Ways Of Expressing The Subject

Contents
Introduction……………………………………………………….…..…….3
Chapter 1: General overview of Grammar………………………….…….5
Chapter 1.1: The Subject as the Principal Part of the Sentence…………7
Chapter 2: Ways of Expressing the Subject…………….……….………12
Conclusion………………………………………………………..……….16
Bibliography…………………………………………………….………..18

Introduction
The title of this term paper is “Ways of Expressing the Subject”. The main goal is to identify the main features of the subject in the sentence and to examine the subject and its features in fiction.
Before turning to subject we will study the structure of English language. At first we would like to give a general information about grammar, then gradually turn to syntax and finally to subject. So, the term grammar refers to either the inherent structure of words and sentences, morphology and syntax respectively, in a language; or to the study and description of this structure, published as grammar rules in books about the language. Grammar explains how the language should be structured, using various categories.
The main aim of grammar is to present a theoretical description of the grammatical system of the English language. Language is a means of forming and storing ideas as reflections of reality. Grammatical system of the language consists of morphology and syntax.
According to their meaning, syntactical functions and morphological characteristics, words fall into certain classes called parts of speech. Morphology is that part of grammar which treats of the parts of speech and their inflexion that is: the forms of number and case of nouns and pronouns, the forms of tense, mood, etc. of verbs, the forms of degrees of comparison of adjectives. (M. Ganshina and N. Vasilevskaya, 1954: 13).
We distinguish between notional and structural parts of speech (V. L. Kaushanskaya and others, 1973: 13). The notional parts of speech are: the noun, the adjective, the pronoun, the numeral, the verb, the adverb, the words of the category of state, the modal words, the interjection. The structural parts of speech are the preposition, the conjunction, the particle, the article.
Syntax is that part of grammar which treats of the rules according to which words are connected in the sentence, and also of the various types of sentences, their structure and meaning (M. Ganshina and N. Vasilevskaya, 1954: 259). The sentence is a unit of speech which serves as a means of conveying a thought and is formed according to a certain syntactic pattern and pronounced with certain intonation typical of the given language (Ye. Mkhitaryan and others, 2004: 87). Every sentence shows the relation of the statement to reality from the point of view of the speaker. A sentence may consist of a single word or of a combination of words. Sentences are divided into simple, compound and complex.
It is common in grammatical theory to distinguish between main and secondary parts of a sentence. There are two generally recognized main parts of the sentence — the subject and the predicate. The subject is the main part of a two-member sentence which is grammatically independent of the other parts of the sentence and on which the predicate is grammatically dependent (V. L. Kaushanskaya and others, 1973: 225), i.e. in most cases it agrees with the subject in number and person (there are cases, however, when there is no agreement in number). The predicate is the second prinicpal part of the sentence which expresses an action, state, or quality of the person or thing denoted by the subject (V. L. Kaushanskaya and others, 1973: 229).
There are some classifications of the subject given by different authors from both the structural and functional point of view. From the point of view of the structure, the subject can be simple, compound, coordinated or homogeneous, complex, double. From the point of view of the function (Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, Jan Svartvik, 1982:158) the most typical semantic role of a subject is agentive, affected, instrumental and recipient.
The subject can be expressed by different parts of speech. It can be expressed by a single word or a group of words. Thus it can be expressed by (V.L. Kaushanskaya and others, 1973: 225): a noun in the common (or occasionally possessive) case; a pronoun (personal, demonstrative, defining, indefinite, negative, possessive, interrogative); a substantivized adjective; a numeral (cardinal or ordinal); an infinitive, an infinitive phrase or construction; a gerund, a gerundial phrase or construction; any part of speech used as a quotation; a group of words which is one part of the sentence, i.e. a syntactically indivisible group; a quotation group.
We would like to study the pronoun it and the construction there is as the subject of the sentence separately. When the pronoun it is used as the subject of a sentence it may represent a living being or a thing: then it is a notional subject. Sometimes, however, it does not represent any living being or thing and performs a purely grammatical function: then it is a formal subject. As a notional subject we distinguish between the personal it and the demonstrative it. As a formal subject, i.e. it does not represent any person or thing. Here we must distinguish the impersonal it, the introductory or anticipatory it and the emphatic it.
When the subject of the sentence is indefinite (a book, books, some books), it is often placed after the predicate verb and the sentence begins with the introductory particle there. It has lost its local meaning, which is shown by the possibility of combining it in the sentence with the adverbs of place here and there.
All these cases will be illustrated with examples from fiction in the second of this term paper. Chapter 1: Grammar
At its core, the term grammar refers to either the inherent structure of words and sentences (morphology and syntax respectively) in a language; or to the study and description of this structure, published as grammar rules in books about the language. Other approaches include more topics under the term grammar: orthography (spelling, punctuation and capitalization), semantics (word meanings), phonetics and phonology (sounds) and pragmatics (language use in context).
Grammar explains how the language should be structured, using various categories. Number refers to formation of singular and plural nouns and other parts of the sentence that have to agree with number (e.g. child Vs. children) whereas Gender, a category hardly existent in English, but alive in German, regards the differences between masculine (der Löffel, spoon) feminine (die Gabel, fork) or even neuter (das Messer, knife) nouns and how these affect other words in a properly phrased sentence. Tense and aspect treat the formation of verbs, from the English I write - She writes; We write - We are writing distinctions, all the way to far more elaborate verb conjugation systems of other languages. A grammatical category or element never stands alone as it influences all other parts of the structural system of a language.
The main aim of grammar is to present a theoretical description of the grammatical system of the English language. Language is a means of forming and storing ideas as reflections of reality. Grammatical system of the language consists of morphology and syntax. Grammatical elements of language preserve unity of meaning and form in the formation of utterances. The main notions of theoretical grammar are grammatical form, grammatical meaning and grammatical categories.
According to their meaning, syntactical functions and morphological characteristics, words fall into certain classes called parts of speech. Morphology is that part of grammar which treats of the parts of speech and their inflexion that is: the forms of number and case of nouns and pronouns, the forms of tense, mood, etc. of verbs, the forms of degrees of comparison of adjectives. (M. Ganshina and N. Vasilevskaya, 1954: 13).
We distinguish between notional and structural parts of speech (V. L. Kaushanskaya and others, 1973: 13). The notional parts of speech perform certain functions in the sentence: the functions of subject, attribute, object, or adverbial modifier. Notional words have distinct lexical meanings and perform independent syntactic functions in the sentence – they serve either as primary or secondary parts of the sentence.
The notional parts of speech are: the noun; the adjective; the pronoun; the numeral; the verb; the adverb; the words of the category of state; the modal words; the interjection.
The structural parts of speech either express relations between words or sentences or emphasize the meaning of words or sentences. They never perform any independent function in the sentence. Here belong: the preposition; the conjunction; the particle; the article.
Syntax is that part of grammar which treats of the rules according to which words are connected in the sentence, and also of the various types of sentences, their structure and meaning (M. Ganshina and N. Vasilevskaya, 1954: 259).
The sentence is a unit of speech which serves as a means of conveying a thought and is formed according to a certain syntactic pattern and pronounced with certain intonation typical of the given language (Ye. Mkhitaryan and others, 2004: 87). Every sentence shows the relation of the statement to reality from the point of view of the speaker. A sentence may consist of a single word or of a combination of words. Sentences are divided into simple, compound and complex. A simple sentence is a separate two-member or one-member sentence or a part of a compound sentence. A compound sentence consists of two or more coordinated simple sentences. A complex sentence consists of a principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses. The classification of simple sentences is based on two principles (V. L. Kaushanskaya and others, 1973: 221):
1) according to the purpose of the utterance;
2) according to the structure.
According to the purpose of the utterance we distinguish four kinds of sentences: declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamatory. According to their structure simple sentences are divided into two-member and one-member sentences. A two-member sentence has two members – a subject and a predicate. If one of them is missing it can be easily understood form the context.
A two-member sentence may be complete or incomplete. It is complete when it has a subject and a predicate.
It is incomplete when one of the principal parts or both of them are missing, but can be easily understood from the context. Such sentences are called elliptical and are mostly used in colloquial speech and especially in dialogue.
A one-member sentence is a sentence having only one member which is neither the subject nor the predicate. This does not mean, however, that the other member is missing, for the one member makes the sense complete. One-member sentences are generally used in descriptions and in emotional speech. If the main part of a one-member sentence is expressed by a noun, the sentence is called nominal. The noun may be modified by attributes.
Simple sentences, both two-member and one-member, can be unextended and extended. A sentence consisting only of the primary or principal parts is called an unextended sentence.
An extended sentence is a sentence consisting of the subject, the predicate and one or more secondary parts (objects, attributes, or adverbial modifiers). Chapter 1.1: The Subject as the Principal Part of the Sentence
It is common in grammatical theory to distinguish between main and secondary parts of a sentence. There are two generally recognised main parts of the sentence — the subject and the predicate. As to the secondary parts, their number varies slightly. Among them we usually find the object (with its subdivisions), the attribute, and the adverbial modifier. Other secondary parts are also sometimes mentioned — the apposition (its relation to the attribute is variously interpreted), the objective predicative, and occasionally some other parts, too.
The reason for calling the subject and the predicate the main parts of the sentence and distinguishing them from all other parts which are treated as secondary is roughly this (B. A. Ilysh, 2004: 197). The subject and the predicate between them constitute the backbone of the sentence: without them the sentence would not exist at all, whereas all other parts may or may not be there, and if they are there, they serve to define or modify either the subject or the predicate, or each other.
The subject is the main part of a two-member sentence which is grammatically independent of the other parts of the sentence and on which the predicate is grammatically dependent (V. L. Kaushanskaya and others, 1973: 225), i.e. in most cases it agrees with the subject in number and person (there are cases, however, when there is no agreement in number).
The predicate is the second principal part of the sentence which expresses an action, state, or quality of the person or thing denoted by the subject (V. L. Kaushanskaya and others, 1973: 229).
The predicate may be considered from the semantic or from the structural point of view. Structurally the predicate in English expressed by a finite verb agrees with the subject in number and person. The only exception to this rule is a compound modal and a simple nominal predicate, the latter having no verb form at all.
According to the meaning of its components, the predicate may denote an action, a state, a quality, or an attitude to some action or state ascribed to the subject. These different meanings find their expression in the structure of the predicate and the lexical meaning of its constituents.
From the structural point of view there are two main types of predicate: the simple predicate and the compound predicate. Both these types may be either nominal or verbal, which gives four sub-groups: simple verbal, simple nominal, compound verbal, compound nominal. Compound verbal predicates may be further classified into phrasal, modal and of double orientation Compound nominal predicates may be classified into nominal proper and double nominal.
In this term paper we are interested mainly in the subject and the ways of expressing it so at first we would like to take into consideration the different types of the subject. There are some classifications of the subject given by different authors from both the structural and functional point of view. From the point of view of the structure, the subject can be:
Simple, expressed by a word or a number of words in the nominal case, the combination of which represents one doer of the action.
Compound, expressed by two or more nouns that represent one and the same notion (or one and the same person)
Coordinated or Homogeneous, that unites two or more different objects with the conjunction.
Complex, expressed by a special construction, first of all, by a noun in the nominal case with an infinitive or with a participle:
Double that is characteristic of the English folklore.
From the point of view of the function (Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, Jan Svartvik, 1982: 158) the most typical semantic role of a subject is agentive; that is the animate being instigating or causing the happening denoted by the verb:
e.g. Burton came into the lounge presently and caught sight of me. (S. Maugham, “A Friend in Need”: 167)
Here ‘Burton’ in combination with the predicate ‘caught’ represents the agentive subject.
With intransitive verbs, the subject also frequently has the affected role that is elsewhere typical of the object:
e.g. Burton came into the lounge presently and caught sight of me. (S. Maugham, “A Friend in Need”: 167)
Here ‘Burton’ in relation with the predicate ‘came’ represents the affected subject.
Apart from its agentive function, the subject frequently has an instrumental role; that is, it expresses the unwitting (generally inanimate) material cause of the event:
e.g. A sort of sigh passed through those men crowded together… (S. Maugham, “The Man with the Scar”: 21)
The subject may also have a recipient role with verbs such as have, own, possess, benefit (from), as is indicated by the following relation (Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, Jan Svartvik, 1982: 160):
The perceptual verbs see and hear also require a ‘recipient’ subject, in contrast to look at and listen to, which are agentive. The other perceptual verbs taste, smell, and feel have both an agentive meaning corresponding to look at and a recipient meaning corresponding to see:
The adverb foolishly requires the agentive; hence, the second sentence, which can only be understood in a non-agentive manner, does not make sense. Verbs indicating a mental state may also require a recipient subject.
Normally, recipient subjects go with stative verbs. Some of them (notably have and possess) have no passive form:
The subject may have the function of designating place or time (Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, Jan Svartvik, 1982):
Temporal subjects can usually be replaced by the empty it, the temporal expression becoming adjunct:
Eventive subjects (with abstract noun heads designating arrangements and activities) differ from others in permitting intensive complementation with a time adverbial:
Finally, a subject may lack semantic content altogether, and consist only of the meaningless ‘prop’ word it, used especially with climatic predications:
The ‘prop’ subject it as discussed here must be distinguished from the ‘anticipatory’ it of sentences like ‘It was nice seeing you’, where the ‘prop’ subject is a replacement for a postponed clausal subject (= Seeing you was nice).
The subject can be expressed by different parts of speech, all the ways of expression with corresponding examples will be introduced in the second chapter of this term paper but before turning to it we would like to study the pronoun it and the construction there is as the subject of the sentence. When the pronoun it is used as the subject of a sentence it may represent a living being or a thing: then it is a notional subject. Sometimes, however, it does not represent any living being or thing and performs a purely grammatical function: then it is a formal subject.
When it is a notional subject the pronoun it has the following meanings:
1. It stands for a definite thing or some abstract idea – the personal it;
e.g. It is rather a funny story. (S. Maugham, “A Friend in Need”: 167)
2. It points out a person or thing expressed by a predicative noun, or it refers to the thought contained in a preceding statement, thus having a demonstrative meaning – the demonstrative it.
e.g. It was a busy, exhilarating scene, and yet, I know not why, restful to the spirit.
(S. Maugham, “A Friend in Need”: 166)
Sometimes the pronoun it is a formal subject, i.e. it does not represent any person or thing. Here we must distinguish the impersonal it, the introductory or anticipatory it and the emphatic it.
The impersonal it is used:
a. to denote natural phenomena (such as the state of the weather, etc.) or that which characterizes the environment. In such sentences the predicate is either a simple one, expressed by a verb denoting the state of the weather, or a compound nominal one, with an adjective as predicative.
e.g. It was as cold as a block of marble. (A. Conan Doyle, “The Hound of the Baskervilles, 9: 102)
b. to denote time and distance.
e.g. It was just after ten. (S. Maugham, “A Friend in Need”: 168)
The introductory or anticipatory it introduces the real subject.
e.g. It was more startling because both in appearance and manner he suggested a very definite type. (S. Maugham, “A Friend in Need”: 166)
The emphatic it is used for emphasis.
e.g. He was exceedingly kind, and it was through him that Sir Charles learned about my affairs. (A. Conan Doyle, “The Hound of the Baskervilles”, 11: 117)
Now let us consider the construction there is as the subject of the sentence. When the subject of the sentence is indefinite (a book, books, some books), it is often placed after the predicate verb and the sentence begins with the introductory particle there. It has lost its local meaning, which is shown by the possibility of combining it in the sentence with the adverbs of place here and there:
e.g. There was a little stir at the gateway. (S. Maugham, “The Man with the Scar”: 20)
Things are specifically different in cases when it and there are used in subject positions as representatives of words or longer units which embody the real content of the subject but are postponed. Sentences with the introductory there may serve to assert or deny the existence of something. In sentences with the introductory there the predicate verb is usually the verb to be; occasionally some other verbs are found, such as to live, to occur, to come, etc., which, similarly to the verb to be, indicate to exist or have the meaning of to come into the existence:
e.g. There was a pause and our friend asked the officer… (S. Maugham, “The Man with the Scar”: 19) There came a sound to my ears, clear, resonant, and unmistakable. (A. Conan Doyle, “The Hound of the Baskervilles, 6: 66
More examples will be introduced in the second .

Chapter 2: Ways of Expressing the Subject
In the first chapter we have studied the types of the subject, as well as the pronoun it and the construction there is separately as the subjects of the sentence. In this chapter we will study the ways of expressing the subject and bring examples for each case. The subject can be expressed by a single word or a group of words. Thus it can be expressed by (V.L. Kaushanskaya and others, 1973: 225):
1. A noun in the common (or occasionally possessive) case;
e.g. Sherlock Holmes struck his hand against his knee with an impatient gesture. (A. Conan Doyle, “The Hound of the Baskervilles”, 3: 26)
The train pulled up at a small station, and we all descended. (A. Conan Doyle, “The Hound of the Baskervilles”, 6: 60)
Burton gave a kindly chuckle. (S. Maugham, “A Friend in Need”: 167)
The officer said that the general commanding the government troops wished to attend the execution and they awaited his arrival. (S. Maugham, “The Man with the Scar”: 19)
The blood spurted from the cut vein and dyed his shirt. (S. Maugham, “The Man with the Scar”: 20)
The rebel knew where he was striking and it was impossible to staunch the blood. (S. Maugham, “The Man with the Scar”: 21)
The wagonette swung round into a side road… (A. Conan Doyle, “The Hound of the Baskervilles”, 6: 60)
The man is a public danger. (A. Conan Doyle, “The Hound of the Baskervilles”, 10: 107)
In all the above mentioned sentences nouns are in common case.
Here are some examples of the subject expressed by a noun in possessive case:
e.g. Mrs. Gummidge’s was rather a fretful disposition. (Charles Dickens, “David Copperfield: 37)
Oh, my dear Richard, Ada 's is a noble heart. (Charles Dickens: 46) 2. A pronoun (personal, demonstrative, defining, indefinite, negative, possessive, interrogative);
e.g. I tiptoed down the path and stooped behind the low wall which surrounded the stunted orchard. (A. Conan Doyle, “The Hound of the Baskervilles”, 14: 153) This is the Devon County Chronicle of May 14th of this year. (A. Conan Doyle, “The Hound of the Baskervilles”, 2: 18) How can anyone be so shameless? (S. Maugham, “The Door of Opportunities”: 878) Nothing that concerned you was at stake. (S. Maugham, “The Door of Opportunities”: 878) 'Who is your friend? 'I asked. (S. Maugham, “The Man with the Scar”: 19)
The subject is often expressed by the indefinite pronoun one or the personal pronouns they, you, we, which refer not to any particular person or persons but to people in general (V. L. Kaushanskaya, 1973: 226).
e. g. Yes, muttered Jon, life’s beastly short. One wants to live forever. (J. Galsworthy, “The Forsyte Saga”, 4, “The Mausoleum”: 424)
They say he’s clever – they all think they are clever. (J. Galsworthy, “The Forsyte Saga”, 6: 51)
Examples of the pronoun it as the subject of the sentence:
e.g. It is a wonderful place, the moor. (A. Conan Doyle, “The Hound of the Baskervilles”, 7: 72)
Here it is notional representing a place. It is surely inconceivable that he could have held out upon the moor during all that time. (A. Conan Doyle, “The Hound of the Baskervilles”, 8: 82)
In this sentence it is formal. 'It 's only an hour 's journey, ' said Anne. (S. Maugham, “The Door of Opportunities”: 849)
Here it is formal denoting time aspect.
It was on account of the scar that I first noticed him, for it ran, broad and red from his temple to his chin. (S. Maugham, “The Man with the Scar”: 18)
In this sentence both “it”s are notional subjects, first ‘it’ points out a thing expressed by a predicative noun whereas the second ‘it’ stands for a definite thing mentioned before.
3. A substantivized adjective or participle;
e.g. The Privileged, to be present at a family festival of the Forsytes, have seen that charming and instructive sight.( (J. Galsworthy, “The Forsyte Saga”, “The Man of Property”: 1)
4. A numeral (cardinal or ordinal);
e.g. Just before dinner two telegrams were handed in. The first ran: (A. Conan Doyle, “The Hound of the Baskervilles”, 5: 53) Four of the five shook their heads, but our friend spoke. (S. Maugham, “The Man with the Scar”: 20)
Two or three shouted back in answer. (S. Maugham, “The Door of Opportunities”: 863)
5. An infinitive, an infinitive phrase or construction. In this function the infinitive is always used with the particle to and usually expresses an action following the action expressed by the predicate verb;
e.g. To act the spy upon a friend was a hateful task. (A. Conan Doyle, “The Hound of the Baskervilles”, 9: 91) To follow them and break into their intimate conversation seemed to be an outrage, and yet my clear duty was never for an instant to let him out of my sight. (A. Conan Doyle, “The Hound of the Baskervilles”, 9: 91) To prolong doubt was to prolong hope. (Bronte, Jane Eyre, 89)
Sentences with the infinitive as subject have certain structural peculiarities. (E. M. Gordon, I. P. Krylova, 1974: 144)
a. The infinitive as subject may be used only in declarative sentences; it is never used in interrogative sentences.
b. The infinitive is always placed at the head of the sentence; it is never preceded by any secondary parts.
c. We generally find the nominal predicate in sentences of this kind. Sometimes another infinitive is used as predicative.
The use of the infinitive as subject is mainly found in literary English but even there it is infrequent.
6. A gerund, a gerundial phrase or construction;
e.g. Annette 's being French might upset him a little. (J. Galsworthy, The Forsyte Saga, 10: 271) Watching and ministering Kit was her best care. (Galsworthy, The Forsyte Saga, 84)
7. Any part of speech used as a quotation;
e.g. On is a preposition.
A is the first letter of the English alphabet.
8. A group of words which is one part of the sentence, i.e. a syntactically indivisible group;
e.g. The worst of it was that Anne knew how low an opinion Alban had of the Governor’s parts. (S. Maugham, “The Door of Opportunities”: 857)
A sort of sigh passed through those men crowded together and they looked with strange faces at the murderer. (S. Maugham, “The Man with the Scar”: 21)
“A greater mystery to me is why this hound, presuming that all our conjectures are correct- “(A. Conan Doyle, “The Hound of the Baskervilles”, 12: 137)
9. A quotation group;
e.g. Perhaps this what’s-his-name will provide the cocoa. (J. Galsworthy, “The Forsyte Saga”: 26)
More examples of the construction there is as the subject of the sentence
e.g. There was a thrill in the doctor 's voicw which showed that he was himself deeply moved by that which he told us. (A. Conan Doyle, “The Hound of the Baskervilles”, 3: 25) There is a realm in which the most acute and most experienced of detectives is helpless. (A. Conan Doyle, “The Hound of the Baskervilles”, 3: 27) There was something very pleasing in his mild blue eyes. (S. Maugham, “A Friend in Need”: 166) There is an opening between two trees which enables one from this point of view to look right down upon it… (S. Maugham, “A Friend in Need”: 167) There were only two men in the room. (A. Conan Doyle, “The Hound of the Baskervilles”, 14: 153) There can be no doubt that Stapleton exercised an influence over her which may have been love or may have been fear, or very possibly both, since they are by no means incompatible emotions. (A. Conan Doyle, “The Hound of the Baskervilles”, 15: 172)

Conclusion
We have investigated the subject from both structural and functional point of view, found out the types, as well as the ways of expressing it in the sentence and illustrated all these cases with examples from fiction.
On the basis of the theoretical and practical investigation of the Subject we have reached the following results of the term paper:
There are some classifications of the subject given by different authors from both the structural and functional point of view. From the point of view of the structure, the subject can be:
Simple, expressed by a word or a number of words in the nominal case, the combination of which represents one doer of the action.
Compound, expressed by two or more nouns that represent one and the same notion (or one and the same person)
Coordinated or Homogeneous, that unites two or more different objects with the conjunction.
Complex, expressed by a special construction, first of all, by a noun in the nominal case with an infinitive or with a participle:
Double that is characteristic of the English folklore.
From the point of view of the function (Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, Jan Svartvik, 1982: 158) the most typical semantic role of a subject is agentive; that is the animate being instigating or causing the happening denoted by the verb. With intransitive verbs, the subject also frequently has the affected role that is elsewhere typical of the object. Apart from its agentive function, the subject frequently has an instrumental role; that is, it expresses the unwitting (generally inanimate) material cause of the event. The subject may also have a recipient role with verbs such as have, own, possess, benefit (from), as is indicated by the following relation (Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, Jan Svartvik, 1982: 160):
We have come to the conclusion that ways of expressing the subject vary mainly surely between the nouns in nominal case, these examples constitute the majority part of expressing the subject, personal pronouns, which also present a vast percentage of the examples where they are in the role of the subject, demonstrative, interrogative, indefinite pronouns are of less often frequency. Numerals are also used in the role of the Subject, these cases are mainly characteristic of the colloquial dialogues.
To sum up we can say that the subject is rarely expressed by gerund and infinitive in the works of fiction we have studied there are only several cases when we can find a subject expressed by either gerund or infinitive. What concerns to the subject expressed by any part of speech used as a quotation, we must say that there were not any examples, I think this type is hardly ever found in fiction. What concerns “it” as the subject of the sentence, our studies show that generally notional “it” is used in the role of the subject, formal “it” is used much more moderate.

Bibliography
1. Ganshina M. and Vasilevskaya N., “English Grammar”, Moscow, 1954
2. Gordon E. M. and Krylova I. P., “A Grammar of Present-Day English”, Moscow, 1974
3. Ilysh B. A., “The-Structure of Modern English Language”, Leningrad, 1971
4. Kaushanskaya V. L., Kovner R. L., Kozhevnikova O. N., Prokofieva E. V., Raines Z. M., Svirskaya S. E., Tsirlina F. Ya., “A Grammar of the English Language”, Leningrad, 1973
5. Mkhitaryan Ye., Hambartsoumyan N., Makaryan A., Avakyan N., “A Practical English Grammar (with exercises)”, Yerevan, 2004
6. Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, Jan Svartvik, “A University Grammar of English”, Moscow, 1982
Fiction Sources:
1. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, “The Hound of the Baskervilles”
2. Charles Dickens, “David Copperfield
3. Charles Dickens, 20 Classic Novels (Illustrated) Part-2
4. Galsworthy J., “The Forsyte Saga”
5. Maugham S., The Complete Short Stories of W. Somerset Maugham, Volume 1 “East and West” (“The Door of Opportunities”)
6. Maugham S., The Complete Short Stories of W. Somerset Maugham, Volume 2 “The World Over” (“A Friend in Need”, “The Man with the Scar”)
Internet Source: http://www.whitesmoke.com/english-grammar

Bibliography: 1. Ganshina M. and Vasilevskaya N., “English Grammar”, Moscow, 1954 2 3. Ilysh B. A., “The-Structure of Modern English Language”, Leningrad, 1971   4 5. Mkhitaryan Ye., Hambartsoumyan N., Makaryan A., Avakyan N., “A Practical English Grammar (with exercises)”, Yerevan, 2004 6