Questions on Biology

CDC1 Study Questions

LIVING ORGANISMS

CELLULAR CHEMISTRY

CELL BIOLOGY

GENETICS

PLANT BIOLOGY

INVERTEBRATES AND VERTEBRATES

ECOLOGY

LIVING ORGANISMS

CLASSIFICATION

Compare and contrast living and nonliving things.

What is biology? The study of living things (science of life)
Describe characteristics found in all living organisms.
* Living things are made of cells.
* Living things obtain and use energy.
* Living things grow and develop.
* Living things reproduce.
* Living things respond to their environment.
* Living things adapt to their environment.
How can you distinguish living from non living things?
To make your life simple here is an easy way to remember the characteristics of living things which distinguishes them from non living things. Just remember the acronym GRIMNER which is
Growth- all living things grow (i.e. a permanent increase in size)
Respiration- all living thing respire (to obtain energy)
Irritability- living things are able respond to environmental changes
Movement- all organism can move either part of/their entire structure
Nutrition- all living thing feed
Excretion- all living things are able to remove waste products
Reproduction- all living are able of replicating themselves
List properties of living things.
1. Living Things are Composed of Cells: (Homeostasis)
2. Living Things Have Different Levels of Organization:
3. Living Things Use Energy: (Metabolism)
4. Living Things Respond To Their Environment: (Response to stimuli)
5. Living Things Grow:
6. Living Things Reproduce:
7. Living Things Adapt To Their Environment: (Adaptation)

Explain the taxonomy of living things.

What is taxonomy?
Taxonomy is the science of naming, describing and classifying organisms and includes all plants, animals and microorganisms of the world. Using morphological, behavioural, genetic and biochemical observations, taxonomists identify, describe and arrange species into classifications, including those that are new to science. Taxonomy identifies and enumerates the components of biological diversity providing basic knowledge underpinning management and implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity. Unfortunately, taxonomic knowledge is far from complete. In the past 250 years of research, taxonomists have named about 1.78 million species of animals, plants and micro-organisms, yet the total number of species is unknown and probably between 5 and 30 million.

List, in order, the levels in the hierarchical system of classification.
Life…………………………………………………………..
Domain/Empire………………………………………….(Archaea, Bacteria, Eukarya)
Kingdom……………. (Animalia, Fungi, Monera/Bacteria, Chromista, Protista/Protozoa, Plantae)
Phylum (animal) or Division (plants)……………...... Chordata subphylum………………………………................ Vertebrata
Class ……………………………………………... Mammalia
Order …………………………………………….. Rodentia
Family ……………………………………………. Muridae
Genus …………………………………………….. Peromyscus
Species …………………………………………… leucopus

What is a species? Describe the naming system used for species. a group of living organisms consisting of similar individuals capable of exchanging genes or interbreeding. The species is the principal natural taxonomic unit, ranking below a genus and denoted by a Latin binomial, e.g., Homo sapiens.
This is the order of the pyramid goes starting at the top Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Order, Class, Family, Genus Species. Domain is the biggest. It can consist of millions of species. Then you get a little more specific. You come to the Kingdom. This usually consists of thousands of species. Then you get more specific. You come to the Phylum, then order class, Family genus, and finally to species. He also came up with a system known as binomial nomenclature. It helps you determine how similar species are in the system that Linneaus used to classify organisms into all the groups beginning with Domain.
The binomial naming system is the system used to name species. Each species is given a name that consists of two parts. The first part is the Genus to which the species belongs and the second part is the species name.

What is a population?
A population is a summation of all the organisms of the same group or species, who live in the same geographical area, and have the capability of interbreeding.

What is phylogeny and why is studying it important? How can this study be applied?
Is the history of the evolution of a species or group, especially in reference to lines of descent and relationships among broad groups of organisms.

Fundamental to phylogeny is the proposition, universally accepted in the scientific community, that plants or animals of different species descended from common ancestors. The evidence for such relationships, however, is nearly always incomplete, for the vast majority of species that have ever lived are extinct, and relatively few of their remains have been preserved in the fossil record. Most phylogenies therefore are hypotheses and are based on indirect evidence. Different phylogenies often emerge using the same evidence. Nevertheless, there is universal agreement that the tree of life is the result of organic descent from earlier ancestors and that true phylogenies are discoverable, at least in principle.

Phenetics versus cladistics
The methodology of phylogenetic work rests on two approaches: phenetics and phylogenetic systematics (cladistics). Phenetics bases classification strictly on similarities among organisms and emphasizes numerical analyses of an observed set of phenotypic characteristics. Cladistics bases classification of a group of species solely on their most recent common ancestor. Cladistics only uses shared derived characters—that is, select characteristics that infer monophyly or those that are expressed in all descendants of a common ancestor. The most direct difference between the two methods is that phenetics classifies species using as many characteristics as possible and arranges them by similarity regardless of any evolutionary relationships.

What do derived characteristics tell us about clades?
Cladistics (from Greek κλάδος, klados, i.e. "branch")[1] is an approach to biological classification in which organisms are grouped together based on whether or not they have one or more shared unique characteristics that come from the group's last common ancestor and are not present in more distant ancestors. Therefore, members of the same group are thought to share a common history and are considered to be more closely related.

An apomorphy ("separate form") or derived state is an innovation. It can thus be used to diagnose a clade – or even to help define a clade name in phylogenetic nomenclature. Features that are derived in individual taxa (a single species or a group that is represented by a single terminal in a given phylogenetic analysis) are called autapomorphies (from auto-, "self"). Autapomorphies express nothing about relationships among groups; clades are identified (or defined) by synapomorphies (from syn-, "together"). For example, the possession of digits that are homologous with those of Homo sapiens is a synapomorphy within the vertebrates. The tetrapods can be singled out as consisting of the first vertebrate with such digits homologous to those of Homo sapiens together with all descendants of this vertebrate (an apomorphy-based phylogenetic definition).[24] Importantly, snakes and other tetrapods that do not have digits are nonetheless tetrapods: other characters, such as amniotic eggs and diapsid skulls, indicate that they descended from ancestors that possessed digits which are homologous with ours.

What is a monophyletic group? Give examples of monophyletic groupings,

A monophyletic group, sometimes called a clade, includes an ancestral taxon and all of its descendants. A monophyletic group can be separated from the root with a single cut, whereas a non-monophyletic group needs two or more cuts.

What is a cladogram?
Cladistics is a powerful modern tool for studying and understanding evolution. Cladistics attempts to do for the entire history of life what genealogy does for the history of human families: to disentangle the relationships between all living beings. But while genealogy focuses on detailed lineages of ancestry and descent, cladograms focus on identifying the common ancestry of related groups.

Classify living things according to biological categories.

What are the evolutionary origins of the three domains?
The three-domain system is a biological classification introduced by Carl Woese in 1977[1][2] that divides cellular life forms into archaea, bacteria, and eukaryotedomains. In particular, it emphasizes the separation of prokaryotes into two groups, originally called Eubacteria (now Bacteria) and Archaebacteria (now Archaea). Woese argued that, on the basis of differences in 16S rRNAgenes, these two groups and the eukaryotes each arose separately from an ancestor with poorly developed genetic machinery, often called a progenote. To reflect these primary lines of descent, he treated each as a domain, divided into several different kingdoms. Woese initially used the term "kingdom" to refer to the three primary phylogenic groupings now referred to as "domains," until the latter term was coined in 1990.[2]

Describe how the three domains are related to each other, and how they differ.
Domain Archaea – prokaryotic, no nuclear membrane, distinct biochemistry and RNA markers from bacteria, possess unique ancient evolutionary history for which they are considered some of the oldest species of organisms on Earth; traditionally classified as archaebacteria; often characterized by living in extreme environments. Some examples of archaeal organisms are methanogens which produce the gas methane, halophiles which live in very salty water, and thermoacidophiles which thrive in acidic high temperature water.

Domain Bacteria – prokaryotic, consists of prokaryotic cells possessing primarily diacyl glycerol diester lipids in their membranes and bacterial rRNA, no nuclear membrane, traditionally classified as bacteria. Most of the known pathogenic prokaryotic organisms belong to bacteria (see [3] for exceptions), and are currently studied more extensively than Archaea. Some examples of bacteria include Cyanobacteria photosynthesizing bacteria that are related to the chloroplasts of eukaryotic plants and algae, Spirochaetes – Gram-negative bacteria that include those causing syphilis and Lyme disease, and Firmicutes – Gram-positive bacteria including Bifidobacterium animalis which is present in the human large intestine.

Domain Eukarya – eukaryotes, organisms that contain a membrane bound nucleus. An in-exhaustive list of eukaryotic organisms includes:

Kingdom Fungi or fungi
Examples:
Saccharomycotina – includes true yeasts
Basidiomycota – includes blue oyster mushrooms

Kingdom Plantae or plants
Examples:
Bryophyta – mosses
Magnoliophyta – flowering plants

Kingdom Animalia or animals
Examples:
Arthropoda – includes insects, arachnids, and crustaceans
Chordata – includes vertebrates and, as such, human beings

Kingdom Chromalvaeolate – a group of eukaryotes that represent descent from an organism that had an endosymbiosis between a line related to a bikont and a red alga. However, the monophyly of the of this group is challenged.

Describe the characteristics and diversity of the Protists. What role do they play on earth? Give examples of organisms in this kingdom.
Kingdom Protista is a diverse group of eukaryotic organisms. Protists are unicellular, some are colonial or multicellular, they do not have specialized tissue organization. The simple cellular organization distinguishes the protists from other eukaryotes. The cell body of the protists contain have a nucleus which is well defined and membrane bound organelles. Some have flagella or cilia for locomotion. Reproduction in protists is both asexual and sexual. They live in any environment that contains water.
All single celled organisms are placed under the Kingdom Protista. The term Protista was first used by Ernst Haeckel in the year 1886. This kingdom forms a link between other kingdoms of plants, animals and fungi. Protists represent an important step in early evolution. The first protists evolved probably 1.7 billion years ago. Members of Protista are primarily aquatic in nature. It is a very large group comprising of at least 16 phyla. Many protists like algae are the primary producers in the aquatic ecosystem, some protists are responsible for serious human diseases like malaria and sleeping sickness.

EVOLUTION

Describe the processes of evolution

What are sources of variation?
1. Mutation. This is some error in the replication of DNA during cell division. This is a *huge* category as there are many kinds of mutations. The most important (from the point of view of evolution) is gene duplication (also called 'gene amplification'). But there are also point mutations, substitutions, deletions, insertions, frameshift errors, translocations, transpositions, inversions, etc.

2. Sexual combination. This refers to the fact that any mating between two individuals produces an offspring with a genome different from *either* of its parents. This is a *huge* source of variation within a population, as it produces many different *combinations* of traits, each of which can have its own advantages and disadvantages. Thus sexual reproduction can produce far more variation than asexual reproduction, where all variation is dependent on mutations.

3. Recombination and crossing over. This refers to processes during various stages of DNA replication where DNA is broken and then joined to other chromosomes. The most common form of this is crossing-over during meiosis where DNA is exchanged between homologous chromosomes, but there are other processes, such as end-joining between non-homologous chromosomes that can occur.

4. Horizontal gene transfer. This refers to any process that can move DNA between individuals in a method other than inheritance. (Inheritance is sometimes called 'vertical gene transfer'.) For example, viruses can transfer DNA between bacteria, even completely unrelated bacteria. Bacterial conjugation is another way of transfer. This is common in prokaryotes (like bacteria), and may in fact be very important in the early evolution of single-celled organisms (which is why the *base* of the evolutionary tree is much more murky than the evolution of multicellular eukaryotes, like us vertebrates). However, there is some evidence of a small amount of horizontal transfer of some DNA between *species* in evolution.

Define and give examples of the following types of selection: directional, stabilizing, disruptive.
Natural selection can take many forms. To make talking about this easier, we will consider the distribution of traits across a population in graphical form. In we see the normal bell curve of trait distribution. For example, if we were talking about height as a trait, we would see that without any selection pressure on this trait, the heights of individuals in a population would vary, with most individuals being of an average height and fewer being extremely short or extremely tall. However, when selection pressures act on a trait, this distribution can be altered.

Stabilizing selection
When selective pressures select against the two extremes of a trait, the population experiences stabilizing selection. For example, plant height might be acted on by stabilizing selection. A plant that is too short may not be able to compete with other plants for sunlight. However, extremely tall plants may be more susceptible to wind damage. Combined, these two selection pressures select to maintain plants of medium height. The number of plants of medium height will increase while the numbers of short and tall plants will decrease.

Directional selection
In directional selection, one extreme of the trait distribution experiences selection against it. The result is that the population's trait distribution shifts toward the other extreme. In the case of such selection, the mean of the population graph shifts. Using the familiar example of giraffe necks, there was a selection pressure against short necks, since individuals with short necks could not reach as many leaves on which to feed. As a result, the distribution of neck length shifted to favor individuals with long necks.

Disruptive Selection
In disruptive selection, selection pressures act against individuals in the middle of the trait distribution. The result is a bimodal, or two-peaked, curve in which the two extremes of the curve create their own smaller curves. For example, imagine a plant of extremely variable height that is pollinated by three different pollinators, one that was attracted to short plants, another that preferred plants of medium height and a third that visited only the tallest plants. If the pollinator that preferred plants of medium height disappeared from an area, medium height plants would be selected against and the population would tend toward both short and tall, but not medium height plants. Such a population, in which multiple distinct forms or morphs exist is said to be polymorphic.

What is natural selection?
Natural selection is the gradual process by which biological traits become either more or less common in a population as a function of the effect of inherited traits on the differential reproductive success of organisms interacting with their environment. It is a key mechanism of evolution. The term "natural selection" was popularized by Charles Darwin who intended it to be compared with artificial selection, now more commonly referred to as selective breeding.

What is sexual selection?
Sexual selection is a mode of natural selection in which some individuals out-reproduce others of a population because they are better at securing mates.[1][2] In 1858,[3] Darwin described sexual selection as an important process driving species evolution and as a significant element of his theory of natural selection, but this concept was only named in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species. The sexual form of selection

How do the following affect diversity in a population: nonrandom mating, multiple alleles, genetic drift, bottlenecks, founder effect, gene flow.
Genetic drift is a change in allele frequencies in a population due to chance alone. Bottleneck is a drastic reduction in population size as a result of severe selection pressure. Founder effect the new population differs from the original population. Gene flow is the movement of allele into and out of a population.

Describe the following examples of evolution: super rats, peppered moths, sickle cell anemia, honeycreepers in Hawaii.

What is speciation? How does it occur? Evolutionary process in which new species arise. The details of speciation differ every time it occurs, butreproductive isolation, the end of gene flow between populations, is always a part of the process. With allopatric speciation, a geographic barrier arises and interrupts gene flow between populations. After gene flow ends, genetic divergences that occur independently in the populations result in separate species. Speciation can also occur with no barrier to gene flow, a pattern called sympatric speciation.

What are coevolution, stasis, exaptation, mass extinction, and adaptive radiation? Give examples for

each. Coevolution is The joint evolution of two closely interacting species; each species is a selective agent for traits of the other.
Stasis is Evolutionary pattern in which a lineage persists with little or no change over evolutionary time.
Exaptation is Adaptation of an existing structure for a completely new purpose.
Mass extinction is Simultaneous loss of many lineages from Earth.
Adaptive radiation is A burst of genetic divergences from a lineage gives rise to many new species.

VIRUSES AND BACTERIA

Identify microscopic organisms, such as viruses and bacteria.

What is a virus? What makes it different than a cell? In what ways is it the same?
A virus is A noncellular infectious particle with a protein coat and a genome of RNA or DNA; replicates only in living cells.

How are Bacteria and Archaea the same? How are they different?

Describe the characteristics and diversity of Archaea. What role do they play on earth? Give examples of organisms in this domain.

Describe the characteristics and diversity of Bacteria. What role do they play on earth? Give examples of organisms in this domain.

What are the characteristics of bacteria in terms of structure and reproduction?

Describe how bacteria and archaea are able to get energy. What types of environments can they be found in?

What are cyanobacteria?

How are bacteria helpful? How can they cause disease?

How do eukaryotic cells differ from Bacteria and Archaea?

What is thought to be the evolutionary origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts?

CELLULAR CHEMISTRY

MOLECULES

Explain the chemical composition of cells.

Briefly compare and contrast ionic and covalent bonds.

What is a hydrogen bond? Contrast the strength of a hydrogen bond with covalent and ionic bonds.

Describe how the molecular properties of water allow it to be an excellent solvent, stabilize its temperature, and create cohesion.

Describe an acid and a base, including their molecular properties and examples of each. What are buffers?

What are organic molecules?

What are the 4 molecules of life?

Describe how monomers are related to polymers.

Compare and contrast hydrolysis and condensation.

What is a carbohydrate? Describe the monomer and polymer structure of carbohydrates.

Differentiate between cellulose, starch, and glycogen in terms of structure and use.

What is a lipid? Describe the monomer and polymer structure of lipids.

What role do phospholipids play in the cell and how does their structure contribute to this role?

Describe the structure and use of fats, waxes, and steroids.

Describe the process of creating a protein .

What is a protein? Describe the monomer and polymer structure of proteins.

Describe the primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure of proteins.

What does denature mean?

What roles do proteins play in the cell?

What is a nucleic acid? Describe the monomer and polymer structure of nucleic acids.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND CELLULAR RESPIRATION

Recognize the interactions between the constituent chemical elements of cells.

What is energy? What is chemical potential energy?

What are enzymes? What role do they play in the cell? How can the activity of an enzyme be changed?

What is a cofactor?

What is metabolism?

Analyze the chemical reactions and energy transformations of a cell.

What is a chemical reaction? What happens during a chemical reaction?

What role do enzymes play in chemical reactions?

What is phosphorylation? What role does it play in a cell obtaining and using energy? What role do ADP and ATP play in cells?

How is a plant able to capture energy in sunlight?

Describe the flow of energy through the processes of photosynthesis and cellular respiration.

What is a chloroplast?

Compare and contrast photosynthesis and aerobic respiration. How do the reactants and products of each relate to each other?

Describe the steps of the light­dependent reactions. Where in the cell do they take place? What are the reactants and the products?

Describe the steps of the light­independent reactions (Calvin­Benson Cycle). Where in the cell do they take place? What are the reactants and the products?
What is the role of NADPH in photosynthesis?

How do CAM and C4 plants differ in their photosynthetic pathways from other types of plants?

Describe the 3 stages of aerobic respiration. Where in the cell does each stage take place? What are the reactants and products of each stage?
What role do the coenzymes NAD+ and FAD+ play?

How does fermentation differ from aerobic respiration?

CELL BIOLOGY

CELLS AND CELLULAR COMPONENTS

Identify the different types of cells and their characteristics.

What is a cell? What is the cell theory?

Why are cells usually too small to be seen with the naked eye? How are we able to see cells?

What features do all cells share?

Describe the characteristics of prokaryotic cells. What types of organisms are prokaryotic?

Describe the characteristics of eukaryotic cells. What types of organisms are eukaryotic?

What are the advantages of the eukaryotic cellular structure?

Analyze the structure of cell components with respect to their functions.

Describe the structure and function following cell structures: pili (pilus), nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, vesicles, vacuoles, lysosomes, peroxisomes, golgi body, mitochondrion, chloroplasts, cytoskeleton, cilia, flagella and false feet.

What is an extracellular matrix? Give examples of different types of extracellular matrices.

What is tonicity? How can being hypotonic or hypertonic affect a cell?

Describe the following methods for transporting material across a cell membrane: passive transport, active transport, endocytosis, exocytosis, phagocytosis.

What role does the phospholipid structure of a cell membrane play in membrane transport?

CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION

Describe the stages of the cell cycle.

Describe the stages of the cell cycle, including G1, S, G2, mitosis, and cytoplasmic division.

How does a cell prepare for division?

What is mitosis? How does it maintain the same number of chromosomes?

Explain the roles of mitosis and meiosis.

Describe the four phases of mitosis. How does the movement of the chromosomes in each phase allow for two identical daughter cells to be created?

Describe the phases of meiosis. How are they the same as mitosis? How are they different?

How does meiosis result in half the genetic material in the daughter cells? Trace the movement of the chromosomes so that you can describe how the genetic material is able to move into each daughter cell.

What is crossing over? How does it add to genetic diversity?

How can the products of meiosis be used in reproduction?

MODES OF REPRODUCTION

Explain the processes of sexual and asexual reproduction as they occur on the cellular level.

Compare and contrast asexual and sexual reproduction. What are the mechanisms used for each?

What are the advantages and disadvantages of sexual and asexual reproduction?

GENETICS

MOLECULAR GENETICS

Explain the structure of DNA and its role as the molecular basis of heredity.

Describe how nucleic acid monomers bond together to form a DNA molecule.

Describe how a DNA molecule condenses to form a chromosome.

Describe autosomes and sex chromosomes. How do sex chromosomes determine gender?

Describe DNA base­pairing. How does base pairing allow a DNA molecule to replicate and repair

itself?

Describe the process of DNA replication. What role do primers, DNA polymerase and DNA ligase play? How can mutations occur?

MENDELIAN GENETICS

Explain the theory of Mendelian patterns of inheritance.

What is an allele? What is a gene? How are they different?

Define the following terms: homozygous, heterozygous, dominant, recessive, phenotype, genotype.

Describe the possible genotypic and phenotypic outcomes of a monohybrid cross.

Distinguish between the P, F1 and F2 generations in a monohybrid cross.

How does crossing over effect independent assortment of traits?

Complete a sample Punnett's square, perhaps "A homozygous tall pea plant (TT) is crossed with a homozygous short pea plant (tt). Use a Punnett's square to determine the phenotypic and genotypic ratios of the F2 offspring."

Analyze Mendelian laws of inheritance for lapses and shortcomings.

What is codominance? Give an example.

What is incomplete dominance? Give an example.

What is epistasis? Give an example. What does the term polygenic refer to?

What is pleiotropy? Give an example.

What is continuous variation? Give an example.

How can environment influence phenotype?

Compare and contrast the Mendelian and chromosomal patterns of inheritance.

How can a pedigree be used to determine how a trait is inherited?

What does it mean to say a genetic disorder is 'dominant'? What does it mean to say a genetic disorder is 'recessive'? Give an example of each.

How does an X­linked or Y­linked disorder differ from an autosomal disorder? Give examples of sex­linked disorders.

What are linked genes and how do they affect Mendelian patterns of inheritance?

Define the following: polyploid and aneuploid. Give examples of when each may occur.

Describe how changes in the number of autosomes or the number of sex chromosomes can affect human development.

GENE EXPRESSION AND REGULATION

Explain the processes of gene transcription and translation.

Describe DNA and RNA. How is RNA different than DNA?

Describe the steps to get from the genetic information in DNA to the protein product, including transcription, post­transcriptional modification, and translation.

What is a codon? What is an anticodon?

Where do transcription and translation each occur?

What is the genetic code? What does it mean that it is 'highly conserved?'

What role do ribosomes play in protein synthesis?

What is a stop codon and what role does it play in protein synthesis?

Explain the process of gene mutation and its effects on proteins.

How can a gene mutation affect protein synthesis? Describe base­pair substitutions, deletions, insertions and frameshifts.

Why is it that not all mutations lead to noticeable effects on the organism?

How can mutations lead to cancer?

What is an oncogene? What role does it play in cell division?

How can mitosis lead to cancer? How can mutations lead to cancer?

What is the difference between benign and malignant tumors? Understand metastasis.

Differentiate between gene regulation in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

Why is gene control important? Describe its role in differentiation and specialization.

How does gene regulation occur in eukaryotes and how is it different that what occurs in prokaryotes?

What are transcription factors? Describe different ways that they can fulfill their function.

Describe the post­transcriptional modifications that occur in eukaryotic cells.

PLANT BIOLOGY

PLANT EVOLUTION

Compare and contrast fungi and plants.

Describe the characteristics and diversity of Plants. What role do they play on earth? Give examples of organisms in this kingdom.
Describe the characteristics and diversity of the Fungi. What role do they play on earth? Give examples of organisms in this kingdom

. Compare and contrast the cellular structure, growth habit, evolutionary history and energy acquisition of plants and fungi.

Describe the positive and negative impacts that fungi have on other organisms.

Describe the relationship of mycorrhizal fungi with plants.

Describe the evolution of plants to current forms.

How is alternation of generations in plants different than the animal life cycle? What are sporophytes and gametophytes?
What did plants evolve from? What challenges did they face (and overcome) as they evolved?

What structures and functions did plants evolve to live on land?

Using the cladogram in figure 14.5 under the sub heading “Reproduction and Dispersal”, describe what derived characteristics exist to form the different clades of plants.

Describe bryophytes, seedless vascular plants, gymnosperms, and angiosperms. Give an example of each group.

What is the difference between a spore and a seed?

Describe the reproductive strategy of seed plants. What advantage does this give them?

Compare and contrast conifers with cycads and ginkgos. Why are they called living fossils?

PLANT STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Analyze the physical structure of various plants.

Describe the different types of plant tissues.

What are the two types of vascular tissue?

Describe the structure and function of the following plant parts: stems, roots and leaves.

How do plants grow? Describe the function of meristems.

Analyze the process of intake and transport of nutrients by plants.

How does a root function to uptake nutrients for the plant? What role do different soil types play?

Differentiate between mycorrhiza and root nodules.

How is a plant able to move water from the root to the rest of the plant? What features of water allow this movement?

What is transpiration? What mechanisms do plants have in place to control water loss? How are stomata able to open and close?

How does a plant move sugars from source to sink?

Analyze fluid movements and changes in plants in response to stimuli.

∙ Describe how plants respond to the following stimuli: gravity (gravitropism), light (phototropism), contact (thigmotropism), circadian rhythms and seasonal changes.

PLANT REPRODUCTION

Analyze the reproductive strategies of angiosperms and gymnosperms.

Describe how plants are able to reproduce asexually.

Describe the parts of a flower, including their function.

What role do seeds and fruits play in angiosperm life cycles? What is the advantage to evolving these structures?

INVERTEBRATES AND VERTEBRATES

INVERTEBRATES

Identify various criteria for the classification of animals.

Describe the characteristics and diversity of Animals. What role do they play on earth? Give examples of organisms in this kingdom.
Consider the family tree for major animal phyla and describe the characteristics that have evolved in each lineage.

Recognize different phyla of invertebrates and their functional systems.
Describe the characteristics of the following groups: sponges, cnidarians, flatworms, annelids, mollusks, roundworms, arthropods, and echinoderms.

Differentiate between arachnids, crustaceans, and insects.

Analyze the major evolutionary changes in invertebrates.

Define the following terms describing body plans of animals which are used in determining evolutionary relationships among animal groups: tissue layers, tissue, radial symmetry, bilateral symmetry, gastrovascular cavity, complete digestive tract, coelomate, acoelomate, pseudocoelomate

What is the advantage of a coelom?

VERTEBRATES

Identify the major characteristics of chordates.

How is a chordate different from a vertebrate? Give some examples of invertebrate chordates.

What traits are used to define chordates? What are the three subgroups of chordates? How is a vertebrate different from other chordates?

Distinguish between classes of vertebrates.

Describe characteristics of the following groups: jawless fishes, jawed fishes, bony fishes, cartilaginous fishes and amphibians.
What are lobe­finned fishes and why are they important in the evolution of tetrapods?

What is a tetrapod? Give examples.

What is an amniote? What evolutionary advantage do amniotes have?

Describe characteristics and diversity of reptiles. Why are birds included in this group?

Describe characteristics of mammals.

ORGAN SYSTEMS

Describe the roles of various organ systems in vertebrates.

Recognize the organization of animal bodies into tissues, organs and organ systems.

Describe the structure and functions of the four different types of tissue that make up animal bodies.

Explain the structure and function of skin as the largest organ of the body.

Describe the function and components of the following organ systems: integumentary, nervous, muscular, skeletal, circulatory, endocrine, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary and reproductive.
Describe how these systems work together to maintain homeostasis.

ECOLOGY

ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENTS

Analyze how organisms function within their environments.

What two types of factors affect community structure? Give examples of each.

Define the following types of species interactions: commensalism, mutualism, competition, predation, parasitism. Give examples of each, and describe how each can result in coevolution.
How have predator and prey evolved because of their interaction? Consider herbivory as well in your answer.

Describe the types of defenses organisms that are eaten by others may use, including camouflage, warning coloration, mimicry, and biochemical defenses.
Identify how ecosystems change over time.

Define the following: pioneer species, keystone species, exotic species. What effect can they have on an ecosystem?
Distinguish between primary and secondary ecological succession. Consider both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.

What effects (positive and negative) can humans have on ecosystems? Understand habitat destruction, habitat degradation, and habitat fragmentation.

Distinguish the flow of energy and nutrients through an ecosystem.

Compare and contrast a food chain with a food web.
A food chain is a sequence of steps by which energy moves from one trophic level to the next.
Food web is a system of cross- connecting food chains
Define the following terms related to energy flow and ecosystems: autotroph, heterotroph, photoautotroph, chemoautotroph, detritivore, carnivore, herbivore, omnivore, producer, and consumer.
Autotroph - use carbon dioxide as its carbon source.
Heterotroph – obtains both carbon and energy by breaking down organic compounds
Photoautotroph- us light energy
Chemoautotroph-obtain energy by removing electrons from inorganic molecules such as hydrogen sulfide or methane
Detritivore-consumers that feed on small bits of organic material
Camivore-
Herbovire-animal feeds on a plant and may or may not die.
Omnivore
Producer-capture energy and make their own food
Consumer-eat organisms or their remains

What is a trophic level? How can you use the concept of trophic levels to trace energy through a food chain?
Trophic is a Position of an organism in a food chain,
When one organism eats another, energy and nutrients are transferred from the eaten to the eater.

What is a producer? Where does it get its energy? Give examples of producers.
Producer-capture energy and make their own food
Producers get energy from air,soil and water.
Producer example is grass

What is a consumer? Where does it get its energy? Given examples of consumers.
Consumer-eat organisms or their remains
Consumers take in nutrients when they drink water and when they eat producers or one another.
Consumer examples are grasshopper, sparrow,hawk

Compare and contrast detritivores and decomposers. Where do they get their energy? Give examples of each.

What is an energy pyramid? How can it be used to show how energy moves through trophic levels? What happens to the energy that does not move to the next trophic level? energy pyramid is a Diagram that illustrates the energy flow in an ecosystem.

Why is it important that nutrients are moved through a cycle instead of a chain?

Describe the following nutrient cycles: water, phosphorus, nitrogen, carbon.

Describe how changes to the carbon cycle are linked to global climate change.

HUMANS AND THE BIOSPHERE

Explain the biosphere and the effect of human population on it.

What is the biosphere?

How do humans sometimes impact areas of the world even when we don't live there? Give examples.

What is a biome?

Describe how temperature, precipitation, and soil type determine biomes.

How do humans sometimes increase the likelihood of a species going extinct?

Define the following, describe how they occur, and explain how they affect the biosphere, both globally and locally: deforestation, desertification, acid rain, bioaccumulation, biomagnification, ozone depletion, ozone pollution.

What is global climate change? What is causing it? What are the effects?

What is biodiversity? Why is it important? What factors can affect it? What are the three levels at which we measure a region’s biodiversity?

Describe ways to use resources and energy sustainably.