technical report writing

COMMUNICATION SKILLS
AND
TECHNICAL REPORT WRITING

LECTURES

BY

TANVEER LODHI

PART I
COMMUNICATION PROCESSES
1. COMMUNICATION PROCESS
1.1 DEFINITION, HISTORY, AND PURPOSE OF COMMUNICATION
Man is gregarious by nature i.e. he is a social animal and completely dependent upon others to satisfy his needs. Thus his very existence and quality of life depends upon living in a society. Communication is the means through which he interacts with the society. Communication normally means to communicate a message or letter or information to another person or persons. However, it is defined as:
Exchange of information or giving or taking of it.
A process through which facts, ideas, experiences and emotions are mutually exchanged.
The process of sharing of information.
Any behavior that results in exchange of meaning (American Management Association).
Exchange of facts, ideas or emotions by two or more persons (Newman and Summer).
Communication is the process of passing information and understanding from one person to another (Keith Davis).
It is the process of meaningful interaction among human beings. More specifically, it is the process by which meanings are perceived and understandings are reached among human beings (D.E Mcfarland).
It is the process by which information is passed between individuals and / or organizations by means of previously agreed symbols (Peter Little).
Communication is a dynamic process involving a series of actions and reactions with a view to achieving a goal (Kavita Tyagi and Padma Misra).
In fact all those means through which we communicate our views, facts, attitudes & feelings to other persons come under the purview of communication, whether it is through face to face verbal talks or through telephone, TV, Radio, etc. or through written letters, fax message, telephones, light or smoke signals or gestures. In short listening, speaking, reading and writing are four means or components of communication.
In organizations communication acts as lifeblood through, which organizational activities are unified. Through it we can bring changes in employee’s behavior or attitudes towards achievement of organizational goals. Every person of an organization is responsible for good communication and through words, letters, symbols, or messages, organizational members share meaning and understanding with another.
The history of communication as a discipline starts from 1930s when US Social scientists like Havold Lusswall, Paul Lazarifild, Kurt Lewin & Karl Havland started its study. C.I.Bernard was one of the pioneer who gave serious consideration to communication in a large scale enterprises. The importance of communication emerged in 2nd World War and in 1950s it emerged as academic discipline. David Berle wrote in 1961 the famous book “The Process of Communication”. From 1980s the information revolution started through Computers & internet. The world has now become global village and communication has become basis of human contacts & economic development.
The purposes of communication are:
The same may be understood what is intended to be understood.
To obtain reply / response / feedback, preferably favorable.
To maintain good relations with communicator.
In business / organizations the communication purposes could be:
Personal development
Business / organizational development
Solution of problems
Continuity of Business and its critical analysis
To make the jobs more effective
Link between management & work-force
Link between departments
Communication / exchange of ideas, messages & experiences
Means of human contracts and ascertaining feed back
Achievement of business / organizational goals
Communication helps in self development by following ways:
In acquiring knowledge.
In acquiring information.
In avoiding mistakes.
In making correct decisions or planning.
In contacts / coordination with others.
In exchanging / acquiring experiences.
In acquaintance with latest conditions. In knowing other's expectations from you.
In enhancing confidence.
In development of self- capabilities.
1.2 DIFFERENT WAYS OF COMMUNICATION
Person to person Face to face, reading a letter, phone call
In a small group Planning, solving problem, making decision
In a meeting Presenting, bargaining, negotiating agreements
In an organization Writing reports and memos, using notice boards, supervising, managing
Using the mass media Speaking in public on radio or TV, writing for media, public relations
Others Training and teaching, entertaining (art and cinema)
1.3 COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Communication process is an interactive process involving two agents i.e. Sender and the Receiver. Both the agents exert a reciprocal influence on each other through interestimulation and response. Communication process is a complex process in which our all the senses, experiences and feelings are involved and this is not merely letters, gestures or words, but a continuous inter-action between two persons. The interpretation is done not only of words, but of inflexion, face impressions, eye impressions, taping the floor with heal of shoes, etc. as well. Our own emotions, feelings, experiences and personal goals also affect them, but normally the communication process comprises of following elements:
Who Communicates?
A sender
A receiver
What Do They Communicate?
Messages, codes and meanings
How Do Message Travels?
Via channels
How Does This Happen?
It is normally described as a nine step process as follows:

Sender

Receiver
i.
Idea
v.
Receive Message ii. En-coding vi. Decoding or Interpreting iii. Message vii. Action (No action is also action) iv. Transmission through any medium & route
Ix
Follow up viii. Feed back.
Graphically it can be presented as follows:

Some authors have, however, described the process in five steps as follows:-
Ideation It is formation of the idea or selection of a message to be communicated. Messages generally have logical and emotional contents. Logical content consists of factual information, while emotional content consists of feelings and emotions.
Encoding It is process of changing the information into some form of logical and coded message. It involves selecting a language, selecting a medium of communication, and selecting an appropriate communication forum (i.e. face to face communication, or group discussion, or written or speaker-audience communication).
Transmission It refers to flow of message through a chosen channel. For communication to be effective, right time, right place and right method is essential.
Decoding It is process of converting a message into thoughts by translating the received stimuli into an interpreted meaning in order to understand the message communicated. It involves interpretation and analysis of message.
Response It is action or reaction to message i.e. feedback.

In short the idea emerges in the mind of sender due to some physical or psychological urge or need, which he interprets according to his experiences, knowledge and mental state and thereafter converts / encodes into message. A message is a unit of communication an imaginary package that carries a meaning. The message is sent to receiver through any means, who interprets / decodes it according to his experiences, knowledge and mental state and thereafter gives response / feedback to sender. The sender finally has follow up action to see the results of his message.
1.4 FEEDBACK
Feedback means the response / reply of one’s message. Communication cycle completes only when feedback is received. In other words if there is no feedback, the message communication is faulty, particularly in organizations and in business the feedback is most essential. In business communication we want to inspire the consumers/customers and their feedback help to analyze / conclude and make the right decision. Similarly in a factory, a foreman receives weekly schedule of production from the supervisor, like 2000 units are to be produced of job ‘A’ in 20 hours and 500 of job ‘B’ in 5 hours. The supervisor gives feedback after the week. If job ‘A’ took 21 hours and job ‘B’ produced 400 units, then their analysis has to be done to take remedial measures to rectify them. This is possible only through feedback.
1.5 COMMUNICATION FLOW / CHANNELS IN AN ORGANIZATION
C.I.Bernard described communication as the means by which people are linked together in an organization in order to achieve a central purpose. Group activity is impossible without information transfer because, without it, co-ordination and change cannot be affected. Communication is used as a media for issuing instructions in an organization so that the employees could perform their duties in right direction. The duties of different persons differ in an organization, and communication plays its part in meaningful coordination between them. Officers control their sub-ordinate through communication and get feedback of their achievements. The communication flow is of following 3 types:

Downward communication From Z to Y. Organizational decisions are usually made at the top and then flow down to the people who will carry them out. These are orders and instructions flowing from top to bottom. Each person at every stage must understand each message, apply it, and pass it along. At every stage these orders / instructions are re-designed in detail and their quantity manifolds.
Upward communication From X to Z. To solve problems and make intelligent decisions, management must learn what is going on in the organization. Because they cannot be everywhere at once, executives depend upon on lower level employees to furnish them with accurate and timely reports on problems, emerging trends, opportunities for improvements, grievances and performances. This in a nutshell is feedback of duties / jobs entrusted to subordinates. This information is analyzed at every stage and quantity reduces. The top gets only the summary.
Horizontal communication From Y to X. It is exchange of information between various persons or departments of same stage. This lateral or diagonal flow helps employees share information and co-ordinate tasks, and it is especially useful for solving complex and difficult problems.
If there is any obstacle in communication flow, communication gap emerges, which is essentially required to be abridged. Interaction between different individuals working in an organization takes place through formal and informal channels or paths for flow, known as Channels of Communications, which are following:
Formal Channels
Informal Channel
Communication from decision maker to workers
Communication from employees to management
Communication among employees at the same level
Communication in all directions
Seniors
Sub-ordinates
Sub-ordinates
Seniors
Seniors Seniors
Employees Employees
No protocol
Downward Channel
Upward Channel
Horizontal Channel
Diagonal Channel
Formal organization charts illustrate the formal channels of communication, which specifies how the information is supposed to flow. Formal channels are deliberately planned; part of organization structure; oriented towards goals and tasks of the enterprise; impersonal; stable and rigid; slow and structured. However informal communication network always exist in organizations and supplements official channels. As people go about their work, they have casual conversations, gossips, and rumor mongering in their offices or canteens. Although many of these conversations deal with personal matters, but 80% of the information pertains to official matters and is an important source of information/feedback. Thus informal channels are unofficial; unplanned and spontaneous; cut across formal relationship; directed towards goals and need satisfaction by individuals; personal and social; flexible and instable; fast and unstructured.
External communication for carrying information in and out of organization is also essential for continuity and development of organizations, because no organization can exist in vacuum. This communication is with customers, vendors, distributors, competitors, press, government departments and community reps.
1.6 BARRIERS IN COMMUNICATION
There is no such thing as perfect communication because of human angle and system faults. Human beings have certain limitations and man-made systems need continuous improvements to overcome hindrances and shortcomings. Therefore there are possible barriers in communication processes and distortions in communicated messages, which affect the quality of communication. Barriers block the flow of communication, which could be partial or complete blockade. The barriers could be of following types:
Semantic These occur in encoding and in decoding due to interpretation of words, by passed instructions(it is misunderstanding for missing meanings because of the use of abstract words or phrases on which both parties do not agree); un-clarified assumptions of sender; poor vocabulary; poor grammar and punctuation; roundabout style (avoiding straight talk); lack of common language.
Physical Noise, distance, time (time gap between interaction of sender and receiver), age, and gender.
Socio- Psychological Attitudes and values (attitude is pre-learned disposition and can be favorable or unfavorable); selective perceptions (it is individual’s interpretation of the sensory word around him. When two people experience the same event, their mental images are not identical. Perceptions are strongly influenced by cultural differences and linguistic problems); inference (like know- it- all- attitude); abstracting (abstract the selective information and present only the relevant information); close mindedness; distortion; filtering and editing; bad listening/ inattention; distrust on communicator; premature evaluation by listener; fear; emotional or mental state; resistance to change; insufficient adjustment period given to receiver for action; information overload.
Organizational Status; one- way flow; structure of organization (hierarchies cause loss by 30% in each stage of oral transmission); poor retention (of only 50% of verbal messages by employees and 60% by supervisors); organizational rules and regulations.
Interpersonal Attitude of superiors; goal conflict; consciously and deliberately ignoring by superiors; poor health; insufficient adjustment period given to receiver for action); distrust of communicator; fear (could be on part of either or both); failure to communicate; badly expressed messages; faulty translations/interpretations by receiver.

1.7 DISTORTION IN COMMUNICATION Distortion means the changes in message occurring when the receiver sends / transmits it further. The reason is that the listener or receiver filters the message. The filters are of following types:
Level
Deliberate
Un-intentional
Upward
Wish to look good
Avoiding responsibility
Avoiding wrong info to boss
By-passing
Confidence on seniors
Encouraging sub-ordinates
Lack of job security
Distances
Downward
Inadequate feedback
Wish to avoid bad news
Management’s worries
More than one means of communication
Lateral / Horizontal
Rumors, Gossips
High skill in job
Substitute of communication in downward or upward direction
Diagonal
Avoiding levels
Communication Group
All directions
Ownership of information
Indefinite state to absorb message
For efficient communication, reduce the number of messages, minimize distractions, and use technology responsibly.
1.8 SEVEN ‘Cs’ OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION / MESSAGE
Completeness Message is complete from all angles and replies all possible questions. Thus it requires remembering five W’s i.e. who, what, when, where, and why; answers all questions; and gives extra information when desirable.
Conciseness It is saying what we have to say in the fewest possible words without sacrificing other ‘C’ qualities. Thus only relevant material is given and un-necessary details or repetitions avoided.
Consideration ‘You’ instead of ‘I’ attitude. Receiver could see his personal benefits. Such messages are prepared by putting oneself in receiver’s situation and looking from his angles. Positive and interesting facts are highlighted.
Concreteness The communication should be specific, meaningful and explicit, no vague or general message. Understandable facts / will for action is expressed.
Clarity Simple and forceful language, no confusing words or sentences, so that the message is understood as it is intended. Thus it will require choosing precise, concrete, and familiar words; constructing effective sentences and paragraphs.
Courtesy Such words and phrases be used which do not show offensiveness or irritate a person, unless so intended. Normally ‘humble’ style is preferred. It, thus, involves being aware not only of the perspectives of others, but also their feelings. It stems from a sincere you-attitude and requires one to be sincerely tactful, thoughtful and appreciative; uses expression that shows respect and chooses non discriminatory expression, and omits questionable humor.
Correctness Free from grammatical mistakes and figures & facts are correct. It means use of right level of language i.e. grammatically correct with no spelling mistakes; accuracy of figures, facts and words; and maintains acceptable writing mechanics.

2. THE LISTENING PROCESS
2.1 NATURE AND PROCESS OF ACTIVE LISTENING
Listening is an important communication process & is crucial to effective communication. We listen with our ears. There is difference between listening and hearing. In hearing only the ears are involved, while in listening our ears, eyes and mind is also involved i.e. in hearing one just listens without bothering to understand or concentrate, while in listening one concentrates and tries to understand. The hearing happens automatically, while listening requires conscious efforts. Hearing is a passive and one way process, while listening is an active and two way process. Research results show that 25 – 30% is understood by listening of verbal messages, out of which they forget more than 50% the very next day. Hence for improving listening skills one should know the difference between hearings and listening and one should become a good listener because what one hears once may not be heard again. The active listening thus demands concentration, involvement and responsibility.
The listening process has four stages:
Sensing i.e. the listener hears sounds and does focus on them.
Encoding i.e. decoding or interpreting the sound into message.
Evaluation i.e. evaluating the message.
Response i.e. the respond or feedback.
2.2 LISTENING COMPREHENSION
It is the act of understanding an oral message. It involves speech decoding (i.e. sound perception and recognition, word recognition & accent recognition), comprehending (i.e. ability to identify the central theme, main idea and supporting details), and oral discourse analysis (i.e. critical skills to distinguish between relevant & irrelevant information; attitude analysis of speaker and inferential skills to understand explicit & implicit meaning of message).
2.3 TYPES OF LISTENING
We listen to different kinds of messages for different purposes like to get specific information, or get main idea, or get main points; or get new information or acquire knowledge, etc. The types of listening are following:
Superficial Listening--- When listener has little awareness of content and what is being said. He also does not have any interest and the output is therefore zero.
Appreciative Listening--- For getting enjoyment and pleasure, like of music etc. It requires light concentration.
Focused Listening --- Listening for specific purpose and understanding the specific point. It requires full attention and concentration.
Evaluative Listening--- Evaluation of the oral message or commentary and simultaneously developing a line of thought.
Attentive Listening--- Listening with complete attention, like in group discussions, interviews and meetings. It requires conscious effort and one is not only listening properly, but also aware of the happenings in surroundings.
Emphatic Listening--- Listening not only to what the speaker is saying, but also to how he is saying i.e. understanding non-verbal part as well.
2.4 PRINCIPLES OF ACTIVE / GOOD LISTENING The ten thumb rules for good listening are stop talking, stop thinking, remove distractions, do not let your mind wander, put speaker at ease, do not pre-judge, be patient, do not be angry, empathize with the speaker i.e. put yourself in speakers position, and take notes. However the detailed principles of active /good listening are:-
Doing homework --- Collection of information about topic and becoming mentally alert for listening.
Fight distractions like noise, etc and move closer to the speaker.
Adopt proper Attitude --- It is possible that you may not agree with what you listen, but never become impatient or rude.
Interrupt emotional words and do not hung up on them.
Don’t judge the message by the speaker, but by the arguments.
Avoid prejudice and listen with open mind.
Keep eye-contact with speaker and never give him impression that you are disinterested in listening.
Concentrate on central idea.
Let the speaker speak and given ample time without interrupting him and don’t stand up or start walking while listening.
Try to understand with no intention to find faults.
Judge content and skip over delivery errors.
Avoid criticism and do not jump at the conclusion without listening the full talk.
Only ask relevant questions when asked to do so. The questions should be for clarification and not for the sake of questions only.
Prepare meaningful notes of important points of what you listened.
Prepare summary of what you listened and analyze it.

2.5 BARRIERS TO LISTENING / REASONS FOR POOR LISTENING
Prejudice against the speaker --- If not overcome, one will not listen properly, try to interrupt or search only mistakes/flaws in his speech.
Physical barriers or external distractions like noise, presence of irrelevant persons or things, distances, physical discomforts.
Thinking speed--- Mostly people speak with speed of 80 – 160 words per minute, but think at the speed of 800 words per minute. Thus if mind is not doing analysis of what one listens, it will be distracted and may miss important points.
Premature evaluation or jumping at the conclusion is prone to mistakes.
Semantic stereo types i.e. one does not feel comfortable or like certain ‘words’ and gets negative impression from these.
If speech or style is monotonous, the listener’s interest vanishes and he is either distracted or feels sleepy. If message is below expectations, or subject is difficult, it may also cause distractions or loss of interest.
Misunderstanding of gestures leave to wrong interpretation of message.
Linguistic barriers due to ambiguous or different language, or different accents, or improper message decoding.
Cultural barriers due to cultural differences, different values and norms.
Psychological barriers like abnormal mental conditions or mental state of listener (emotional disturbances, anxiety, etc).
Physiological barriers due to defects in ears/tongue, sickness, tiredness, sleepiness, etc.
2.6 NOTE TAKING Instead of trusting 100 % memory, it is better to take notes or write down briefly the important points of speech or message or presentation. Note taking has four steps.
Listening---- Listen carefully and interpret the oral message.
Filtering--- Identify the main points.
Paraphrasing--- Rephrase them suitably in your words.
Noting--- Jotting down on paper. Full sentences are not used. Sometimes one may use following symbols in note taking: Cf. = Compare e.g. = for example etc. = etcetera, and so on i.e. = That is, in other words N.B. = note well, important (The above symbols are taken from Latin and are also used in normal text writing. However, with the exception of % and &, other following symbols are not used in text.) .. therefore = is equal to ≠ is not equal to, is not the same as + plus - minus ÷ divided by * multiplied by, times > greater than < lesser than, fewer than □ from….to, leads to, results in % percentage & and 3. ORAL COMMUNICATION / SPEAKING PROCES
3.1 SIGNIFICANCE OF ORAL COMMUNICATION / SPEAKING
God has given one tongue to man for speaking and two ears for listening and these are main means of oral communication. The man needs oral communications most of the time while dealing with fellow persons. In organizations the jobs are mainly done in writing and according to procedures, but oral communication also plays vital role over there, particularly as we move downwards, oral communication increases. The meetings, lectures and presentations are all oral communications. Thus oral communication helps:
In interviews for selection purposes.
In promotion as the impression is created by it.
In business expansion as all advertisements/marketing is done
In society’s development as speech is the most effective mean to create awareness and impress people.
3.2 SPEECH PROCESS
Like listening, speaking is crucial to effective communication. Speaking is the purposeful process by which people, using audible and visible symbols, communicate meanings in the mind of their listeners. The speech process comprises of five factors, which are Message--- the content or encoded idea.
Style of speaking--- It is the manner in which the content of the speech is to be presented. It could be formal or informal depending upon the purpose of speaking and the relations of speaker with the listener.
Audience Analysis--- Analyze the listener i.e. his caliber, education, status, expectations from you, etc.
Encoding--- Selecting a language, an appropriate oral form and positive non-verbal signals for speech.
Feedback--- Response from listener.
3.3 VERBAL & NON-VERBAL MESSAGES
The messages communicated by the words uttered by the tongue, which the other person listens and interprets, are called verbal messages; while messages in which spoken words are not used and messages are communicated through body actions, which the other person sees or feels and then interprets them, are called non-verbal messages. Old maxim is that: ‘People’s actions speak louder than their words’. Thus non-verbal communication is more efficient and reliable than the verbal one. We can deceive with words relatively easily than can with non-verbal communication. Non-verbal communication means non-verbal messages given with facial expressions (use of eyes, forehead and mouth), gestures (bodily action that may express implicit meaning. It refers to the use of fingers, hand and arms for expressions), style, body language /body movements / posture, voice / tone variation, quietness, etc. In oral messages effective words are very important, which the other can understand. However, experts believe that verbal communication communicates only 7% message while 93% message is conveyed by non-verbal communication (38% by change in tone /voice variation & 55% from gestures / body language / facial expressions). In fact non-verbal messages help to read between the lines and one can understand the real message, which words may not be conveying.
3.4 STRATEGIC STEPS OF SPEAKING
Only a good listener can be a good speaker.
While speaking the speaker must have some purposeful substance to speak, use language which listener can understand, message must be clear and repeated if needed, central idea must be simple and summarized, use listener’s name or ‘you’, give replies if possible, keep eye contact with listener, express in natural way and keep listener’s interest and comfort zones in view.
Listen patiently, keep eye-contact, utter ‘yes’ or ‘I agree’ or nod the head in affirmative, show interest, avoid interference or interruption of his speech, avoid looking in this side or other and concentrate on speakers views. Pay more attention to the non-verbal signals and be aware that people may give false non-verbal cues.
People who can impress with oral communication are considered successful. In order to make their presentation more impressive they must have fair assessment of listeners, determine the purpose, select the topic, gather information, organize information and prepare outline of presentation, then do proper planning and if possible practice it.
3.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE ORAL MESSAGES/SPEACHES
Do not exaggerate and keep peoples trust on you.
Express keen interest with topic and listeners.
Try to be honest in communicating your emotions.
Face criticism with open heart.
Respect the feelings of others.
Keep the tone low.
Clear your objectives.
Give message according to situation.
Use words or language, which is understandable.
Avoid giving non-verbal conflicting signals.
Smile genuinely as faking a smile is obvious to others.
Speech must have continuity and flow.
Message must be short.
Keep listener’s response / expressions in view.
Emphasize the main points.
Keep the physical distance to the shortest with listeners.
Clarify main points with gestures and expressions. Keep one’s ideas from loosing track and concentrate on message.
Keep your status, rank, position in mind.
Have maximum knowledge of listeners.
Note the main points on paper so that one may not miss any one of them.
Never forget the main purpose in whole speech.
Always keep seven ‘Cs’ in mind while speaking.
3.6 BARRIERS/FACTORS AFFECTING LISTENER’S UNDERSTANDING OF SPEECH
The audience or listener is a human being and thus all human factors like age, culture, education, work environment, attitudes and interests and relationship do play their role.
Physical conditions like noise in the background, inappropriate audience size, fault in communications medium like low sound in phone, distractions (due to interruptions, un-comfortable physical state, thirst, hunger, full bladder, etc.) and disablement on part of speaker or listener disturbs understanding of message.
Psychological conditions like pressure and stress, pre-occupation; presence of others, mode of conveyance as private or sensitive messages should be confined only to specific receiver; fluctuation in receiver’s concentration and energy level; the role in which the recipient receives the message and its relationship to sender in perceived role.
Cultural and linguistic barriers/differences (like different languages or accents) also affect the understanding of messages.

4. THE READING PROCESS
4.1 NATURE OF READING PROCESS
Reading means to read and understand the written material. If the effort to understand is missing, then it cannot be termed as reading. Reading is a complex communication process of receiving and interpreting the written words. It involves what is written and its clear understanding. Its process has four factors:
Decoding i.e. changing the coded message into information; Comprehending i.e. identifying the central theme and main ideas; Text Analysis i.e. evaluation and drawing conclusions; and Response i.e. action or reaction to written message.
4.2 TYPES OF READING
Reading is however primarily a mental activity. It is a skill, a developed or acquired ability, which can be developed further, refined and improved. Speed improves comprehension, reduces fatigue and makes for completeness of thought. Reading can be divided into three types depending upon the reading speed:
Study with concentration in which every word is read and effort is made to understand it .Normally it is of difficult arguments, views and theories. An ordinary reader has speed of 90 – 125 words per minutes in it and a good reader 200 – 300, while 80 – 90% text is understood by them.
Casual reading or light readings of magazines, novels, newspapers, etc. which does not tax the mind much, in which ordinary reader has speed of 150 – 180 w.p.m. and good reader 250 – 500, with 70% understanding.
Skimming in which the full text is not read and only the central idea or theme or main ideas are extracted. An ordinary reader cannot do it and a good reader can read 800 w.p.m. with 50% understanding. Skimming means reading something very quickly in order to find out more or less what it is about. By ‘running our eyes quickly over the text’ we can get the gist or main idea without worrying about the details. Skimming is done when we:
Do not have time or may not be interested to read everything in great detail. Our requirement is just to discover the main idea without bothering about its details.
Have to decide whether the book or the article requires/deserves a detailed and careful reading or not.
The skimming could be sometimes in the form of scanning, which means looking for a specific piece of information in the text, like a word in dictionary, finding out train time table, etc.
4.3 READING PROBLEMS
Following problems are, however, faced in various types of readings:-
Vocalized Problem --- Some people read loudly with tongue and that reduces speed. Reading silently accelerates the speed.
Lipping--- Reading with lips instead of eyes reduces speed.
Regression Problem--- Repeated readings even after understanding the sentences with a view if nothing has been missed. This happens when reader is mentally or physical tired and cannot concentrate.
Progression Problem--- When mind is elsewhere or one is not concentrating, then one reads page number, sees how many pages are left, etc.
Wasted Eye Movement / Poor Vision Span--- Average reader fixes eyes on words and then moves with jerks, which slows speed. Continuous, rhythmic movement of eyes from one end to other end of line accelerates speed. Moreover there should be wider / larger area of page for eye fixation to have rhythmic movement of eyes.
Failure to understand the structure of Paragraph--- Each paragraph contains certain idea, explanation or analysis and the start of paragraph is with that view and end is with conclusion. The logic of paragraph is essentially required to be understood, otherwise repeated readings would be required.
Distractions--- Same readers use pencil, finger, card or ruler for reading, which retards speed. Full page must be open in front. Proper atmosphere and proper seating posture for peaceful reading is also essential.
4.4 READING SKILLS
Skimming--- First of all the purpose of reading is determined then a large book or long report is skimmed with the aim of getting basic information. Table of contents or abstract will help in this regard.
Proper eye movements so that eye span is not much, it is fixed on full page and eyes move smoothly without a jerk with only eyes reading and not the tongue or jaws.
Reading should be with comprehension and concentration so that it is understood; critical study or scrutiny helps to find out the facts. It may however need comparison with other writings as well.
Identification of basic words & sentence, vocabulary increase, understanding of structure of paragraph and studying while sitting in a proper manner helps in speed increase.
In short reduction of eye movements, minimizing regression (i.e. habit of looking back to see what is missed in first reading), minimizing progression (i.e. reading page number and checking pages left), minimizing distraction (i.e. eyes moved totally off the page), reducing wasted eye movements and poor vision span (i.e. movement of eyes in jerks and stopping after every word), avoiding vocalization (i.e. loud reading) and avoiding lipping (i.e. reading only with eyes) can help to improve speed.
However, the improving of reading skills will also require vocabulary skills (recognizing the definition of words being used; guessing the meaning from structure; inferring of the meaning of words from their context); visual perceptual skills(accurate visual perception of words and phrases, quick eye fixation); prediction techniques(use index or chapter headings to predict the theme of the text; guessing to predict information; scanning of graphics and non-verbal context to predict the nature of and scope of context; using discourse and linguistic clues); scanning skills(locating specific information); skimming skills(identifying a theme or central idea or main ideas and organizational pattern of writing);intensive reading skills(reading for details; critically reading a text to distinguish facts from opinions; identifying and evaluating a writer’s attitude and understanding the author’s intentions; drawing inferences and conclusions).
4.5 EFFECTIVE REVIEW OF WRITTEN MATERIAL
A student or engineer has to do lot of reading of books, reports and articles all his life. Reading of the whole book, report or articles consumes lot of time. The real purpose of reading is normally the extraction of relevant material and ideas. This is possible by ‘effective review’ instead of reading word by word from A to Z.
Book Review Study the title, find out about author, check the publisher, read all the printed information on the outside of the book, read Forward to know the purpose, study the Table of Contents, read Abstract or Summary and then the relevant portion in text.
Chapter Review Study the title, question the title, and count the pages, read the first paragraph, which is normally introductory to chapter and content, read the last paragraph, read Summary or Conclusion if available. Look over any study questions or problems at the end. Quickly page through the chapter and briefly check graphics and sub-headings. Reflect upon what you have learned already and what you expect to get from the study. Finally read the relevant parts as necessary.
Report Review Check the title, note the writer or Company / Department who prepared it, review the date of publishing and preparation, note for whom prepared and for what purpose, study Table of Contents, read Summary or Abstract carefully, pursue all front or back matter, thumb through sub-headings organization, and typography, study all charts, read as necessary.
Article Review Read the title and any sub-headings, check the author’s name and his biographical note, examine all graphics, read first few paragraphs for the theme, now read first sentence or topic of all succeeding paras, read more care carefully near the end when you sense the writer is giving his conclusions.

5. THE WRITING PROCESS
5.1 NATURE OF WRITING PROCESS
The writing process is an important communication process in which the messages are written and sent through publications, letters, memos, electric mail, faxes, etc. Writing process helps to create and retain data / information / messages for ever and develop the libraries. The written channel is best when no immediate feedback is needed; message is detailed and complex, and requires careful planning; a permanent, verifiable record is needed; audience is geographically dispersed; and distortion is to be minimized. The writing process comprises of encoding the message, selection of a proper style, use of proper language, and write up in a manner that effectively conveys the message. Normally writing process is considered a three-step process as follows:
Planning--- Analyzing the message, purpose, and audience; getting information and choosing the right channel.
Writing--- Organizing the ideas and writing the first draft.
Completing--- Reviewing (re-reading to eliminate grammatical mistakes and to ensure that the writer has written what he intended to write), revising (to re-read with a view to see that writing satisfies the reader or answers all possible questions arising in his mind, and he understands it as the writer intends him to understand), editing (it means developing a consistent, accurate text, which is done by checking spelling, punctuation, basic grammar, format of the page and accuracy of facts. It is also done for style i.e. changes that make writing more engaging, more interesting, more readable, events movements more crispy with no dragging impact) and final proof reading( to rectify proof mistakes).
However, some describes it as having four stages i.e. thinking and planning; capturing ideas; organizing shape and structure; editing, revising, and proof reading.
5.2 TYPES OF WRITING Writing is broadly categorized into Technical Writing and General Writing. The technical writing is the practical writing that people do as a part of their job; while general writing is done by people for personal / mental need satisfaction. The technical writing is done on all professional, scientific, and specialist documents, drafts, reports, letters, papers, theses, etc.; while general writing comprise of literary writings (poetry, prose, newspapers, magazines, etc.) and other writings. Technical writing skills are acquired through practice; while general writing skills are creative and innovative with an inborn talent. The technical writing has set format, pertains to profession, and prepared on the basis of information collected; while general writing has no set pattern or pre-defined organization, relates to society in general, and its content is written on-the-spur of the moment. The technical writing is primarily used by the technical people for their official jobs and report writing. Technical writing aims to get work done and to change people by changing the way they do things.
5.3 STYLES OF WRITING
Style means the way of writing. The writing is always in a style, which could be any of the following:-
Narrative In style of narrating stories. Such write ups are longer, include unnecessary details, one has to read from first to last word, and keeps the interest of reader alive.
Descriptive The concentration is on physical details and characteristics of the things.
Analytical or Argumentative The ideas are logically presented and proved with the help of arguments.
5.4 DIFFERENCE OF REPORT AND LITERARY WRITINGS
Report writing is the best example of technical writing and literary writing is that of general writing. Their differences mainly depict the basic differences of both the types as follows:
Report writing can be learnt and improved through learning and practice, while literary writing is a God given natural talent which cannot be acquired.
Report writing can be planned and done whenever one wants to do it, but literary writing is instantaneous and done on-the- spur of a moment.
The central subject of literature is any aspect of life, while that of report can be non-human or materialistic things.
Literature is narrative or descriptive, but report is analytical.
Literature satisfies mental or spiritual requirements, while report satisfies materialistic requirements.
The reader is left to draw conclusions in literature, while the report writer has to give conclusions.
Literature can be about imaginary things, while report is only of facts.
The writer can propagate his views in literature, but not in report unless it is supported by facts.
5.5 SUMMARY WRITING Summary or précis writing is a process of condensing message without changing the original meaning and focus of a passage. It is thus the gist of the passage or report expressed in as few words as possible. Summarizing or summery writing is a productive skill integrating both reading and writing skills. It involves adopting an effective reading strategy (i.e. a careful reading plan to identify the central idea, the main points and important supporting details), and using appropriate techniques (i.e. selection, rejection and substitution) of summarizing outlining, and paraphrasing (Outline is a general statement without details or sketch containing only the main essential points, while paraphrasing refer to rewriting a passage or text in different or own words without changing or distorting its real meanings after arranging the ideas in a different manner). The summery should not normally exceed one third of main text. The summary should have, however, following qualities:
It should be brief, clear, and concise.
It must be well connected whole.
It must be complete and self-contained.
It must be true and faithful picture of ideas contained in original passage.
It must be written in indirect speech, third person, and in past tense.
It must be written in simple, direct, grammatical and idiomatic English.
STEPS OF SUMMERIZING
First read the passage or text carefully and thoroughly more than once if necessary and understand the main theme.
If the passage does not bear a heading or title, give a suitable title.
Draw a summary outline, jotting down all the essential points.
Write the draft summary in your own words by putting aside the original text.
Revise the draft, make corrections and compare with original.
5.6 SHORT REPORTS IN LETTER / MEMO FORMAT
5.61 LETTER WRITING Letter writing is done in the form of personal or business/official letters. A personal letter is an informal letter, where the writer wants to say something and wants response. The business or official letter is a formal letter written for a specific audience to meet a specific need. The business letters or correspondence help to maintain proper relationship; use inexpensive and conventional modes like e-mail, letter, etc.; creates and maintain goodwill; serves as evidence; and helps in expansion. The Ietter writing is structured and follows specified set of rules. Letter writing involves three steps:
Pre-writing-- It includes;
Audience Analysis i.e. who is my reader?
Purpose Identification i.e. why I am writing?
Scope Determination i.e. how much I should write?
Analysis of the action required i.e. what do I want the receiver to do?
Writing-- Organize the matter, prepare outline, and write the draft.
Post-writing-- Revision, editing and evaluation of draft. A business letter contains 10 elements and is structured as follows:
Sender’s Address
Dateline
Reference (Optional)
Inside Address
Subject (Optional)
Salutation
Body
Complimentary Close
Signature
Enclosures (Optional) The body of the letter contains an opening stating the main idea, a middle with details, and an action (desiring) closing. The five “Cs” for effective letters are Clarity, Courtesy, Conciseness, Correct Tone, and Correct Attitude. Normal guidelines for effective business or formal letters are: consider goodwill in your communication; don’t waste words or write ‘flowery words’; keep the language lively and simple by avoiding common words/ abbreviations and jargons as these are obsolete now; write naturally, clearly and without ambiguity; personalize your letter i.e. ‘you approach’ instead of ‘I approach’; emphasize the positive; and use correct letter form. Remember that promptness in attending the letter and related actions are more important than writing a ‘beautifully drafted’ letter. ‘No’ is always said in a decent manner. The general guidelines for letter writing are as follows:
Writing Address
Addressee’s Name … Xxxxxxxxxxx
The house # or name … House # 33.
The Street/Gali/lane/Phase/Road # or name (if any) … Street #10, Phase # V,
The town or city … Wah Cantt,
The name of country (if letter being sent abroad) … Xxxxxxxxx

The Date March 5th, 2013 5 Mar. 2013 5th March, 2013 5 March, 2013 5/3/2013 5.3.2013
Greetings and Endings
Opening
Dear+ First name (informal, to a friend) Dear + Mr.+ Family name (to seniors, older & persons not very well known to you) Mrs. or Miss or Dr. or Professor Dear Sir / Customer Closing
Love, (very informal, close friend, relative) Salma Yours, (very informal, close friend, relative) Salma Yours Sincerely, (more formal, to someone you don’t know well) Salma [or Salma Haq Mrs. If one does not know your family name)
Opening Remarks Many thanks for your letter. Thanks for your letter. Thank you for your letter. Thank you very much for your letter. Thank you so much for your letter. I was delighted/ thrilled/ pleased/ sorry/ shocked/ amazed to hear
5.62 MEMO WRITING Memos (memorandums) are means of written internal communication within the organization and comprise of informal reports, circulars, office orders, notices, Minutes of meetings, inter-sectional and inter- personal correspondence. These are in fact formal written messages, written in conventional form for someone within the organization to meet a specific need. The memo helps in problem solving and decision making and may contain problem description; request for information; contain proposals/office orders/instructions; explain policy statements; invite for attending meetings; give feedback, suggestions, or recommendations; persuade the reader to take action; seek explanations or clarifications; or be just simple reminder. Memo normally comprises of:
Head i.e. Date: xxxxxxxx To: xxxxxxxx From: xxxxxxxx (Signature also)
Subject: xxxxxxxxx (contains the content of maim points like “Re-modeling of Office Complex.”
Cause of writing or purpose
Main context
Conclusions/recommendations/line of action In case of normal reports, the report contains Introduction, Summary, Background, Conclusions, Recommendations, and Discussions i.e. more details or information of the report.
5.63 LETTER/MEMO WRITING GUIDELINES
Use the three Cs strategy (i.e. Capture interest with a good opener, which tells the reader what the letter or memo can do for him; Convince with supporting points; and Control the closing with a statement that puts you in the position of following up and solidify your relationship with him.
Anticipate questions and answer them.
Stress ‘you’ attitude.
Be diplomatic and use words and tone that does not hurt or annoy any reader, but persuade him.
Edit carefully.
Use attachments for details.
Respond quickly
5.7 EXECUTIVE SUMMARIES An executive summary is a modified summary located at the beginning of a report or document. Its purpose is to highlight the bottom-line information needed by upper management to make a decision without reading the complete report. It must also include a final recommendation or conclusion, depending upon the purpose of report. If the document describes a research project, the executive summary includes the purpose, background, results, conclusions, and recommendations. It is written sometimes entirely in a bulletesh list, or a colon and bulletesh list is used to make the key ideas of article clear as follows:
…….…………………………………………….
……………….………………………………….
…………………
…………………
5.8 RESUME / JOB APPLICATION/LETTER WRITING A resume, commonly known as CV (Curriculum Vitae), is a specialized proposal by which the writer offers his services to fill a position. It is therefore basically a professional employment-seeking document that presents the summary of the individual’s education, experiences, skills, abilities, and achievements. A good resume has an effective design with focus on readability and adaptation to audience expectations. The resume should give a professional look, be factual, complete and objective, written in appropriate writing style, gives specific details, is organized properly and written in grammatically correct language. A resume contains the heading, position sought, career objectives, education, work experiences, skills, achievements, activities, interests and references. The first paragraph of a resume is most important as it catches the eye first and should be most impressive. This paragraph describes the job-seeker and indicates how one ‘sells’ or ‘markets’ oneself. The resumes are written in three different styles depending upon applicant’s qualifications, career goals, and personal preferences:
Chronological Resume, which focuses on education and experiences.
Functional Resume, which focuses on highlighting accomplishments and emphasizes skills
Combined Resume, which is a mixed style and draws on best of chronological and functional resumes.
Tips for creating a good resume are following:
It is perfect grammatically and stylistically.
Tailored for the position.
Is truthful.
Limited to 1-2 pages.
Don’t include religion, politics or fraternal organizations as these could prove to be risky.
Don’t use fancy paper or exotic folders. Employers of engineers and scientists are usually very pragmatic and substance-oriented people.
Never post a date on resume.
Don’t refer to salary requirement and leave it to interview or job application.
The resume contains and is normally written as follows:
Name and address--- including E Mail address and phone or mobile # on top in center of the page.
Objective---like ‘Seeking a tough-challenging engineering job/position in radio-frequency systems where I can achieve corporate goals in a team environment.’
Strength---like ‘Special blend of technical, interpersonal, and communication skills and experiences. Hardworking, creative, articulate. Able to work well with others to get the job done.’
Education---Start with highest degree.
Computer Skills--- If any.
Experiences/Employment---Start with latest employment.
Personal---If needed, like Pakistani citizen; Available June 2013; Willing to travel and relocate, etc.
References---of three persons not related to applicant who can verify his antecedents if contacted by the employer.
The resumes or CVs are sent through job application letters. These letters demonstrate that the applicant knows about the company and really want to work for it. These letters also summarize the key skills and experiences and personal traits to make him a desirable candidate. Thus the key components of these letters are gaining attention, building interest, showing the worth of the applicant and the motivation action i.e. motivating readers to act i.e. to consider the applicant favorably. The format of job application letter is normally as follows:
Applicant’s address
Date
Firm’s address
Subject
Salutation
Body
Yours sincerely/Sincerely
Signature
Name of applicant
Enclosure: CV / Resume (only number of pages mentioned)
6. GROUP COMMUNICATIONS
6.1 NATURE OF GROUP COMMUNICATION Since the human beings working in organizations work in groups, so they have to indulge in lot of group communications in the form of formal or informal conversations and group discussions, and formal meetings/conferences. The success of a person depends upon his overall communication skills in general, but on oral presentation skills in particular as well. In fact the supervisors and managers are supposed to do lot of oral presentations and give briefings in their career/service. Hence understanding and development of said skills is essential for success.
6.2 CONVERSATIONS AND GROUP DISCUSSIONS
Every person is involved most of the time in formal or informal conversations, which may involve two or more persons. A conversation is a continuous dialogue in which every participant can participate or speak at any moment. Formal conversations have formal content, objective approach, always factual, have accepted rules, are logically organized and structured; while informal conversations have personal or emotional content, either objective or subjective approach, may or may not be always factual, have no accepted rules, and not always structured. The most common form of formal conversations is group discussions. Group discussions help in problem solving, decision making, and personality assessment. Successful group discussions have some or all the features like agreement on group goals, goal oriented interaction, agreement on procedures, cooperative and friendly atmosphere, use of effective communication techniques, equitable distribution of participation, and shared leadership. However for good conversation or group discussion, the participant has to be a good listener, a subtle speaker (carefully speaks and does not say whatever comes in his mind), speaks with clarity and simplicity, uses appropriate pauses, is polite and friendly, is flexible and tactful, does not argue for argument sake and exhibits keen interest in conversation/discussions.
6.3 OFFICIAL MEETINGS
Al though every person in an organization performs his own individual job, but in fact the combined job is done in one or more groups. The job of each person is inter-related and dependent upon the job of others. Thus outcome or results are efforts of the whole team. Meetings or conferences are held to sort out the matters between the groups. Normally Managers attend these meetings, but if needed employee’s reps are also associated. The survey shows that 25 – 30% time of Managers is consumed in Meetings. The basic purpose of meeting is to present information and help in resolving problems, but following gains can also be obtained:
Creates the atmosphere for friendship.
Provides two-way communication.
Improves quality of decisions.
Improves quality of decisions.
Helps in bringing change
The meetings are in fact platforms for formal official conversation and a good participant has to follow all the pre-requisites of a good conversationalist.
Planning a meeting
What is the problem to be resolved for which the meeting is required?
Who are the participants? In routine departmental meetings the participants are pre-determined, but sometimes addition participants could be required?
Determine the date, time & venue of meeting and participants to be informed of these.
Prepare Agenda Points which will be discussed and their intimation to participants.
Proper seating arrangements and provision of other training aids like Projector, Multimedia, alternative electric supply, proper cleanliness, etc.

Types of meetings
Informational Meeting These meetings are for just providing information to participants or clarification of their doubts. Questions are asked in such meetings but nothing is discussed to resolve the problem.
Suggested-Solution Meeting Recommendations are obtained in these meetings for problem solving, but final decisions are not taken. Ad-hoc Committees of Parliament are its example.
Problem Solving Meeting In these meetings the problems are analyzed in detail and then final decisions are taken.

Selection of a Group for Meeting The selection of participants of meeting is based on following factors: Only those should be called who are concerned, competent and can give useful suggestions.
Those who can take decisions.
Those who are responsible for implementation of decisions of meeting.
Representatives of employees i.e. affected employees. Normally lesser number of participants will make the meeting more useful, but it must be kept in mind that no one should feel ignored and if situation is such, then at least Minutes of Meeting should be sent to them.

Group Leading Skills
Effective leadership skills are essential for making the meeting a success. Normally the leader is responsible for group task functions, which means he presents the problems for discussion, obtains suggestions, encourage analysis/discussions and then take decisions. He is also responsible for group maintenance function, which means he creates informal and friendly atmosphere during the meeting, creates feeling of protection amongst the participants, removes their worries and barriers amongst them. However, for showing skillful leadership, it is essential that he:
Starts the meeting with pre-pared opening sentences.
Possibly involve all the participants in discussion.
Help them in giving useful suggestions.
Help them to analyze all aspects of problem/issues.
Conclude the meeting with proper words.
Record the Minutes and issue to all participants.

Running a Successful Meeting
Meeting should start in-time. If there is any delay, then all the participants be informed of it.
The leader starts meeting with preferably pre-pared sentences in such a way that the participants feel at ease.
Leader conducts the meeting according to agenda.
Participants must be pre-informed of the purpose of meeting.
The leader must know the psychology of participants. Some are positive participants (i.e. active participants) and some are negative (they criticize everything and try to derail the participants) and some are non-participants (they remain silent throughout). For successful meeting, control of discussion is essential so that it may not get astray and silent participants must also be encouraged to participate.
Some people are very fond of self-projection and some try to divert the focus/attention by uttering irrelevant things, which is called dysfunctional behavior and is required to be controlled.
Before closing the meeting, the summary of decisions should be announced. Meeting must finish in-time.
In case of problem solving, first the problem and its importance is described, then discussion is allowed to start.

Active Participation Techniques
William M. Settler and N.Edd Miller described following nine types of positive participants: Organizer - They are natural organizers and cannot tolerate any disorganization/deviations. When discussions in a meeting goes off the track, such persons give input which returns the discussion to right path.
Clarifier - In case of difficulty or misunderstanding, such persons clarifies the point and pin-points the mistake being committed.
Questioner - Many questions needs to be replied or issues need to be explained. Hence questions are required to be asked for oneself and for those who do not know but feel shy in asking questions. Such persons ask questions, but too much questions or question for the sake of question must be avoided.
Factual Contributor - These who come fully prepared and make useful contributions.
Energizer - When meeting is in full swing and no end of discussion is coming to sight, then such persons change the situation and provides beacon of light at the end of tunnel.
Idea Creator - These are most useful persons, they are very imaginative and creative and presents novel but useful ideas in meeting.
Critical Tester - There should be a person in the meeting who challenges the views of others or criticize them. This will no doubt generate heat in discussion, but help in right decision making.
Conciliator - Sometimes deadlocks are created in the meetings, such persons give useful suggestions which are acceptable to both the parties and deadlock is broken.
Helpers of Others - If some participants are shy or feel hesitant or have inferiority complex, then helper type persons encourage them and make them conscience that their suggestions can also be useful. In addition to above, following steps can also be useful for activating participants:
First call brainstorming session and no one is allowed to criticize.
Divide the participants in small groups with leader of each and distribute the topics and let them come out with solutions.
Encourage their discussion/participation even if you disagree with their views.
Try to nullify the impact of those who want to dominate like ‘Zaid we found your views very useful, now let us also hear Asad’s views as well’, etc.
Ask specific questions from specific participants so that their participation is also insured.
Don’t let them have prior knowledge of your views and let them fully express their views.

7. ORAL PRESENTATION
7.1 NATURE & TYPE OF ORAL PRESENTATIONS Oral presentation means communication through oral words and gestures. In other words these are inter-personal performances in which concise technical information is provided to an attending audience in meetings or lectures. The audience could be one person or to a group. It is either short talk up to 10-15 minutes time duration or long talk of longer periods for specific purpose. Short talk is normally progress report, introductory words, etc., while long talk may be on any research or on a given topic. However for good talk, 7 ‘Cs’ must be kept in mind and visual aids available must be effectively utilized. Oral presentations could be any of the following types:
Extemporaneous
In which the speaker keeps main points on piece of paper, so that no point is missed. It allows maximum eye contact and more verbal and non-verbal involvement with the audience. The speaker has to deliver in his own words and he can rephrase the sentences wherever he likes or adjust his presentation according to the situation. This style is very impressive, but requires lot of preparations and there is always the possibility of uttering irrelevant or undesirable words.
Reading
It means reading of written speech. It has less eye contact or impact, but easier to deliver with no chances of forgetting anything. It suits to persons who have little or no confidence to face the audience, or where the data or information is of complex and technical in nature. However, this presentation is the least impressive and sometimes extremely boring.
Memorization
Entire speech remembered by heart and delivered without any assistance. It is not necessary that word by word is remembered, but main points kept in mind and delivered in own words. It always allows maximum eye contact and is most impressive if correctly done, but chances of uttering irrelevant or undesirable words are always there. However, in it the start is easy, but one may mix up later. There is also risk of forgetting the precise words in front of an audience, thus decreasing the credibility of the speaker.
Impromptu
Extempore speech, always very effective and conveys original ideas. In it one is called to speak ‘off the cuff’, without preparation, and without a forewarning. Hence one may falter any moment and even may not be able to deliver at all if lacks confidence or knowledge.

7.2 TECHNICAL PRESENTATIONS / BRIEFING Technical presentations could be lectures, presentations or briefings. These are normally focused oral presentations that use visual aids. Normally these are informative, demonstrative (how to work?) and persuasive (convincing). Lectures are normally talks to an audience any topic of interest or for imparting knowledge to a class of people on a subject. Presentation is something presented or explained in a meeting or public ceremony. While the briefing is speaking shortly to convey information, instructions, view point, brief details, or program to follow. However, the steps required for effective oral presentations and briefings are as follows:
Plan the presentation--- i.e. define the purpose, analyze the audience and tailor the presentation accordingly, analyze the occasion and tailor the presentation accordingly, and choose a suitable title.
Preparing the presentation--- i.e. develop the central idea, develop the main ideas, gather supporting materials, and plan visual aids.
Organize the presentation--- i.e. write the complete draft of presentation having introduction, main body, and conclusions.
Rehearse the presentation preferably in front of selected gathering or in front of a mirror to find out the week points and to adopt remedial measures.
Improving delivery for professional performance before the audience --- i.e. choosing suitable delivery method (memorizing, reading or outlining) and handling stage fright (concentration on planning, setting realistic goals, avoiding negative thoughts, preparing more material than necessary, be ready with sentence on tip of your tongue, start with a pause, take a few deep breaths, speak slowly, be comfortable, don’t panic, and keep going.).
Checklist for making an oral presentation:
Reach the presentation area well before time and check your appearance and familiarize with surroundings.
Check the slides and their running smoothly on computer.
Be organized with introduction, main body and conclusions.
Start with confidence.
Pay attention to your body language and keep eye contact.
Use appropriate visual aids.
Pay attention to all details.
Be ready with answers so that you can emphasize your most important points, refer to the material that do not fit into the formal presentation, overcome audience resistance.
Close in memorable way.
7.3 USE OF VISUAL AIDS Visual aids capture attention, illustrate important concepts, increase listener’s ability to absorb information, help the speaker to remember message details, and help in making more professional impression. Thus visual aids help both the speaker and the listener. In preparing visual aids, the media could be handouts (these are both useful and distracting), chalk-boards and white-boards or advance prepared flip-boards, overhead transparences, slides, electronic presentation, product samples, models, audio tapes, films, strips, and video tapes. Electronic presentation comprises of a series of computer slides and is the latest and most effective tool or way of oral presentations. Computer software helps in preparing these slides used for presentation, and Microsoft Power point is the best example of it. However, visual aids must be used to highlight spoken words and not as a substitute for them. The visuals are either text visuals or graphic visuals. Text visuals help listeners follow the flow of ideas and should not normally exceed six lines with more than six words in each line, while graphic visuals present and emphasize important facts. Before including visual for presentation, one must re-check:
Is the visual necessary (a few visual can clarify and dramatize, but many can bury it)?
Is the visual accurate?
Is the visual properly documented? However, following factors may be kept in mind for visual aids:
These are most effective when they are simple.
Visuals are counter productive if the audience cannot see them or understand them within a few moments.
Graphic visuals must be simplified as much as possible.
Effective visuals do not distract the audience or upstage the speaker.
Limit each visual to one idea.
Illustrate main points, not entire presentation.
Give few seconds to audience to view a slide before start speaking.
Use of pointer should be minimal.
Keep answers short and to the point. Normally the format for presentations through visual aids is:
Title Chart or slide (it tells the topic of presentation and presenter’s name, position and affiliation)
Overview Chart or slide (it lists the main topics to be discussed)
Discussion charts or slides (these constitute the body of presentation)
Summary chart or slide (it gives summary of main points of presentation)
Concluding chart or slide (may or may not be required. It is needed when concluding something or recommending) In order to energize the presentation, it is advisable that where possible, the presenter may arouse curiosity, ask a series of short questions, relate a dramatic ‘scene-setting’ story, wear something unusual, get listeners to do something physical, draw a contrast between conditions now and sometimes back, use humor to help everyone relax, use strong gestures, and get everyone involved.

PART II
TECHNICAL REPORT WRITING
8. REPORT WRITING
8.1 NATURE, OBJECTIVES AND PURPOSES OF REPORTS Report is presentation of facts on any topic or incident in a logical manner after collecting relevant information. In other words the report is a presentation containing logically organized information, usually based on an investigation. The report could be oral or written, informational or analytical, routine or special, formal or informal. A written report is a formal document written for a specific audience to meet a specific need. The report provides factual and systematic account of a specific business or professional activity. The report helps in the analysis of condition, situation or a problem for an effective solution. That is why when we talk of formal report or written report, it means collection of data on any topic or subject or incident with specific purpose, organizing it, analyzing it and then presenting conclusions and recommendations in writing according to a specified format. It is also essential that report writing should be un-biased and facts/conclusions are presented without hiding anything/distortions, irrespective of the fact whether the findings are in accordance with writer’s personal views/beliefs or not. Since the report is written according to a specified format, so its selective study should also be possible. The objective of the reports could be determined by their types, which are as follows:
Persuasive reports--- which obtains agreement to a course of action.
Explanatory report--- which explains a specific view.
Discussive report--- which provides basis of discussion.
Information report--- which provides information.
The purposes of report writing are:
Storage of information/facts about a particular topic.
To provide historical data which helps to determine what has been done and what is yet to be done.
For providing reference material to others to investigate further.
To help others who are not experts or has no time to spare for it, to have knowledge of the subject and expert opinion of those who are competent and can spare time for it.
To provide means of expressing or developing one’s creative or research abilities.
To carry out research and present its results. However, in a nutshell the report writing helps to make the job simpler, improve performance of professional duties, expands business, resolves problems, do research work, provides explanation of problems, preserves history/old record and provides communication/co-ordination between the persons/departments.
8.2 BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF REPORT WRITING
The writer is competent, has the technical background to handle the subject matter skillfully.
The writer has access to necessary means and facilities like equipment, information, time finances, etc.
The objective of the report and expectations from it are known.
The capabilities of the reader or audience are known.
8.3 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF REPORT WRITING
While report writing following principles are kept in mind:
Always have in mind the specific reader when writing the report and always assume that he is intelligent, but un-informed.
Before starting to write, decide what the exact purpose of report is and make sure that every paragraph, sentence & word makes a clear contribution to that purpose and makes it at the right time.
Use language that is simple, concrete and familiar.
At the beginning and end of every section of report, check that it is according to the principle that ‘first tell the reader what you are going to tell him, then you logically tell him in detail and finally you tell him what you have told him’.
Make report attractive to look at, arrives by the date it is due, the purpose and scope of report is clearly given in the beginning provides essential information, designed in such a way that selective study is possible, answers reader’s questions that may arise in his mind, is unbiased, is free from typographical and grammatical errors and conveys an overall impression of authority, thoroughness and soundness.
The report should have a meaningful title, contains authors name and date of submission.
The report is concise (what can be written in 12 words, do not use 200 words), have meaningful beginning (i.e. explain reasons for report and introduce subject), write content which is readable and keeps interest, and end by summarizing how the report has achieved its objective.
Follow seven Cs while writing the report.
8.4 FORMAT OF REPORTS
The reports are written according to different formats. The standard formats are of following types:
Printed Forms--- meant for repetitive and routine data, like lab reports, progress reports, etc.
Letter Format--- short informal reports to be communicated to someone outside the organization.
Memo Format--- short informal reports to be communicated to someone within an organization. These may contain all the elements of a standard report, plus a few extra special sections, if needed.
Manuscript Format--- formal repots presented on plain papers. The standard or research reports are written in manuscript format.
8.5 STEPS OF REPORT WRITING
First step is that of preliminary analysis, which includes determination of topic, its scope, terms of reference, audience expectations and needs and the type of format of presentation. Then planning of how to proceed is done.
Second step is collection of data, its analysis and conclusions to be drawn. The sources of data collection are library, questionnaire, interview, field observation and experiments.
Third step is arranging / organizing data in logical / tabular form to allow drawl of conclusions.
Fourth step is writing of report and its presentation as per prescribed or standard form.
8.6 TYPES OF REPORTS
Formal and Informal Reports
Informal reports are routine reports for limited circulation and generally contain only the facts. Analysis conclusions, recommendations are not given and the report is also not presented in standard format; while formal report is long report, written and presented according to standard format and may have large circulation. Feasibility Report, Planning Report Survey Report, Research Report, Accident Report, etc. are formal reports and Progress Report, Visit Report, Inventory Report, Lab Report and reports on printed forms or letters, etc. are informal report.
Technical and Non-Technical Reports Technical reports are about technical & scientific matters, written by technical experts and use scientific & technical terms, graphs and diagrams, while non-technical reports are informal and simple reports which can be written by non-technical persons like reports about worker’s quarrel, standard of canteen.
Simple Reports and Research Reports
Simple report is prepared with the help of historical data available only, while research reports are based on research. The importance nowadays is of research reports and these may be about scientific or technical topics.

Information Reports and Examination Reports
Information report contains mere information like conference report for persons, who did not attend the conference, but in examination report the information collected is verified, analyzed and then conclusions are drawn.

9. TECHNICAL REPORT WRITING
9.1 NATURE OF TECHNICAL REPORT A technical report is a report on technical subject wherein audience & purpose are well-defined in advance and it shares objective information with interested, educated audience. It has following characteristics:
Is about any scientific or technical subject associated with science.
Uses scientific and technical vocabulary, graphic aids, etc. and relies heavily on visuals.
Uses numerical data to precisely describe quantity and directions.
Is non-emotional, impartial and objective study which conveys information accurately and concisely?
Is written in a way which allows random study, if needed.
Concentrates on a special format in which definition, description of mechanism, description of process, classification and interpretations appear compulsorily.
It is accurate and well documented.
It is grammatically and stylistically correct.
9.2 IMPORTANCE OF TECHNICAL REPORTS
The mankind has developed tremendously from scientific and technological developments or in other words from experiences, opinions and experimentation of various human beings. Gone are the days when knowledge was transmitted verbally to limited selected persons. Now all the information is available in written or recorded form and anyone can use that information effectively for betterment and development of the whole mankind. The scientific and technological fields have endless scope of development and that could be effectively utilized only with the help of technical reporting. If we eliminate technical reporting, it will:
Retard the pace of scientific and technological development;
Spread benefits of development only to limited areas;
Result in lot of repetitive efforts for the same job for the same results.
Reduce the scope of development of complex nature.
Not allow widespread participation of people in a specific job.
9.3 TECHNICAL WRITING STYLE Technical style of writing is used for writing scientific, business and technical documents. A good style can be acquired through reading and practice. This style is distinguished by adaptation to the reader, by attention to the communication situation, by observance of the scientific attitude, and by certain conventions in writing symbols, numbers and abbreviations.

Adaptation or Audience Analysis / Centered
It means the writing is tailored to meet the needs, the interests, and the capabilities of the expected readers. For example readers can be classified as laymen, executives, experts, technicians, or operators according to their relationship to the subject matter being discussed and their reasons for reading about it. The main difficulty here is for the writer to ascertain the knowledge level of intended reader and how to adapt to his knowledge level?
Communication Situation
It means what are the uses of the report, like whether:
As a guide for action.
As a piece of information.
As a long term or short terms aid,
As an aid under specified conditions.
Scientific Attitude
It is tendency on part of scientific experiments to observe only the physical elements and the report concerns only these events. Thus it is impersonal, emotionless and objective approach in which ‘I’ plays no part in writing. This is being questioned now and it is felt that mind and temperament of experimenter is also required to be given due consideration. It gives more thoughtful look at what actually happens without changing the reality. Use of personal pronouns is thus preferred.
Scientific attitude In conclusion, it would be mistake to relocate the Factory.
Non-Scientific In conclusion, the evidence shows that it would be mistake to relocate the Factory.
Technical Exposition It means the style and the way of providing information in your writing, of explaining things and deducing conclusions. It is determined by the following:
Topics arrangements
Definition
Comparison
Casual analysis - Presentation of theory and arguments to justify it
Exemplification
Classification and division into heads, sub-heads, parts, chapter.
Definition
It means assigning a precise meaning to a term. These are needed when familiar words are used in an unfamiliar sense or for unfamiliar things or when unfamiliar words are used for familiar things and unfamiliar words are used for un-familiar things. The question of familiarity or unfamiliarity applies to the reader, not to writer. Definitions may appear in the text of the report, in footnotes, in a glossary at the end of the report, or in a special section in the introduction. Their proper location depends upon their importance to the text and on the knowledge of the reader. However, to define a term, it must be placed into a classification and then differentiated from other terms in the same classification.
Definitions are however of three types:
Formal Definition--- A sentence contains three parts: The term that needs defining, the class to which the item belongs, and differentiation of the item from all other members of the class, like ‘Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with respect to time.’
Informal Definition---These are specialized or technical terms that reader does not know.
Extended Definition---These contain expanded explanation of terms being used.
9.4 CHARACTERISTICS AND ETHICS OF A GOOD TECHNICAL REPORT
It is seriously prepared.
It is purposeful and the purpose is usually spelled out in the opening paragraphs.
The vocabulary of terminology used is technical / specialized and generally not defined.
Sentences are highly specific and fact filled.
Number and dimensions are numerous and exact rather than rounded to the nearest whole number.
Signs, symbols and formulas appear in the text.
Graphs and tables may appear in place of prose or to reinforce it. Figures and illustrations may also appear for the said purpose.
Documentation and references appear in footnotes and indexes.
It follows the seven ‘Cs’ of effective communication.
It is written according to golden rule of writing i.e. ‘First tell the reader what you intend to tell him, then tell him logically in detail, and finally tell him what you have told him.’ Ethically the technical writer must be accurate and honest in his work and should not:
Substitute speculations for facts or hide truth with ambiguity.
Inject personal bias into the report.
Violate copyright laws.
Lie with statistics i.e. manipulating data or graphical representation of data, use inappropriate or improper statistical tests, or employ loaded statistical samples.
Indulge in plagiarism i.e. an act of theft in which one steals another person’ ideas or his expression of an idea, and then represents as his own work. Other person’s views must be acknowledged.
9.5 TYPES OF TECHNICAL REPORTS
Feasibility Report
It is a formal report of highly technical nature normally having wider circulation, which studies the desirability or applicability of any project or system or single solution from three angles i.e. whether achievable, whether profitable and what would be appropriate timings for its implementation? In these reports:
Problem is defined which is needed to be solved.
Identifies one or more candidate solutions.
Develops a set of criteria by which to objectively evaluate the candidate solutions.
Collects and interprets data for each criteria as it relates to each candidate solution.
Draws conclusions and make recommendations regarding the candidate solutions based on one’s interpretation.
Recommendation Report
It is similar to feasibility report, but instead of single solution, it looks at several approaches and recommends the most feasible approach.
Progress Report
It presents information about status of work done on a particular project during a particular period of time. It is never a report on a completed project. These are written for those who need to keep in touch with what is going on and as a record for future reference. It comprises summary of earlier progress, current report and a brief statement of conclusion. The main emphasis is on how well one is doing in terms of each task and overall assessment of current progress. If it is a short report, presented to one or to a small number of persons, it is given in a letter or memorandum form. If it is longer report and may have large circulation, then it is presented in conventional or formal report form.
Project Report
It is a research report on any hypothesis or theory that needs to be applied or tested under highly controlled conditions.
Planning Report
It is a formal report which describes in detail what and how is to be done in future for a particular job? Generally this report concentrates more on decisions for future plans rather than on basis on which these decisions were taken. These reports may or may not have high circulation.
Inspection Report
It is formal report in which the writer has to give his specific conclusions and these are generally regarding the quality of the work or item. These reports have low circulation.
Accident Report
It is formal report which provides information about the accident, its probable causes and specific recommendations to avert them in future. These reports generally have high circulation.
Survey Report
These reports examine conditions that affect an organization. The quantity of data collected is generally large and it is presented in graphic forms. The conclusions may also be given. These reports may have high circulation.
Visit Report
These are informal reports, mostly of descriptive nature describing what was observed. These may contain some suggestions, but lack the scientific authority for such suggestions.
Laboratory Report
These are of endless variety of forms and length. These contain identification of the person being tested, his sex, age, type of test and their results. No recommendations are given. These reports have standard forms and very low circulation.
Manufacturing Report
It is a simple report which provides production figures of a particular item for a specific period. It may briefly also describe the reasons if there is any major conspicuous shortfall in production. These reports have generally low circulation.
Proposals
These are specialized technical documents that offer persuasive solutions to problems. Thus a proposal can be to highlight the need to look into a neglected or existing technical problem or expected problem causing less and in-efficiency or a suggested solution to overcome it. Proposals are classified according to its nature (formal or informal), the nature of audience (internal or external), and the source of origin (solicited or unsolicited i.e. written in response to a request or otherwise).
Technical Articles
These present an objective analysis of facts, inferences, recommendations, and conclusions. These describe, discuss, or analyze as systematic investigation towards increasing the sum of knowledge in a specific field. These are generally of four types: journal articles, conferences articles, review articles, and research articles.
Research Report These describe the discovery, analysis, and documentation of knowledge obtained through some type of investigation. Normally these involve extensive research and documentation.
10. STEPS OF REPORT WRITING
10.1 1ST STEP OF REPORT WRITING - PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS Why the report is required to be written? The writer either wants to write it because he feels the urge to do so or he is given the task by others. In both the cases the report is required to serve some purpose. This purpose is first to be determined and be known to the writer
10.11 SELECTION OF TOPIC OR SUBJECT Subjects can be of three types:
Which represents a project the writer is actively working on.
Which is concerned with the making of a practical decision.
Which will add to practical knowledge.
In selecting a subject, the considerations are:
That the subject is interesting to you.
It is related to writer’s major field.
It is a subject about which the writer knows enough to be able to read intelligently.
It is a subject on which sufficient printed material is available or sufficient information can be gathered.
Too controversial topic or about which the writer has strong prejudices should not be selected.
The term ‘Scope’ refers to the limits of a subject. The limits can be:
The details in which the subject is to be discussed.
The range of the subject matter.
The point of view from which the subject is to be discussed.
10.12 TERMS OF REFERENCE It is the scope and limit of the subject matter within which the investigations are to be made and results presented. These are required to be clearly defined and kept in view while writing the report. This contains the writer from going astray and also tells the reader what to expect from the report. The conclusions or recommendations are given strictly in accordance with terms of reference.
10.13 PRESCRIBED FORM
Every organization prescribes the format of the report and the way to gather information / conduct investigations. The writer has to have its knowledge and then adhere to it. In case there are no prescribed formats, then standard format is followed.
10.14 PLAN OF PROCEDURE It relates to planning general organization and coverage of the subject, so as to simplify and chalk out the course of reading and taking notes. For this purpose first of all the list of things the writer wants to find out about the subject is prepared. Then the things which the reader is expected to know are added to it. This will help in taking notes and assembly of data. The assembly of data is possible through the use of Library, Questionnaire, Interview, Field Observations, and Experimentation. What and how to collect data is determined at this planning, stage.
10.2 2ND STEP OF REPORT WRITING - ASSEMBLY OF DATA
The data is assembled through research, which is done by talking with people, or going through printed information, or by experimentation. The printed material is obtained through personal or proper libraries, while talking with people is done by asking questions in interviews or through questionnaire or during experimentations. The questions asked are either closed ended (having restricted answer like ‘How many hours you work daily?’) or open ended (which allows longer and more involved answers, like ‘How many hours one should work daily?’)
10.21 LIBRARY Information available in written form in Library like Professional Journals, Reference Books, Unpublished thesis, Newspaper articles, Govt. Publication, Computerized Information, etc. are documentary sources of information for collection. Libraries have Card catalogue systems which has three types of cards, which are Author card, Title Card, and Subject Card. Internet is now the best source of getting any type of information. However the libraries have useful source of information in the form of Reference books as follows:
Abstracts--- brief summaries of articles or books in a particular field.
Almanacs--- compilations of basic statistical information about production figures, sports, etc.
Atlas--- books of maps or other illustrations.
Bibliography--- list of sources of information.
Catalogue --- complete list of things like books on a particular subject.
Compendium--- small encyclopedia on specific subjects.
Dictionaries--- alphabetically listed words or names with definitions or description.
Encyclopedias--- summaries of knowledge.
Glossaries--- list of technical terms with brief definition.
Hand books--- compact reference books for specific fields with more information than in encyclopedia.
10.22 INTERVIEWS Gathering information by direct meeting the concerned people is called interview.
Types of Interviews
Non-directive - In which questions are asked as they come mind.
Patterned - In which predetermined sequence of questions is followed.
Structured - In which series of job-related questions with pre-determined “preferred” answers are asked.
Serialized or Sequential - In which a panel of persons ask non-directive and informal questions.
Panel Interview - Interview by a group of interviewers who are specialist on the subject.
Stress Interview - In which the person is made uncomfortable by a series of loaded questions and his reaction to stress situation is analyzed.
Rules of Good Interview
Interviewer must have information about the abilities, rank, and importance of person to be interviewed.
Interviewee must have information and confidence about the interviewer and the purpose of interview.
Interview is conducted in a friendly atmosphere.
Interviewee be allowed to speak freely and more.
No effort by interviewer is made to impose one’s ideas.
Questions must be pre-determined and written, though they may not be asked in the serial order they are written.
Ask short, precise, and understandable questions.
Avoid personal questions, unless specifically required.
Important questions are asked at the end.
No taping of interview without permission and maintain secrecy of information.
No one is compelled to give answer if one does not want.
Interview to start at scheduled time and be finished within the minimum possible time.
Good ‘home work’ required by interviewer before interview.
10.23 QUESTIONNAIRE The process of sending a set of related questions for getting replies / information is called questionnaire. It is used where the information from other sources is not easily available. A good Questionnaire must have:
The question must be ‘reliable’ i.e. they measure what we want to measure.
Questions are ‘valid’ i.e. it is interpreted in the same manner as we intend to interpret it.
It must contain minimum questions.
The respondent must feel least difficulties in filling it.
There must be strong probability of its being returned duly filled.
Types of Questions
Dichotomous - In which one has choice between two answers, like yes or no, manual or electric, etc. It has relatively limited span of responses.
Multiple – Choice - In which one can choose among several possible answers. This is most common approach and permits wide range of responses.
Ranking - In which one is asked to rank several possibilities in order of personal preference.
Rating - In which one is asked to rate the importance of an item to oneself.
Fill in the Blank - The short answer approach used to get factual answers of opinion, “How many children do you prefer?”
Essay - In which the respondent gets maximum freedom in composing an answer. The researcher makes no significant efforts in this type and puts every responsibility on interviewee.
10.24 FIELD OBSERVATIONS & EXPERIMENTATION If the reader visit the place of occurrence and directly observes the process and there after gathers data, it would be called Field Observation. For example to prepare shop layout plan, one may visit the shop and directly observe the placement of men, material and machinery and their movements. The data so collected would be the result of field observation. However, if the writer himself participates in the process, it would be experimentation. The experimentation is done by two ways:
The writer himself performs the duties like others and then gathers data through personal experience.
The writer observes and then suggests changes and thereafter observes their outcome. This also helps him to determine whether his conclusions are correct and whether his recommendations are practicable?
The writer should not have any pre-conceived conclusions about the results and should base his findings on the actual results of observation / experiment.

10.3 3RD STEP OF REPORT WRITING - ORGANIZING & DEVELOPING DATA
10.31 ORGANIZING & DEVELOPING DATA After the data is collected, next step is to determine what data is to be included and what is to be left? The data so selected would be useful only if it is arranged and divided in a systematic manner or in other words, its classification and tabulation is done. For example if we have data of accidents, then we can’t draw any conclusions merely from these figures unless we classify them and tabulate according to types of accidents, years, nature, etc. The classification is done on the basis of common characteristics:
Make clear what is being classified.
Choose (and state) a significant, useful basis, or guiding principle for the classification.
Keep all the headings equal.
Apply one rule of classification at a time.
Make each classification at a time.
Avoid overlapping classification as much as possible.
The tabulation principles are:
Table should be simple and understandable.
Titles of table should represent the nature of full table.
Titles of columns and rows should be clear.
Table should be according to size of paper.
Major titles of table should be fewer in number, however smaller titles be in greater number so that the table can be easily understandable.
If data is so much that it cannot be presented in one table, then it can be presented in more than one table.
The tables can be simple or complex, but simple present only one characteristic of data, like:

A complex table presents more than one characteristics, like:
Types of Accidents
1987-88
1988-89
1989-90
Total
Fire
1
5
0
6
Explosions
3
2
7
12
Elect. Shocks
1
2
1
4
Mech.
7
6
8
21
Road
4
2
3
9
Total :
16
17
19
52

Classification would be as follows:
Category
No. of accidents
Offices
03
Supervisors
10
Workers
37
Others
02

However formal and academic reports prefer format of Abstract (comprising Cover/Title Page, Letter of Transmittal, List of Illustrations, Executive Summary & Introduction), Body ( having Discussion section & Appendices), and Conclusions (having Conclusions & Recommendations).

10.32 ILLUSTRATIONS Illustrations or graphic aids are form of data presentation which is easy to prepare and understand. These in their simple or complex form often convey information or provide dramatic emphasis with an effectiveness that is difficult or impossible to achieve in writing. The type of illustration selection depends mainly upon the audience and the purpose of the report.
General Consideration For Visual Presentation
There is no need to put into writing the kind of information which can be easily grasped in the form of illustrations.
The facts are not restated which have been put into tabular or graphic form.
Don’t assume that having made a table or graph; nothing needs to be said about it. A little explanation of how to read it is often helpful. The significant relationship revealed by the table or graph needs to be pointed out.
Use Of Illustrations
Illustrations are used in situations:
When words won’t do.
When information is faster and easier to understand in graphic form.
When visuals highlight an important aspect.
Purpose
To provide a view more vivid and clear than prose.
Emphasize the data which is required to do so.
To pull together diverse data on the basis of similarities or contrasts.
To save time of reader.
To condense information.
To present information in a way which is easier to follow and grasp.
Check List for Visuals
Have I:
Selected the best visual for kind of information I am providing?
Actually displayed the information?
Numbered and titled each visual?
Documented the source, using the source line with the visual?
Integrated the visual with text discussion that refers it?
Referred to the visual prior to its placement in the report?
Used the labels that match the term used in report?
Format of visual presentations:
Title Chart or slide (it tells the topic of presentation and presenter’s name, position and affiliation)
Overview Chart or slide (it lists the main topics to be discussed)
Discussion charts or slides (these constitute the body of presentation)
Summary chart or slide (it gives summary of main points of presentation)
Concluding chart or slide (may or may not be required. It is needed when concluding something or recommending)
Types
The types of illustrations are Tables, Graphs, Diagrams, Photographs, Maps, Computer Graphics, and Charts. The tables & graphs summaries data and statistics; while charts and drawings illustrate concepts, processes or concrete objects.
TABLES--- These are used to present large amount of data and to give absolute values where precision is important. Tables show well trends or direction in data. System of rows and columns of table makes it possible to group data effectively to make accessible to reader. The guidelines for tables are:
Place column to be compared next to each other.
Label each column and row.
Include units of measure in each heading.
Align decimals in a column.
Put table number and title at the top.
Use footnotes for more extensive explanations of data or heading.
GRAPHS---These provide picture of relationship between two variables and show a comparison, a change over time, or trend. The graphs are of following types:
Line Graph, which shows trend and relationship (number of lines are limited to 3 or 4 and distinguished by different colors or design).

Logarithm Graph, which emphasize relative or percentage change.
Bar Graphs which shows discrete values and set them up for comparison or give an overview or a general conclusion, and help in initiating a discussion of cause.

Pie Graph, which use segments of a circle to indicate percentage of total. These are used to compare components to one another, compare components to the whole, and show gross differences and not fine distinctions.

CHARTS These are interchangeable with graphs. These illustrate relationships, but are not plotted on a coordinate system. The charts are numbered in order of appearance (place figure No. & title two spaces below chart); the headings, quantities and unit of measurement are written horizontally. The types of charts are:
Troubleshooting Tables, which identify problem and give its probable cause and cure.
Flow charts, which show a time sequence or a decision, in which arrows show direction and symbol represents steps or particular point in the section.
Decision chart, which uses graphics to explain whether or not to perform certain actions in a certain situation.
Gnatt chart, which represent schedule of a project.
Layout chart, which are maps of areas seen from the top.
MAPS These are used to illustrate areas of growth, population density, natural sources or transport routes.
PHOTOGRAPHS These provide accurate overall view and show all details as more or less equal, but fail to emphasize important areas.
DRAWING / DIAGRAMS These provide sketches or drawings of parts of the item or the steps in a process. These help to define an object by giving an overview, as in a technical description and can classify the relationship of parts. The diagrams can be cut away diagrams (which shows the inner side of the item, the relationships between the inner parts to each other and to the whole); exploded diagrams (in it the parts seem to be blown apart, yet the parts appear in their normal arrangements. Such diagrams are useful in supporting device description or instructions) and process directions and movement of each part and support process description. These diagrams also can represent the flow or movement between whole devices or parts of devices represented only by boxes or circles. These diagrams help an audience visualize what a device looks like in action or the chorology between devices in a process).
COMPUTER GRAPHICS These are primarily for the managers to make quick decision making and all the aforementioned illustrations could be prepared/included/presented through computer graphics.
10.4 4TH STEP OF REPORT WRITING
10.41 READER’S ANALYSIS Since the writing has to be tailored to the needs of expected readers, so the reader’s analysis has to be carried out in first place. Readers are normally interrupted (don’t read in one sitting), impatient (lose patience with vague and unorganized writing and they want to understand the real meaning immediately), lack writer’s technical knowledge in majority of the cases), and are generally more than one in number, thus have different caliber. Their proper analysis requires replies of following answers:
What is their technical and educational background?
What main questions the reader need answered?
What main action the writer wants reader to take?
What features the reader prefers in format, style, and organization?
What is the status of reader?
What are the reader’s expectations from the writer?

10.42 OUTLINE The writing of report is then done according to outline, which helps to organize the writing. Normally table of contents provide a good outlines, though the sequence is not followed and text gets priority over summary, etc. Three types of outlines are considered useful, which are: sentence, topic, and question. In a sentence outline each entry is a complete sentence. In topic outline each entry is a phrase or a single word, no entry is in the form of a sentence. In third kind the question outline is of almost no use to the reader, but it can be very useful to the writer, especially in the early stages of the writing. In question outline the questions which writer foresees are to be required to be answered are listed. The grouping and sub grouping of these questions helps in deciding a plan for the writing process and a plan for the structure of the paper to be written. After the questions have been answered, the question outline is transformed into a sentence or topic outline.
10.43 WRITING OF MANUSCRIPT
First of all rough manuscript is written with the help of collected materials and the outlines. It is prepared to start by expanding the basis of outline and complete it as a whole, writing as quick as possible without stopping to check spelling, punctuations, missing numbers, etc. After the writing is completed, its revision is done. While writing manuscript, the points to be kept in mind are:
Try to write sentences of 12 to 25 words as shorter or longer sentences are weaker or too complicated.
Eliminate empty words and avoid redundant phrases, like use ‘because’ in place of ‘due to the fact that’, or ‘prove’ instead of ‘prove conclusively’
Avoid sexist language i. e. the word choice suggests only one sex even both are intended. Hence instead of writing ‘ the clerk must make sure that he punches in,’ write ‘the clerk must make sure to punch in.’
Use ‘you’ correctly i.e. don’t use ‘you’ in formal reports. Use ‘you’ to mean ‘the reader,’ it should not mean ‘I’.
Follow writing standards and particularly the golden rule that first tell the reader what you are going to tell him, then tell him logically in detail, and finally tell him what you have told him.
Adhere to 7Cs of effective communication.
Avoid passive voice verbs
Achieve logical wording.
Make clear references.
Structure paragraphs coherently.
Achieve a convincing style.
Achieve concise style. After completing the writing, the rough draft is now ready. Then it is re-read to rectify the grammatical mistakes and to ensure that the writer has written what he intended to write in satisfactory manner. It is also known as Reviewing, for which the following check list is used:
Expressed yourself in language that conveys exactly what you want to say?
Used language that is adapted to the principal reader?
Used the fewest words consistent with clearness?
Achieved the tone calculated to bring about the desired response?
Tried to produce a style that is not only accurate and clear, and convincing, but also readable and absorbing?
Present all the pertinent facts and comment upon their significance where necessary?
Made clear to the reader what action you recommend and why?
Correlated illustration closely with text. Reading is for the writer and revision is for the reader. In revision, the check list is that:
Have you fulfilled your purpose in terms of the reader’s needs and desires?
Does the paper as a whole develops your thesis statement?
Is there irrelevant material, which can be weeded?
Is logic sound?
Have you anticipated counter questions and responded them?
Does the report sound good? If the revisions make it essential to re-write the entire report or some parts of it, then that is done. The rough draft is again revised till the writer is satisfied. Now it is ready for final typing and presentation according to prescribed structure or standard format.
10.44 EDITING
It means developing a consistent, accurate text, which is done by checking spelling, punctuation, basic grammar, and format of the page. It is also done for style i.e. changes that make writing more engaging, more interesting, more readable, and crispy with no dragging impact. This is done by:
Shortening paragraphs,
Re-arranging a paragraph to place the main point first,
Changing passive voice structure to active voice,
Defining technical terms, and
Adding headings, lists, or graphics.

10.45 PROOF-READING
It is checking and correction of actual final hand written or typed proof of report meant for printing.
10.46 WRITING IN GROUPS Group writing is the combined effort of two or more persons to produce one document, with each member sharing in the writing process. Each group has a leader and responsibilities distributed, with each person contributing as mutually decided. The collective wisdom and efforts of group members is expected to give best results

11. STANDARD STRUCTURE OR FORMAT OF REPORT
11.1 STRUCTURE OR FORMAT OF REPORT There can be many approaches of organizing a report and various organizations have different preferences, however, the most popular and universally accepted format is as follows:
Cover
Title page
Preface
Acknowledgement
Table of contents
List of Illustration
Abstract
Summary
Introduction
Text
Conclusions
Recommendations
Appendix / Reference Matter However formal and academic reports prefer format of Abstract (comprising Cover/Title Page, Letter of Transmittal, List of Illustrations, Executive Summary & Introduction), Body ( having Discussion section & Appendices), and Conclusions (having Conclusions & Recommendations). The standard format of report comprises of Front Piece (Cover, Title Page, Preface, Acknowledgements, Table of Contents, List of Tables and Illustrations, Abstract & Summary), Main Body (Introduction, Main Text, Conclusions, and Recommendations), and Reference Matter (Referencing is a systematic method of documenting or citing sources used in the form of footnotes in the main text, while reference matter given in the report at the end comprises of Appendixes, Bibliography, List of Abbreviations, and Glossary).
11.11 FRONT PIECE
It is written at the end and the purpose is identification of report and facilitates the readers to do selective study or skimming. It comprises of:
Cover
It generally contains the title, which is usually prominently displayed in underlined capital letters; the report number; and the date. Occasionally the name of client to whom a report is submitted, and the name or names of authors may also be written, but that is not essential. Triple spacing between the lines of two and three line titles is advisable. Normally the companies have their prepared binders, otherwise a plain Manila folder or one of the readily available pressboard binder can be used.
Title Page It contains title appearing in upper third of the sheet under scored and centered, all in capital words, with triple spacing between the lines; recipient of the report; reporter’s names and their professional identifications; and date of submission.
Preface
It is an introduction at the beginning of the report, which explains why the report has been written or what it is about.
Acknowledgement
This is normally written after the paper is finished. It is expressing the thanks for invaluable help provided by others in connection with the report writing. Acknowledgement can be one independent paragraph on a page or it can be the closing paragraph of preface.
Table of Contents It is an analytical outline, modified in form for the sake of appearance. It provides reference/guide to contents and their page number in the report. Its layout is follows:
Centre and underscore “Table of Contents” at the top of the page. Use capitals or lower case letters.
Triple space below the words “Table of Contents”, double space between major items in contents, single space between numerous subtopics, if any.
Begin items with Roman Numerals.
Indent second order headings five spaces and third order headings ten spaces.
After last Roman numeral entry, place the word “Index” and write indexes by labeling them “A”, “B” and so on.
List of Tables and Illustrations If the report contains a half dozen or more illustrations, drawings or other graphic aids, an index to them follow table of contents. It gives the number, title, and page reference of each figure in the report. The title used is ‘List of Illustrations’ if it contains both figures and tables (listing ‘figures’ first and then ‘tables’). However, if it contains only figures or tables, then it is called ‘List of Figures’ or ‘List of Tables’ respectively.
Abstract
It presents the report in a nut shell or brief summary of the summary of the report. It is usually a single paragraph, double spaced on a page by itself. It is written in good English, no abbreviation is used which is not acceptable in main body and no terminology is used which is unfamiliar for the audience. General guideline for writing abstract is to state the problem, the scope of work, the significant findings or results, any major conclusions and major recommendations.
Summary
It presents the condensed report without changing the original message and focus of the report. It concisely restates the report’s purpose and the problems it addresses, principal points made in discussions, and based on them the conclusions and recommendations. It contains no new ideas and is always very short (less than one-third of text) as compared to the length of the report. It is written after the report is written and avoids technical terminology. Instead of writing the entire summary in one paragraph, separate paragraphs for each chapter or heading/major sub-heading is preferred.
11.12 MAIN BODY
It is the central and main part of report, which is written first and contains the actual report. It comprises of:
Introduction
It is first part of the text. Its major function is to state exact subject of the report, its exact purpose, its scope and its plan of development. The statement of subject may require discussion of background material, particularly of history or theory, or both. The statement of scope comprises range of the subject matter, the detail in which the subject is to be discussed, and the point of view from which the subject is to be discussed. The importance of the subject, if needed, is also explained in introduction.

Main Text It is heart of report. It contains a step by step view of the process by which the writer moves from introduction to conclusion. It contains the text which presents the facts and thereafter their analysis. It is generally divided into major topics and sub topics to present the data in a logical understandable manner. Whenever any reference of any idea or writing appears in text, its source is given at the bottom of the page, which is called Footnote. Generally a line is drawn to separate footnotes from the text and foot note contains serial number, (consecutive serial number is used throughout the text) author’s name, Book’s title, date of publication, publisher’s name and page number. If there are two or more references from the same source, then only sr. #, Ibid, and page # is written in footnote for consecutive references, and sr. #, Author’s name, Opcit, and page # is written if some new reference appears after the earlier footnote of same source. The footnotes are used for citing necessary information, additional information or comments not suitable for inclusion in text, directing the attention of reader to other opinions, or referring the attention of reader to other pages or section of text.

Conclusions A conclusion is of course an end. In technical writing there are three kinds of conclusions or way of bringing a report to an end. The first is “aesthetic”, which brings discussion, smoothly to a stop. In second kind the results of an investigation or study are stated. The third kind is the decision reached at the end of a discussion concerning a choice of action, or concerning a practical problem for which a solution must be presented in the form of a forthright recommendation as to what action should be undertaken. The second and third kinds may appear only at the end of the report or both in the body of the report and at the end. The conclusion contains no new ideas. It in fact reviews, interprets and clarifies the body and relates to specific data. Conclusions do not correspond to the material not discussed in the text.
Recommendations
Recommendations are advices given by writer on the basis of his conclusions. There are two situations in which recommendations are given. In first the writer is given specific instructions to prepare recommendations, and in second, the writer volunteer’s recommendations. The caution required for making any for recommendations is that the recommendation is sound and it has been clearly shown that it is sound; and it does not give impression that writer is trying to “muscle in” on something. The recommendations are presented as a numbered list of complete sentences, each giving separate recommendation. The general guidelines for recommendations include:
List recommendations in a logical manner.
Give only one item per recommendation.
Number recommendations individually.
Be specific.
Use direct and active language.
Don’t recommend which is not supported by the analysis.
Keep explanations and reasons out.
First recommendation should relate to the solution of basic problem, while other recommendations could pertain to implementation.
11.13 REFERENCE MATTER
It is the third of the report, which is assembled and written after the main body is completed. Its purpose is to provide extra information to the reader. It comprises of:
Appendixes
These contain information which is better to be provided to reader, but which cannot be included in the text. The following information can be considered for shifting from text to appendixes:
Case histories.
Supporting illustrations;
Detailed data; statements,
Copies of letters, statements, govt. orders, etc.
Samples, exhibits, photographs, etc.
Extended analysis.
List of personnel.
Suggested reading material
Bibliography
A type of footnotes, but contains more information. It comes at the end of a work. As a minimum, it lists, in alphabetical order, all of the works referred to in the footnotes. The bibliography may often include not only works cited in footnotes, but also other works consulted but not directly used in the preparation of paper. Bibliographies are sometimes annotated i.e. they include after each entry a brief statement about the contents and the value of the work. Entries in bibliography appear in alphabetical order by the last name of the author; the items are not numbered.
Glossary
It contains clarifications of technical terms used in the text. If definitions used are a few then it is appropriate to have it in text with a numeral or some suitable designating mark or symbol on it and clarification given in footnote. However, if placing definitions in text gives too many interruptions, then these are alphabetically placed in glossary. If there are many abbreviations, those are also included.
11.14 GENERAL LAYOUT AND PAGE NUMBERING STANDARDS
Type Script Standards In typed reports, following standards are maintained:
Paper - white paper of high quality in A4 size.
Margins
Left side Top Right side Bottom
1 ½ inch 1 inch 1 inch 1 inch
Left hand margin may be extended to 2 inches for binding purposes. Where quotations are introduced into the text of a report, an additional five spaces of margin must be allowed, on each side of the paper.
Spacing and Indenting The text of report should be double spaced throughout, except as noted below:
Triple - or quadruple - space below centre heading
Single - space center listings (if items are numerous, number them).
Single - space long quotations- those that run four or more lines in length.
Triple space above and below quotations and listings.
Single - space individual footnotes more than a line long; double space between notes.
Single space individual entries in the bibliography; double space between entries;
Usually, single – space material in Appendix.
Double – space above and below side headings.
Customary indentation at beginning of paragraph is five spaces.
Font
Standard font is required to be followed throughout the report for similar text and headings / sub headings. However, the headings and entries in Cover and Title Page could differ. Similarly text of Abstract can have different and bigger font than that of rest of the text in report.
Paging
Arabic numbers are used in upper right corner, except for preparatory pages and the first page of the body, and pages that begin new divisions. The number should be in alignment with right hand margin, at least two spaces above the first line of text and ¾ inch down from the top edge. The prefatory pages are numbered with lower-case Roman numerals centered at the bottom of the page at least ¾ inch from the bottom edge. It is customary to omit the numbers from the title page, although it is counted. The placing of number on first page of text is also omitted. No punctuation of page number required.
11.2 GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS
All important titles are written in capital words, while only first and noun / verb starts with capital words for titles of lesser importance. Part numbers are either written in roman numerical or in words while chapter numbers can be written in any fashion.
The chapters have titles and start from new page, while titles are not required for parts.
Sub-headings have three levels according to their importance. Underlined or centrally written sub-headings attract more.
Only those abbreviations may be used which are very common / familiar.
All contents of Glossary, Appendices, and Bibliography are arranged in alphabetical order.
11.3 ABBREVIATIONS
Don’t use abbreviations when confusion may result.
Include a Glossary when abbreviations are many.
Use abbreviations of units of measure like kg, cm, etc.
Avoid internal spacing and periods and write ATM, TV, ETC.
Be careful with company’s names and use them only when the organizations consider them appropriate, like IBM, PTCL, etc.

12. WRITING OF SPECIAL SCIENTIFIC DOCUMENTS
12.1 NATURE OF SPECIAL SCIENTIFIC DOCUMENTS
An engineering or science student may be called upon to write special scientific documents like thesis, scientific article and research paper, and dissertations during his student life or in professional careers. Normally the preparation and presentation of these documents follow the basic principles of report writing with slight variations as given under:
12.11 THESIS
It is a document submitted in support of candidature for degree or professional qualification presenting the authors research and findings. The work should be contestable, proposing an arguable point with which people could reasonably agree or disagree. The thesis is specific and focused. The researcher asserts his/her conclusion based on evidence, anticipating and refuting the counter-arguments. A good thesis adds new knowledge to already existing theory, thus, is a long type research report concerning a problem which has yet to be resolved. A thesis has an outline; organization of information according to chapters, headings and subheadings; completed within a time frame; written selectively in parts, i.e. different parts are written at different times and then one reverts to unfinished parts; written in scientific style by avoiding grammatical errors, poor sentence formation, punctuation errors and use of jargons; presented according to the standard format by keeping in view that it is an academic and scientific document and need not to be decorated unnecessarily as that diverts the attention of the reader from what is relevant. There is also no relationship between the quantity and quality of thesis. The presentation pattern of thesis is exactly of standard report writing with slight variations as follows:
Front matter:
Cover page
Front piece
Title page
Authorization letter (if necessary)
Certificate from guide(s)
Acknowledgement
Preface
Table of contents
List of tables
List of graphs
Main body:
Introduction
Literature review
Middle chapter (if any)
Study method and procedure
Theory
Results and discussions
Conclusions
Limitations and suggestions
Back matter
References
Books, Journals Website referred
Appendix

12.12 DISSERTATION
A dissertation is a project report work done by the student during the tenure of his course. It is normally of 100-200 pages unless lesser page limit is prescribed in a syllabus. It is an account of a research done on a current topic; part of course taught and is submitted for the award of degree; presents data in a systematic manner; follows academic conventions and hence, is an academic activity. For dissertation the writer has to choose a topic which is researchable and he will have to focus on the title, decide the research method, identify from where the data would be collected, and prepare an outline for research. The research methods used for collection of data are those which are given in 2nd step of report writing. The dissertation is presented according to the structure of presentation given for a thesis.

12.13 SCIENTIFIC ARTICLE AND RESEARCH PAPER
These are written documents of highest quality and require a thorough knowledge of the technique and methods of writing. These offer an opportunity for visibility of new research findings by publication in referred journals. The objectives of their writing are:
It seeks to present research findings objectively.
It gives visibility to new findings.
It adds to existing body of knowledge.
It records scientific information and conveys to the people with scientific bent of mind.
The features of a scientific article/research paper are as follows:
It has a logical structure that helps in gradual and step-by-step progression on the topic.
The author is able to communicate logically, uniformly and methodically.
The reader can understand the research from different view points.
The reader can follow the development of research topic and focus on the individual portions of the paper.
The reader can skim through different sections of the paper.
It gives the sources of references in the research undertaken.
The format of a scientific article/research paper is as follows:
Title
Abstract
Introduction
Materials and methods (experimental details or theoretical basis)
Results
Conclusions
References (of literature sited).
Acknowledgement
Appendix.

13. GRAMMAR AND SENTENCE / PARAGRAPH WRITING
13.1 GRAMMAR Grammar is a large set of rules – commonly accepted standards for assembling words so that, together, they make sense and convey meaning. Style is reflected in the choice of words and the way we supply the rules of programmer in writing. Correct use of grammar in technical writing is essential as incorrect use can change the meanings or make them hard to decipher. Writing is always for a specific purpose and format of various writings differ, like essay has different format, book has different format, report has different format, etc. However the correct use of language is essential for any writing. The writing consists of words, sentences, and paragraphs, which are written by keeping in view the grammar of that particular language. The grammar is not only a set of rules or scientific study of any language, but also primarily concerned with the study of language and guides us how the words are formed, how the sentences and paragraphs are structured, defines parts of speech and guides in speech and writing. Hence the correct application of grammar is essential.
13.2 SENTENCE FORMATION
It is the largest unit of grammar that contains a subject, a verb and an object and expresses a statement, a question or a command. A sentence contains a subject and a predicate. The word or group of words that we speak about in a sentence is called the subject, while the word or group of words that tell us something about the subject is predicate. In sentence ‘The poor wood cutter has lost his axe’, the ‘poor wood cutter is subject and ‘lost his axe’ is predicate.
Kinds of Sentences A sentence containing one subject and one predicate is a Simple Sentence; while a sentence containing two or more principle clauses is a Compound Sentence (like “he came home early and changed his clothes”). Similarly a sentence containing one principle clause and one or more subordinate clause is a Complex Sentence e.g. I saw a man (principle clause), who was driving a car (subordinate clause).In case a sentence contains two principle clauses and one or more subordinate clause, it is a Multiple Sentence. e.g. ‘’ He saw the picture and bought it because he wanted to present it to his friend ‘’.
Types of Sentences
Declarative Which makes a positive or affirmative statement, like ‘We live in a big city.’
Negative Which makes a negative statement, like ‘We do not live in a big city.’
Interrogative Which asks a question, like ‘do we live in a big city’?
Imperative Which contains an order or a request or an advice, like ‘Bring a glass of water’, ‘Please help me to solve the problem,’ and ‘Always speak truth’.
Joining Sentences
Sentences can be sometimes joined with linking words like: first, then, finally, and, but, so:
1 Last week I went to Rohtas fort.
2 Last week some friends went to Rohtas fort.
Last week I went to Rohtas fort with some friends.
1 We were due to leave at nine.
2 We only managed to get away at eleven.
We were due to leave at nine, but only managed to get away at eleven.
1 Ali was late.
2 Sadiq was late.
. Ali and Sadiq were late.
1 Iftikhar realized something.
2 Iftikhar forgot to bring a film for his camera.
3 Iftikhar rushed off to Abpara market. 4 Iftikhar bought a film for his camera at Abpara market.
Iftikhar realized that he forgot to bring a film for his camera, so he rushed off to Abpara market and bought a film.
Sentence Writing
The sentences are written by keeping in view the:
Tenses.
Active & passive voice (‘The grocer sells tea’ is active voice & ‘Tea is sold by the grocer’ is passive voice).
Direct or indirect speech (I told her, “He will do it”, is direct and ‘I told her that he would do it’ is indirect).
Mechanic units used for Punctuation
However the sentences should be reasonably short and not too complex and use understandable language to be easy to digest. The sentence length should be preferably of 3-30 words, with average preferably of 17-20 words. Sentence should have unity I.e. only one idea, and coherence i.e. words correctly arranged so that the words convey the intended meanings. The basic principle is that sentences must say what you mean and use simple and short sentences
13.3 MECHANICS UNITS USED FOR PUNCTUATION
Capital letters--- first word of each sentence; names of people, cities, countries, races, religions, nationalities, titles, abbreviations like Jr; titles of books, magazines, and articles; titles of films & shows; historic events, famous places, holidays, brand names but not the product name like IBM computer; first word in quotation, etc.
End punctuation--- sentence ends with a full stop (.), question mark (?), or exclamation mark (!).
Commas--- i.e. (,). It is used when three or more like words appear in a sentence, or between two adjectives who still make sense even if reversed, or to interrupt the flow of main sentence, or for introducing the main subject like ´Friends, you are…”, or to fuse two complete sentences into a compound or complex sentence, or for misc. uses like dates, addresses, opening & closing of letters, numbers, and contrasted material.
Colon--- i.e.(:). It is used to introduce a list of items following a complete sentence.
Semi-colon--- i.e.(;). It is used to combine two related complete sentences into one compound sentence.
Ellipses--- i.e.(…). It is used to mark words left out of direct quote.
Slash--- i.e.(/). It is used to replace the word ‘or’.
Hyphen--- i.e.(-). It is used to join two words like ‘full-scale’.
Apostrophe--- Combination of two words similar to some abbreviation like ‘I would’ as I’d.
Quotation--- Information repeated or reproduced from another source.
13.4 PARAGRAPH WRITING
A paragraph is a group of related sentences developing one main idea. Each new idea takes a new paragraph. In a well written paragraph, ideas follow one another smoothly and sequentially, without gaps and sudden jumps so that the paragraph communicates a sense of wholeness to the reader. It, thus, has a beginning, a middle, and an end. The paragraph writing involves a careful writing plan that ensures proper length, unity (single idea), coherence (logical relationship between the elements and the construction i.e. interlinking of all the sections of paragraph to form a whole), topic sentence (which expresses the main idea of the paragraph and remaining sentences support it. In other words, the topic sentence serves as a headline for the paragraph and other sentences supply the story. Generally the topic sentence is found in the beginning of the paragraph, but some may place it in the middle, and in some cases there may not be any topic sentence at all), and logical development of ideas.
The paragraph development techniques and methods are following:
Inductive Method In this the supporting facts are given one after another leading to the final sentence having the main idea. The matter is logically arranged and gives a conclusion in the form of a topic sentence.
Deductive Method It is reverse of inductive method and the core idea, which is the topic sentence, is stated in the beginning and then explained or amplified or supported with examples and details in the sentences that bfollow.
Chronological Method In this the facts, events or even ideas are discussed in the order in which they occurred or come to one’s mind. Development of matter is made in terms of time, and importance is given to the date and time while organizing the sentences. This method helps in explaining a process or in narrating writing.
Spatial Method In this the items are arranged according to their physical positions or relationship. This method refers to space or layout in which setting is described in some sort of order based on location. This method helps to visualize and in better understanding of the physical qualities of the subject matter.
Linear Method Linear means ‘one dimensional,’ in which all the sentences are related to each other by co-ordination and sub-ordination considering the logical progression of ideas. A statement is made and then supported by means of examples; the reasons are given leading to a conclusion.
Interrupted Method In this method a line of ideas is given a break and a turn in order produce a forceful effect. ‘However’ is commonly used in it to begin the interruption. A question or rhetoric interrogative can also be used to attract the reader’s attention.
Comparison and Contrast Order In this the text is organized by comparison and contrast. The basic purpose is to understand clearly what comparison and contrast really mean, and at a time it is very easy to make judgment about them at a given moment. In this method either point by point comparison is done or block method of comparison is used in which comparison and contrast are made by using two paragraphs to look at two things separately with the same point.
Question and Answer Order In this the writer begins the paragraph with a question and that is answered within the same paragraph.

14. COMMON GRAMMATICAL ERRORS
Grammar is a large set of rules – commonly accepted standards for assembling words so that, together, they make sense and convey meaning. Style is reflected in the choice of words and the way we supply the rules of programmer in wiring. Correct use of grammar in technical writing is essential as incorrect use can change the meanings or make them hard to decipher. Incorrect grammar also does not provide good picture of sender and can undermine his credibility. More common problem areas are:
Punctuation Errors
Punctuation is use of symbols, marks and signs to separate or connect certain parts of a sentence to clarify meaning. Most common punctuation errors are:-
Comma Splice It occurs when a comma is used to join a sentence instead of a conjunction. For example:
‘The circuit operates at DC, Ohm’s law applies’.
This should be using semicolon or conjunction or semicolon with adverb.
‘The circuit operates at DC; Ohm’s law applies’
‘The circuit operates at DC, and Ohm’s law applies’ ‘The circuit operates at DC; therefore, Ohm’s law applies’.
Fused Sentence It is a comma splice without a comma i.e. 2 sentences are fused without any mark of punctuation.
Example: “The workstation was not designed ergonomically, it leaves much to be desired”. It is rectified by:- “The workstation was not designed ergonomically; it leaves much to be desired” (inserting semicolon)
‘The workstation was not designed ergonomically, and it leaves much to be desired’. (Adding comma & conjunction)
‘The workstation was not designed ergonomically, consequently, it leaves much to be desired’ (adding semicolon, adverbial conjunction & common)
Sentence Fragments
For a sentence to be complete, it must contain a verb. The segments usually occurs when the writer substantiates something for the verb or leaves out the verb altogether. Like in ‘Tensile testing the specimen carefully with higher levels of precision’ does not contain a real verb, and ‘to test’ is used as noun. If ‘is necessary’ is added, it will be rectified. Similarly in ‘Because the transformer could not take the load’, the word ‘because’ could be removed.
Misplaced – Modifier Errors
Modifiers should be close to the words they are supposed to modify, like in ‘Ignorance of science is a phenomenon in society that must be destroyed’. Modifier indicates that the phenomenon & not society be destroyed. Thus, ‘In society, ignorance of science is a phenomenon that must be destroyed’.
Passive Voice Problems
Passive Voice & Active Voice refer to the movement of action through the sentence. In an active sentence, the subject is the “doer” & comes first, the verb or ‘action word’ follows, then the object receives the verb’s action. In a passive sentence, the subject’s action, while the object, if it even shows up at all, takes on the function of the “doer”. Thus ‘the kid broke the streetlights’ is active voice & its passive voice is ‘The streetlights were broken by the kid’. Active voice is preferred in technical writing because it is more direct, it is clearer, and it provides most information with fewer words, Passive voice is preferred when some higher authority expects it or for technical articles in a journal.
Verb Agreement Errors
Verbs must agree with their subject in person and number. If the verb is singular, its verb has to be singular. Example--- ‘The implant, along with its associated circuits, was (and not were) inserted into the patient’s chest cavity’.
Pronoun Agreement Errors
Pronouns must agree with their antecedents (The words they replace) in person, number, and gender,
Example: ‘Each person in the lab must replace his (& not their) radiation badges’.
Pronouns Reference Errors
Pronoun must refer clearly and without question to a specific antecedents.
Example: ‘The coolant leak impaired the CPV’s heat dissipation, resulting in an erroneous reading at the most critical part of the success, This coolant leak (& not mere ‘This) had a cascading effect on the system.’
Case Errors
These occur when noun or pronoun is placed in the wrong case.
Example: ‘The transmission microscope’s (& not simple microscope) malfunctioning caused the experiment to be delayed’. Or ‘The malfunctioning of the transmission microscope caused the experiment to be delayed.’

Spelling Errors
These are very common and needs to be rectified.
Noun Clause
It is a short sentence used in its entirety as a noun in a longer sentence.
Example: The boss decided who (& not whom) will go to the conference.
Numeral and Numerical Figures Writing Errors The figures appearing in sentences are often prone to errors. The following rules are therefore required to be followed:
In case the sentence starts with a numerical, then the numerical is written in words, like ‘Hundred degree Celsius is the boiling temperature of water.’ However, if the numerical appears anywhere after the first word, then it is written in figures, like ‘The boiling temperature of water is 1000 C.’
In case the numerical appear after the first word and range from zero to nine, then these are written in words. However, 10 and above can be written in figures.
If more than one numerical appear in any sentence and include figures of 10 and above, as well as of less than 10 also, then all the numerical can be written in figures.
In case of numerical relating to currency, then actual figures are written like ‘Rs.1,000’ or ‘1,000 Rupees.’
A comma is inserted after every three figures appearing on left of decimal, like ‘3,000,000.00’ or ‘1,500,’

15. CHOICE AND CORRECT USE OF WORDS

15.1 GENERAL GUIDELINES
A word is a basic element in every language. A word is a proper combination of letters. The letters in a particular language are arranged in such a manner that they should represent either objects or ideas. The words are required to be chosen carefully while writing sentences. The guiding principles are as follows:
Correct meanings of the words must be known as different words having close meanings are mixed up, like conclude/decide, theory/idea/view/opinion, ability/capacity, etc.
Leave out vague words like ‘connected’ in place of ‘welded’, ‘fastened’ in place of ‘soldered’, etc.
Leave out unnecessary words.
Use simple & familiar words and phrases.
Use familiar comparison like ‘let the sun be the size of an orange’.
Avoid technical jargons i.e. such slang terms which are understood only by concerned specialists / experienced persons, like meg (megacycle), optimize (put in the best possible working order), etc.
15.2 CHOICE OF WORDS Careful choice of words having close meanings is essentially required. Examples of such words are following:
All together is used when items or people are being considered a group; whereas Altogether is a synonym for ‘utterly’ or ‘completely’.
All right is correct word; whereas Alright is incorrect spelling.
Allusion (n) means ‘reference’; Illusions (n) means ‘misunderstanding’ or ‘false perception’; Delusion (n) means ‘a belief based on self deception’; whereas Elusion (n) means ‘escaping’ or ‘avoiding’.
All ready (phrase) means ‘everyone is prepared’; whereas Already means ‘something is completed or finished’.
Amount is used for items that cannot be counted; whereas Number is used to indicate items that can be counted.
And is for addition; whereas Or means two different things.
Anticipate is used to suggest steps taken beforehand to prepare for a situation; whereas Expect is something likely to occur.
Assure (n) means ‘to promise’; whereas Ensure (n) means ‘to make certain’.
Augment means ‘to increase in size, importance, etc.’; whereas Supplement means ‘to add to’.
Between is used with reference to two items; whereas Among for more than two.
Bi means ‘every two years’, etc; whereas Semi means ‘twice a year, etc.’
Complement (n) is used to mean ‘that which has made something whole or complete’; whereas Compliment is ‘an act of praise, flattery or admiration’.
Compose means ‘be included in’; whereas Comprise means ‘to include or consist of’.
Disinterested means ‘without prejudice or bias’; whereas Uninterested means ‘having no interest’.
Distortion means ‘change in message’; whereas Destruction means ‘destroying’.
Due to (adjective) means ‘attributed to’; whereas Because of means ‘as a result of’.
Each other is used for two persons; whereas One another is used for three or more persons.
Fewer (adj.) is used for countable things; whereas Less for mass quantities.
Liable means ‘suitable’ or ‘appropriate’; whereas Likely means ‘probably’.
Loose (adj.) means ‘flexible, unfastened, etc.’; whereas Lose means ‘to misplace’.
Practical refers to ‘an action that is known to be effective; whereas Practicable refers to ‘an action that can be accomplished’.
Regrettably means ‘unfortunately’; whereas Regretfully means ‘with regrets’.
Stationary means ‘fixed or unchanging’; whereas Stationery refers to ‘paper, etc.’
There refers to ‘place’; whereas Their shows ‘possession’.

15.3 Correct Use of Articles The correct use of Articles is also essential, otherwise prone to errors. Hence their correct use is described as under:
a. The adjectives ‘a’, ‘an’ & ‘the’ are usually called articles. There are two articles a’’ (‘an’) and ‘the’. ‘A’ or ‘an’ is called the Indefinite Article. ‘The’ is called the Definite Article. For example, ‘a boy’ means any boy and ‘the boy’ means a particular boy.
b. The definite article ‘the’ is used when the noun is known to the reader or listener, like ‘the letter was posted on Friday’. It is also used before the names of oceans, seas, rivers, deserts and countries, like “The Pacific”, ‘The USA’. It is also used for hotels, cinemas, theatres and ships, like “He is staying in the PC”. Other uses include:
Before superlatives, like “He told me the latest news”.
Before an adjective (used as a noun to give the meaning of “all the”), like “The poor was helped by the rich.”
Before comparatives, like “The higher you go, the cooler it is”.
Before certain expressions of time, like “The day before.”
Before a countable noun in the singular to refer to a whole class, like “The elephant lives longer than most of animals”.
However, Definite Article is omitted before nouns used for whole class, like “Snakes are often dangerous”; before uncountable nouns with a general meaning, like “meat contain proteins”; before the names of languages used as noun, like “He learnt Persian”; before ‘man’ if used in the sense of mankind, like “Man has more intelligence than other animals”; or for expressing means of travel, like “by bus”.
c. The Indefinite Article ‘a’ is used before consonants (non- vowel letters), ‘an’ before beginning with a vowel, like “an apple”, “an order”, “an interesting book”, etc. If first letter of a word is an unpronounced ‘h’, it is treated as a vowel for this purpose, like “an hour”, “an honest person”. The Indefinite Article is used before singular countable noun when we are not referring to something or someone specific, like “A friend of yours called for you”; in the sense of ‘one’, like “I gave him a Rs100 note for the work”; with the meaning ‘each’, like “I used to write ten letters a day”; with names of occupations, like “His father is a doctor”; with an adjective followed by ‘one’, like “He looked at several coats and chose a grey one”; when follows ‘such’, like “It is such a hot day that he can’t work”; if the adjective is preceded by ‘too’, like “It is too long an exercise to do today”; before or after ‘rather’ used with an adjective, like “It is a rather hot day” or “It is rather a hot day”; changes the meaning when used before ‘few’ and ‘little,’ like “I have few books” ( not as many as I would like to have), and “I have a few books” (some books). However, the Indefinite Article is not used when the noun is uncountable, like “He gave up drinking coffee”; when the noun is the name of a meal, like “We had breakfast at 7 o’ clock”; and when the noun is plural.
15.5 Correct Use of Words Lot of errors are committed in use of following words and therefore their understanding and knowledge of correct use is essential:
Should and Would ‘Should’ can be used with all persons to express obligation or in clauses of purpose. Example: You (They/We) should help your parents. He is working hard so that he should pass the exam.
‘Would’ is common in polite requests, ‘Would not’ can means refusal, and ‘would’ also means ‘insist on’. Example: Would you like to come to your party. They would not help us. He was told not to smoke, but he would.
‘Can’, ‘Could’, ‘Be able to’
‘Can’ is used to show permission on possibility, like ‘The students can work the whole day’, and ability or capacity, like ‘I can lift the box easily’. Both ‘Could’ and ‘Be able to’ are used to express ability in the past. When we want to stress the fact that an action took place, we must use ‘be able to’. Example: I could play the piano. He was able to satisfy the examiners.
‘Can’ and ‘will be able’ are also used for future meaning. Example:
The Dr. says I can go back to college tomorrow.
I will be able to play cricket again after recovery from injury.
‘Must’ and ‘Have to’
‘Must’ is used to express obligation (with I and We) and a kind of order (with you). Example:
We must answer all questions.
You must visit the doctor.
‘Have to’ is used to express compulsions, like ‘You have to do so as you are told’.
‘Must’ gives only present and future meaning. For all other tenses a form of the verb ‘Have to’ is used. Example: I must revise my notes. We had to close the window because of rain.
‘Some’ and ‘Any’
Both are used to describe an indefinite number of quality. ‘Some’ is used in most affirmative sentences, like ‘There are some clothes in the cupboard’; or for questions expecting the answer ‘yes’, like ‘Have you some money to spare?’, or with the meaning ‘not at all’, like ‘Some people like travelling’.
‘Any’ is used in negative sentence, in questions to which the answer is ‘yes’ or ‘no’, in conditional clause, and with the meaning ‘no matter which’. Example: There were not any clothes in the cupboard. Did the teacher put any water in the glass? If he had put any water in the glass, it would have changed color. Buy any cigarette you like.
‘Much’, ‘many’ and ‘a lot of’
‘Much’ is used before uncountable nouns, while ‘many’ before countable plural nouns. Similarly, ‘a lot of’ is often used for more than ‘much’ and ‘many’. Example: Much oil, much water, much food. Many rivers, many books, many boys. He drank a lot of milk.
‘Few’, ‘a few’ and ‘the few’
‘Few’ has negative sense and means not many; ‘a few’ has positive sense and means ‘some’; ‘the few’ means all these. Example: Haroon has few books. I have a few books. The few books he had, he read.
‘Little’, ‘a little’ and ‘the little’
The adjective ‘little’ carries negative sense; ‘a little’ has positive sense and means ‘some’; while ‘the little’ means ‘all there is’. Example: There is little water in the pot. There is a little water in the jug. The little milk we had, we have used.
‘Too’ and ‘enough’
‘Too’ is used for negative ideas that something is impossible or undesirable, while ‘enough’ is used for positive ideas that something is possible or desirable. Example: He is too young to go to school. He is old enough to go to school.
‘On time’ and ‘in time’
‘On time’ means ‘punctuality’, while ‘in time’ means ‘before the time appointed’. Example:
We go to the school on time.
We go to the school in time to have a talk with other boys.
‘By’, ‘at’ and ‘on’
‘By’ means ‘not later than’, while ‘at’ means exact time. Example: Bring the book to the office by 10 o clock. Bring the book to office at 10 o clock.
‘on’ is used with days and date which include the day, but it is not used before today, tomorrow etc. Example: The battle was fought on 2nd may. We are going for shopping tomorrow.
‘In’ and ‘at’
‘In’ suggests ‘enclosed’, ‘within an area’, like ‘In a box’, in the rain’, ‘in Pakistan’ etc.
At’ suggests ‘not enclosed’ like ‘At the station’, At the end of the road’. ‘For’ and ‘since’
For is followed by a period of time, like ‘He has been living in this town for a period of ten years’.
‘Since’ is followed by a point of time, like ‘He has been living in this town since 1975’.
‘Did not use to’ and ‘need not have’
‘Did not use to’ is used when a thing has not happened, while ‘need not have’ is used when some thing happens although it was not required.
He did not need to come to office due to sickness.
He need not have ask for loan as he had plenty of money.