescents were asked if they thought playing violent video games made them more aggressive, they responded that this was the case. It was further reported that this was highly significantly correlated with their frequency of playing. Both of these studies support the results of Dominick (1984) and Lin and Lepper (1987). However, they also noted that correlational results such as theirs could indicate that more aggressive children are drawn to video games rather than and/or addition to their aggression being a result of this activity.
The problem with all of this type of research is that correlational evidence is unconvincing not only because any observed positive correlations may be due to backward causation
(aggressive individuals having a greater penchant for video games), but for the more plausible reason that the correlations may not be directly causal at all but may result from mediating factors (e.g., low educational attainment, low socioeconomic status, etc.) that may themselves be causally related both to video game playing and to aggressive behavior. This interpretation is well known in the literature on the effects of violent television viewing on aggressive behavior.

EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES
There have been a number of experimental studies looking at the relationship between aggression and video game playing although a number of these studies use video games as an experimental paradigm to investigate other theoretical concerns (e.g., the relationship between aggression and temperature, the influences of social roles on sex differences using a video game; see Table 2).
Winkel, Novak, and Hopson (1987), in a study involving young teenagers (eighth grade), found that after playing violent video games there was no increase in aggression towards peers in a pretend “teacher/learner” role play situation. In the short term, it was not supported that teenagers may be mimicking the violence in video games. Violent video games may have other effects on a child’s behavior other than aggression. For instance,
Chambers and Ascione (1987) reported that their sample of third to eighth graders gave less money to a donation box after playing an aggressive game than in comparison to the playing of a prosocial video game.
Only experimental studies can hope to provide persuasive evidence as to causality.
However, the two laboratory studies discussed above did not examine real aggression but rather fantasy aggression (i.e., a pretend “teacher-learner” role play situation, and giving money to charity). The latter is somewhat irrelevant, and increased aggression in the fantasy and role-play measures, far from confirming the hypothesis that games cause aggression, is entirely consistent with the catharsis hypothesis; that is, it might be precisely the fantasy aggression that releases the energy that would otherwise be expressed as aggressive behavior.
Scott (1995) conducted a study on university students and found no differences in

Violent Video Games and Aggression

207

TABLE 2. Summary of Experimental Studies Examining the Relationship Between
Video Games and Aggression
Researchers

n

Age

Main Finding(s)

160

8–13 years

Winkel et al. (1987)

56

12–13 years

Lynch (1994)

75

12–17 years

Playing aggressive video games suppressed prosocial behaviour in an experimental situation. Role playing experiment reported no increase in aggression.
Prehostile subjects showed no differences in heart rate and blood pressure playing violent or nonviolent games.

84

Undergraduates

107

Undergraduates

60

Undergraduates

117

Undergraduates

30

Undergraduates

Studies on children and adolescents Chambers & Ascione (1987)

Studies on young adults
Lightdale & Prentice (1994)

Anderson et al. (1995)

Anderson & Morrow (1995)
Scott (1995)
Ballard & West (1996)

Males more aggressive than females in individuated condition but not in deindividuated condition.
Increasing temperature increases state hostility, hostile cognition, and physiological arousal.
Subjects killed more in a competitive situation rather than a cooperative one.
Playing aggressive video games does not make people more aggressive.
Playing aggressive video games produced increased heart rates and an increase in hostility scores on adjective checklist.

aggressive affect while playing video games on questionnaire scores on the Buss-Durkee
Hostility Inventory (Buss & Durkee, 1957) and the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire
(Eysenck & Eysenck, 1975) across varying levels of video game violence. Related to the studies of aggression is a study by Lynch (1994) who hypothesized that playing video games with violent content would produce greater cardiovascular responses in adolescent males than those playing nonviolent games. His study examined heart rate and blood pressure differences between 76 hostile and nonhostile subjects (aged 12 to 16 years) but found no differences between the two groups.
Lightdale and Prentice (1994) investigated the influence of social roles on sex differences using a video game. By deindividuating their subjects they found that there were no differences in male and female aggression when playing a video game but that in the individuated condition, males were more aggressive than females. Such a finding has little to say about the relationship of video games and violence per se. In another experiment that used video games to examine other theoretical concerns, Anderson, Deuser, and
DeNeve (1995) tested a general model of affective aggression via a study of video game playing. Using 107 undergraduate subjects, they manipulated the room temperature while subjects were playing the video games and found that raising the temperature consistently increased hostile affect and hostile cognition in players.
It could also be the case that the competitive nature of a video game may have an effect on aggression. To examine this, Anderson and Morrow (1995) extended and tested
Deutsch’s (1993) theory of competition effects using video games. The theory predicts

208

M. Griffiths

TABLE 3. Summary of Observational Studies Examining the Relationship Between
Video Games and Aggression in Children
Researchers

n

Age

Main Finding(s)

Silvern & Williamson (1987)
Schutte et al. (1988)
Irwin & Gross (1995)
Cooper & Mackie (1986)

28
31
60
84

4–6 years
5–7 years
7–8 years
9–10 years

Increase in aggression.
Increase in aggression.
Increase in aggression.
Girls increase in aggression; no increase in boys.

that people view competitive situations inherently more aggressive than cooperative ones.
In a study of 60 undergraduates, competition primed subjects killed significantly more video game characters than cooperation primed subjects. The increased kill ratio occurred in the absence of changes of hostility, friendliness, or liking for one’s game partner.
Because laboratory studies cannot study serious aggressive behavior for ethical reasons, what is required are naturalistic field experiments. In the television violence literature, these are regarded as uniquely important but unfortunately there are no such studies of video games.

OBSERVATIONAL STUDIES
A number of studies have examined the differences in children’s behavior after playing an aggressive video game by observing the child’s free play (see Table 3). Cooper and
Mackie (1986) observed the free play of 9- to 10-year-old children in the toy room after playing and watching aggressive video games. They reported that girls’ aggressive activity significantly increased although boys remained unaffected. Silvern and Williamson (1987) found that individual 4- to 6-year-old children became more aggressive relative to a baseline condition when they were observed during free play after an aggressive video game. Both Cooper and Mackie (1986) and Silvern and Williamson (1987) noted there were no significant differences in aggression levels between active video game players and passive video game observers. Schutte, Malouff, Post-Gorden, and Rodasta (1988) also observed the free play of 5- to 7-year-old children after playing an aggressive video game and concluded that the child’s subsequent behavior is similar to the character the individual controlled while playing the video game. For instance, those who played a jungle video game played with jungle like toys during free play, whereas those who played the violent video game became more aggressive. Finally, Irwin and Gross (1995) measured interpersonal aggression and aggression toward inanimate objects in 60 second grade boys
(aged 7 to 8 years). After playing video games with aggressive or nonaggressive themes, they found that those who played the aggressive games exhibited significantly more object aggression during a free play situation and more interpersonal aggression during a frustrating situation.
These studies, all of which were carried out on young children, do seem to suggest that the playing of violent video games has the effect of increasing a child’s aggressive behavior—at least in the short term. It is possible that this particular methodology (i.e., observational analysis of free play) may itself be contributing to the effect.

Violent Video Games and Aggression

209

TABLE 4. Summary of Other Studies Examining the Relationship Between Video
Games and Aggression
Researchers

n

Gardner (1991)

4

Graybill et al. (1985)
Graybill et al. (1987) a 116
126

Age

Main Finding(s)

5, 7, 10 years

Case studies—video games contribute to releasing and controlling aggression.
Projective Testa—showed fewer defensive fantasies.
Projective Testa—no increase in aggression.

7–11 years
7–11 years

Rosenzweig Picture-Frustration Study (Rosenzweig, 1978) and Response Hierarchy Measure.

OTHER STUDIES (PROJECTIVE TESTS, CASE STUDIES)
Two studies by Graybill and his associates (Graybill, Kirsch, & Esselman, 1985; Graybill,
Strawniak, Hunter, & O’Leary, 1987) have used a mixture of methodologies (self-report, experiment and observation) and have suggested that video games may have short-term beneficial effects for children (see Table 4). Graybill et al. (1985) reported that 6- to 11year-old children exhibited fewer defensive fantasies and tended to exhibit more assertive fantasies after playing violent video games although this was a trend and not significantly significant. Aggression was assessed using a projective test—the Rosenzweig PictureFrustration Study. The authors concluded that their results were more consistent with catharsis theory and that violent video games discharge aggressive impulses in a socially acceptable way and that playing violent video games may have a short-term beneficial effect for the children playing them.
In a further study, Graybill et al. (1987) used a behavioral measure involving apparatus in which children could push buttons to hurt or help another child, in addition to two self-report measures (the Response Hierarchy Measure and the Rosenzweig PictureFrustration Study again). These were administered after the playing of violent and nonviolent video games but no significant differences were recorded. Graybill and his associates also reported that there may be differences between television viewing and video game playing. One obvious difference reported was that although the video game’s content may be violent, the graphics are not nearly as realistic as televized violence. However, longer-term effects were not ruled out.
In a more anecdotal case study account, Gardner (1991) claimed that the use of video games in his psychotherapy sessions provided common ground between himself and his client and provided excellent behavioral observation opportunities. Gardner described four particular case studies where video games were used to support psychotherapy, and added that although other techniques were used as an adjunct in therapy (e.g., story telling, drawing, other games etc.) it was the video games that were the most useful factors in the improvement during therapy. He claimed that video games contribute to releasing and controlling aggression although there was little evidence for this except for Gardner’s own anecdotal observations.

CONCLUDING COMMENTS
These growing number of studies examining the effects of video games on aggression have only involved a measure of possible short-term aggressive consequences. The majority of the studies on very young children—as opposed to those in their teens upwards—tended

210

M. Griffiths

TABLE 5. Categories of Video Games (Adapted from Griffiths, 1993)
1. Sport Simulations: This type is self-explanatory. These games simulate sports such as golf, ice hockey, athletics, etc. (e.g., World Wide Soccer ’97, NHL Powerplay ’97, etc.).
2. Racers: This type could be considered a type of sport simulation in that it simulates motor sports like
Formula 1 racing (e.g., Human Grand Prix, Speedster, Motoracer, etc.).
3. Adventures: This type uses fantasy settings in which the player can escape to other worlds and take on new identities (e.g., Atlantis, Star Trek Generations, Overboard, etc.).
4. Puzzlers: This type is self-explanatory. These games are “brainteasers,” which often require active thinking (e.g., Tetris, Baku Baku Animal, etc.).
5. Weird Games: These games are not weird as such except they do not fit into any other category. They would be better termed miscellaneous (e.g., Sim City 2000, Populous 3, etc.).
6. Platformers: These games involve running and jumping along and onto platforms (e.g., Mario 64,
Sonic, etc.).
7. Platform Blasters: These games are platformers but also involve blasting everything that comes into sight (Robocop 2, Virtua Cop, etc.).
8. Beat ’Em Ups: These games involve physical violence such as punching, kicking, etc. (e.g., Street Fighter
3, Tekken 2, Mortal Kombat, etc.).
9. Shoot ’Em Ups: These games involve shooting and killing using various weapons (e.g., Blast Corps,
Mech Warrior, Turok Dinosaur Hunter, etc.).

to show that children do become more aggressive after either playing or watching a violent video game but these were all based on the observation of a child’s free play. Such evidence suggests that at a theoretical level, there is more empirical evidence supporting social learning theory than catharsis theory—particularly in younger children. However, there is much speculation as to whether the procedures to measure aggression levels are valid and reliable. There is also the question of developmental effects, that is, do video games have the same effect regardless of age? It could well be the case that violent video games have a more pronounced effect in young children but less of an effect (if any) once they have reached their teenage years. There is also the social context of playing, that is, playing in groups or individually, with or against each other may affect the results.
The findings of Anderson and Morrow (1995) suggest that competitiveness increases aggression. There are also problems concerning the definition of “violent” or “aggressive” as there are numerous television cartoons such as Tom and Jerry which may not be regarded as violent within the operational definitions employed in mass media research.
Because all video games are animated, the same argument might be use for them also.
Research into the effects of long-term exposure to video games on subsequent aggressive behavior is noticeably lacking and at present remains speculative.
It is evident that video games can have both positive and negative aspects. If care is taken in the design, and if games are put into the right context, they have the potential to be used as training aids in classrooms and therapeutic settings, and to provide skills in psychomotor coordination in simulations of real life events, for example, training recruits for the armed forces. There is, however, a need for a general taxonomy of video games as it could be the case that particular types of games have very positive effects while other types are not so positive.
As Table 5 demonstrates, there are many different types of video games each of which have their own distinctive qualities. Only three of these categories (“beat ’em ups,” “shoot
’em ups,” and “platform blasters”) have any kind of aggressive element. If children and

Violent Video Games and Aggression

211

adolescents work with this degree of definitional refinement it follows that other interested parties (e.g., educationalists, researchers, etc.) should do also. To briefly conclude, the question of whether video games promote aggressiveness cannot be answered at present because the available literature is relatively sparse and conflicting, and there are many different types of video games which probably have different effects.

REFERENCES
Anderson, C. A., Deuser, W. E., & DeNeve, K. M. (1995). Hot temperatures, hostile affect, hostile cognition, and arousal: Tests of a general model of affective aggression. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 434–448.
Anderson, C. A., & Ford, C. M. (1986). Affect of the game player: Short-term effects of highly and mildly aggressive video games. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 12, 390–402.
Anderson, C. A., & Morrow, M. (1995). Competitive aggression without interaction: Effects of competitive versus cooperative instructions on aggressive behavior in video games. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,
21, 1020–1030.
Andison, F. S. (1977). T.V. violence and viewer aggression: A cumulation of study results. Public Opinion Quarterly,
41, 314–331.
Ballard, M. E., & West, J. R. (1996). The effects of violent videogame play on males’ hostility and cardiovascular responding. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 26, 717–730.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
Berkowicz, L. (1970). The contagion of violence: An S-R mediational analysis of some of the effects of observed aggression. In W. J. Arnold & M. M. Page (Eds.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation (pp. 93–110). Lincoln:
University of Nebraska Press.
Bowman, R. P., & Rotter, J. C. (1983). Computer games: Friend or foe? Elementary School Guidance and
Counseling, 18, 25–34.
Buss, A. H., & Durkee, A. (1957). An inventory for assessing different kinds of hostility. Journal of Consulting
Psychology, 21, 25–34.
Chambers, J. H., & Ascione, F. R. (1987). The effects of prosocial and aggressive videogames on children’s donating and helping. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 148, 499–505.
Cooper, J., & Mackie, D. (1986). Video games and aggression in children. Journal of Applied Social Psychology,
16, 726–744.
Deutsch, M. (1993). Educating for a peaceful world. American Psychologist, 48, 510–517.
Dominick, J. R. (1984). Videogames, television violence and aggression in teenagers. Journal of Communication,
34, 136–147.
Eron, L. D. (1982). Parent-child interaction, television violence, and aggression of children. American Psychologist,
37, 197–211.
Eysenck, H. J. (1958). A short questionnaire for the measurement of two dimensions of personality. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 42, 14–17.
Eysenck, H. J., & Eysenck, S. B. G. (1975). Manual of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire. London: Hodder and Stoughton.
Feshbach, S., & Singer, R. D. (1971). Television and aggression: An experimental field study. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.
Fling, S., Smith, L., Rodriguez, T., Thornton, D., Atkins, E., & Nixon, K. (1992). Video games, aggression, and self-esteem: A survey. Social Behavior and Personality, 20, 39–46.
Funk, J. (1993). Reevaluating the impact of video games. Clinical Pediatrics, 32, 86–90.
Gardner, J. E. (1991). Can the Mario Bros. help? Nintendo games as an adjunct in psychotherapy with children.
Psychotherapy, 28, 667–670.
Gibb, G. D., Bailey, J. R., Lambirth, T. T., & Wilson, W. P. (1983). Personality differences in high and low electronic video game users. Journal of Psychology, 114, 159–165.
Graybill, D., Kirsch, J. R., & Esselman, E. D. (1985). Effects of playing violent versus non-violent video games on the aggressive ideation of children. Child Study Journal, 15, 199–205.
Graybill, D., Strawniak, M., Hunter, T., & O’Leary, M. (1987). Effects of playing versus observing violent versus non-violent video games on childrens’ aggression. Psychology: A Quarterly Journal of Human Behavior, 24, 1–7.
Greenfield, P. (1984). Media and the mind of the child: From print to television, video games and computers.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

212

M. Griffiths

Griffiths, M. D. (1993). Are computer games bad for children? The Psychologist: Bulletin of the British Psychological
Society, 6, 401–407.
Griffiths, M. D., & Hunt, N. (1993, December). The acquisition, development and maintenance of computer game playing in adolescence. Paper presented at the British Psychological Society London Conference, City University.
Griffiths, M. D., & Hunt, N. (1995). Computer game playing in adolescence: Prevalence and demographic indicators.
Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 5, 189–193.
Irwin, A. R., & Gross, A. M. (1995). Cognitive tempo, violent video games, and aggressive behavior in young boys. Journal of Family Violence, 10, 337–350.
Kestenbaum, G. I., & Weinstein, L. (1985). Personality, psychopathology, and developmental issues in male adolescent video game use. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 24, 325–337.
Koop, E. (1982, November 10). Surgeon general sees danger in video games. New York Times, p. A-16.
Lightdale, J. R., & Prentice, D. A. (1994). Rethinking sex differences in aggression: Aggressive behaviour in the absence of social roles. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20, 34–44.
Lin, S., & Lepper, M. R. (1987). Correlates of children’s usage of videogames and computers. Journal of Applied
Social Psychology, 17, 72–93.
Loftus, G. A., & Loftus, E. F. (1983). Mind at play: The psychology of video games. New York: Basic Books.
Lynch, P. (1994). Type A behaviour, hostility, and cardiovascular function at rest after playing video games in teenagers. Psychosomatic Medicine, 56, 152.
Mehrabian, A., & Wixen, W. J. (1986). Preference for individual video games as a function of their emotional effects on players. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 16, 3–15.
Provenzo, E. (1991). Video kids. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Rosenzweig, S. (1978). Aggressive behavior and the Rosenzweig Picture Frustration Study. New York: Praeger.
Rushbrook, S. (1986). “Messages” of videogames: Social implications. Dissertation Abstracts International, 47, 6.
Schutte, N. S., Malouff, J. M., Post-Gorden, J. C., & Rodasta, A. L. (1988). Effects of playing video games on children’s aggressive and other behaviors. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 18, 454–460.
Scott, D. (1995). The effect of video games on feelings of aggression. Journal of Psychology, 129(2), 121–132.
Silvern, S. B., & Williamson, P. A. (1987). The effects of video game play on young children’s aggression, fantasy, and prosocial behavior. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 8, 453–462.
Silvern, S. B., Williamson, P. A., & Countermine, T. A. (1983, April). Aggression in young children and video game play. Paper presented at the bi-ennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Detroit.
Singer, J. & Antrobus, J. (1970). Imaginal Process Inventory. Center for Research in Cognition and Affect. C.U.N.Y. copyright 1966, revised 1970.
Winkel, M., Novak, D. M., & Hopson, H. (1987). Personality factors, subject gender, and the effects of aggressive video games on aggression in adolescents. Journal of Research in Personality, 21, 211–223.
Zimbardo, P. (1982). Understanding psychological man: A state of the science report. Psychology Today, 16, 15.