Analyzing Piaget's Psychosocial Stages
1. List and define each of Piaget's developmental stages. According to Harwell & Walters (2016) Piaget has four developmental stages. The stages are sensorimotor, the preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational. Sensorimotor is the first stage which is infancy - birth to approximately age two. The infant is concerned with elementary sensory which is observation and motor involving activities (p.32). Additionally, the infant's use of symbol to represent an object is also used at this stage. Cook (2005) also outlines that at this stage infants understand the world only through their sensory input (see, smell, taste, touch, and hear) and through their physical or motor action (sucking, reaching, and grasping). They lack
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the ability to internalize mental representations of objects and events outside their own body (p. 5-10). It is therefore necessary to create the environment to allow infants to engage with objects and symbols for development to occur at the first stage. The second stage is the preoperational stage. Harwell & Walters (2016) states that ages two through approximately six years the development of language occurs, but it is not like the adult-like logical thinking. Conservation of quantity. Shows change in the use of the abstract property, quantity. Older children can mentally transform what they sense (p.32). Cooks (2005) explains that at this stage children's use of symbols in language is simple and limited to objects and events occurring at the time. Symbols in artwork is seen clearly as their ability to form mental representation increases. As children engage in play there is clear evidence of the use of symbols by the use of objects to represent something, for example a blanket may be used as a magic carpet (p.5-14) The third stage is concrete operational. Harwell & Walters (2016) explain that ages seven through approximately eleven years falls within this stage. Children start using logic in situations and problems in real and observable situations in contrast to situations which are primarily verbal or hypothetical. Cooks (2005) explained that children at the concrete operational stage thoughts are decentered, and they may be opened to multiple aspects of a problem. For instance, with the use of two drinking glasses: one tall and one short, when the content was poured from one to the other the amount remained the same (p.5-18). The fourth stage formal operational which is age twelve and beyond.
People primarily understand the world through abstract thinking. They are now able to solve hypothetical and verbal problems. For the problem to be solved the person does not require the object or problem to be physically present or concretely represented. Furthermore, they are able to distinguish concurrently other points of view, understand that everything is not black and white, mentally reflect and understand cause and effect of relationships that concerns facts. The "cognitive development reaches its fullest potential" (Cooks, 2005, p.5-19).
2. List and define each of Erikson's Psychosocial stages.
Erikson's Psychosocial theory has eight distinct stages: According to Fleming (2004) Erik Erikson (1982) developed the eight human developmental stage. At each stage there is a crisis, as follows: trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame and doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. identity confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, and ego integrity vs. despair. Each crisis presented challenges to one's individual identity. Stage Infancy - 0 to 2 years. The crisis at this stage is 'Trust vs. Mistrust'.
The child has to experience both trust and mistrust in order to come to a proper resolution. The child who trusts too much (is overindulged) becomes passive and dependent, whereas the child who mistrusts becomes …show more content…
cynical. Stage Early childhood - 2 to 3 years. The crisis at this stage is 'Autonomy vs. shame. The child begins to develop physically and is more mobile. They start to assert their independence by walking away from their mother, choosing the toys to play with and clothes they should wear and food to eat. The child's actions is a demonstration of his sense of independence and autonomy. Stage Preschool- 4 to 5 years. The crisis at this stage is Initiative vs. guilt. At this stage children begin to affirm themselves more frequently and experience rapid growth. Generally they are more lively which may result in their action and or behavior to be misinterpreted as a form of aggression. They also, adopt and internalize the role of the same-sex parent through observation and imitation. Initiative is implied in these attempts at imitation, but guilt occurs when the child’s developing conscience feels in competition with the parent. The basic strength associated with this period is a sense of purpose, the core weakness is inhibition. Stage School age - 6 to 11 years. The crisis at this stage is Industry vs Inferiority. At this stage the child develops industry – i.e., he familiarizes himself and is interested in tools, as such his focus is on developing his skills with the tools. The work involves teaches the child the pleasure of work completion by sound focus and diligence. Stage Adolescence age - 12 to 20 years. The crisis at this stage is Identity vs. role. At this stage adolescence goes through major changes in the body and the sexual organs mature, new expectations for social and academic adjustments arise, self-image typically suffers, and life can be very stressful, especially in the earlier transition stage. The basic task of this period is to separate oneself from one’s parents, especially the same-sex parent and to assume an identity of one’s own. At this stage they are learning who they are, as their identity changes
Stage Young Adulthood, age 20 - 24. The crisis at this stage is Intimacy vs. isolation. Erikson identified intimacy and mutual sharing with another as the basic strength of this stage, isolation as its core pathology. Erikson believed that intimacy between two people as a couple was only possible when each had developed a strong sense of identity separately. Stage Adulthood, age 25 to 64: Generativity versus Stagnation. At this stage when Erikson wrote on the developmental stages a man was expected to have a career or profession, but it was optional for the woman. Times have since changed since marriage is seen as more of an option by people even though they may be involved in a long-term relationship with children. People at this stage tended to be creative and productive with a sense of caring for the future and next generation. (pp. 9-1 to 9-14)
3. List and define each of Kohlberg's stages of moral development. Nolen-Hoeksema, Fredrickson, Loftus & Wagenaar (2009) states that Kohlberg believed moral judgment develops with age (Kohlberg, L (1969) 'Stages of Moral Reasoning'. There are six stages grouped into three levels. Preconventional morality is Level 1 which has two stages. Kohlberg believed all children are at level 1 until they reach ten years. At Stage 1 the punishment orientation, children obey rules to avoid punishment and stage 2 the reward orientation they conform to obtain rewards, to have favors returned. Conventional morality is level 11 and it comprises of stage 3 and 4. Stage 3 is the good boy/ good girl orientation. Children conform to avoid disapproval of others and stage 4 the authority orientation upholds laws and social rules to avoid censure of authorities and feelings of guilt about not doing one's duty. Postconventional morality is level III which comprises stage 5 and 6. Stage 5 Social contract orientation, actions are guided by principles commonly agreed on as essential to the public welfare; principles upheld to retain respect of peers and thus self respect and stage 6 Ethical principle orientation actions are guided by self-chosen ethical principles which is mostly based on value justice, dignity and equality; principles are upheld to avoid self-condemnation (p.87). It must be noted Kohlberg before he died removed the sixth stage from the developmental stages. Kohlberg's theory focused on cognitive development as it relates to moral understanding since he thought that children developed their moral principles when they think about them. A child's progression through the stages is not determined only by maturation or development of the nervous system. Additionally, he must come to grips with moral issues as they present itself, as Piaget confers that disequilibrium may happen when a child believes that punishment for an unintentional action was unfair. Kohlberg also thought that moral understanding is related to learning social mores as neither parents nor peers is able to teach new modes of thinking (Fleming, 2008, p. 7-8) . 4. Explain delay of gratification and how it can be beneficial to the individual. Delay of gratification means refusing to accept an immediate gratification in favour of receiving a later gratification because the person perceives the latter will be bigger or better. Individuals benefit from delayed gratification in several ways. The individual may benefit from delayed gratification because it will bring about a bigger or better reward. According to Jacob (2015) research conducted by Walter Mischel showed there was a connection between children who were able to delay gratification and how they fared later in life. The test conducted by Mischel allowed children to participate in a 'marshmallow test'. They were asked to not eat a marshmallow while the instructor was out of the room, when they chose to wait until the person returned they were rewarded with the choice of marshmallows, cookies, pretzels or other treats (para. 9). There are also long term benefits from delayed gratification. According to Bezelon (2012) research conducted showed that kids who delayed gratification tended to score higher in their examination and social wellbeing. Even as a group they were better at planning and dealing with stress. In recent studies it revealed the into adulthood they are also less likely to be overweight or obese. In my personal experience I can relate to the benefits of delayed gratification.
When I decided to pursue a first degree, I thought it was going to be a challenge, since the program took four years to complete. If I had allowed the length of time it would take to complete the degree prevent me from pursuing the program, I would not be at OASIS today doing the Masters in Family Life Education and possibly the Doctoral program. I went from not having a first degree to pursuing a second degree.
5. What is behaviorism? Behaviorism is a theory of animal and human learning that focuses on objectively observable behaviors (measured responses to stimuli) and disregards conscious experience and mental processes, such as emotions or motives. Graham (2015) identified three types of behaviorism: Methodological behaviorism is a normative theory about the scientific conduct of psychology which emphasizes that psychology should focus on the behavior of organisms both human and nonhuman animals. Secondly, psychological behaviorism is a research program within psychology. It's focus is to explain human and animal behavior in terms of external physical stimuli, responses, learning histories and reinforcements. Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936), Edward Thorndike (1874–1949), as well as Watson and B. F. Skinner's were proponents of psychological
behaviorism. Thirdly, analytical or logical behaviorism is a theory within philosophy about the meaning or semantics of mental terms or concepts. It focuses on the idea that a mental state or condition signifies the behavioral disposition or family of behavioral tendencies gives evidences of a person's behaviour in a given situation. Proponents of analytical or logical behaviorism are Gilbert Ryle (1900–76) and the later work of Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–51)'
The following is a highlight of the history of Behaviorism as stated by Mc Leod (2013): Pavlov (1897) published the results of an experiment on conditioning after originally studying digestion in dogs.
Watson (1913) launches the behavioral school of psychology (classical conditioning), publishing an article, "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It".
Watson and Rayner (1920) conditioned an orphan called Albert B (aka Little Albert) to fear a white rat.
Thorndike (1905) formalized the "Law of Effect".
Skinner (1936) wrote "The Behavior of Organisms" and introduced the concepts of operant conditioning and shaping.
Clark Hull’s (1943) Principles of Behavior was published.
B.F. Skinner (1948) published Walden Two, in which he described a utopian society founded upon behaviorist principles (para. 11).
Bandura (1963) publishes a book called the "Social Leaning Theory and Personality development" which combines both cognitive and behavioral frameworks.
Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior (begun in 1958).
B.F. Skinner (1971) published his book, Beyond Freedom and Dignity, where he argues that free will is an illusion.
the ability to internalize mental representations of objects and events outside their own body (p. 5-10). It is therefore necessary to create the environment to allow infants to engage with objects and symbols for development to occur at the first stage. The second stage is the preoperational stage. Harwell & Walters (2016) states that ages two through approximately six years the development of language occurs, but it is not like the adult-like logical thinking. Conservation of quantity. Shows change in the use of the abstract property, quantity. Older children can mentally transform what they sense (p.32). Cooks (2005) explains that at this stage children's use of symbols in language is simple and limited to objects and events occurring at the time. Symbols in artwork is seen clearly as their ability to form mental representation increases. As children engage in play there is clear evidence of the use of symbols by the use of objects to represent something, for example a blanket may be used as a magic carpet (p.5-14) The third stage is concrete operational. Harwell & Walters (2016) explain that ages seven through approximately eleven years falls within this stage. Children start using logic in situations and problems in real and observable situations in contrast to situations which are primarily verbal or hypothetical. Cooks (2005) explained that children at the concrete operational stage thoughts are decentered, and they may be opened to multiple aspects of a problem. For instance, with the use of two drinking glasses: one tall and one short, when the content was poured from one to the other the amount remained the same (p.5-18). The fourth stage formal operational which is age twelve and beyond.
People primarily understand the world through abstract thinking. They are now able to solve hypothetical and verbal problems. For the problem to be solved the person does not require the object or problem to be physically present or concretely represented. Furthermore, they are able to distinguish concurrently other points of view, understand that everything is not black and white, mentally reflect and understand cause and effect of relationships that concerns facts. The "cognitive development reaches its fullest potential" (Cooks, 2005, p.5-19).
2. List and define each of Erikson's Psychosocial stages.
Erikson's Psychosocial theory has eight distinct stages: According to Fleming (2004) Erik Erikson (1982) developed the eight human developmental stage. At each stage there is a crisis, as follows: trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame and doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. identity confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, and ego integrity vs. despair. Each crisis presented challenges to one's individual identity. Stage Infancy - 0 to 2 years. The crisis at this stage is 'Trust vs. Mistrust'.
The child has to experience both trust and mistrust in order to come to a proper resolution. The child who trusts too much (is overindulged) becomes passive and dependent, whereas the child who mistrusts becomes …show more content…
cynical. Stage Early childhood - 2 to 3 years. The crisis at this stage is 'Autonomy vs. shame. The child begins to develop physically and is more mobile. They start to assert their independence by walking away from their mother, choosing the toys to play with and clothes they should wear and food to eat. The child's actions is a demonstration of his sense of independence and autonomy. Stage Preschool- 4 to 5 years. The crisis at this stage is Initiative vs. guilt. At this stage children begin to affirm themselves more frequently and experience rapid growth. Generally they are more lively which may result in their action and or behavior to be misinterpreted as a form of aggression. They also, adopt and internalize the role of the same-sex parent through observation and imitation. Initiative is implied in these attempts at imitation, but guilt occurs when the child’s developing conscience feels in competition with the parent. The basic strength associated with this period is a sense of purpose, the core weakness is inhibition. Stage School age - 6 to 11 years. The crisis at this stage is Industry vs Inferiority. At this stage the child develops industry – i.e., he familiarizes himself and is interested in tools, as such his focus is on developing his skills with the tools. The work involves teaches the child the pleasure of work completion by sound focus and diligence. Stage Adolescence age - 12 to 20 years. The crisis at this stage is Identity vs. role. At this stage adolescence goes through major changes in the body and the sexual organs mature, new expectations for social and academic adjustments arise, self-image typically suffers, and life can be very stressful, especially in the earlier transition stage. The basic task of this period is to separate oneself from one’s parents, especially the same-sex parent and to assume an identity of one’s own. At this stage they are learning who they are, as their identity changes
Stage Young Adulthood, age 20 - 24. The crisis at this stage is Intimacy vs. isolation. Erikson identified intimacy and mutual sharing with another as the basic strength of this stage, isolation as its core pathology. Erikson believed that intimacy between two people as a couple was only possible when each had developed a strong sense of identity separately. Stage Adulthood, age 25 to 64: Generativity versus Stagnation. At this stage when Erikson wrote on the developmental stages a man was expected to have a career or profession, but it was optional for the woman. Times have since changed since marriage is seen as more of an option by people even though they may be involved in a long-term relationship with children. People at this stage tended to be creative and productive with a sense of caring for the future and next generation. (pp. 9-1 to 9-14)
3. List and define each of Kohlberg's stages of moral development. Nolen-Hoeksema, Fredrickson, Loftus & Wagenaar (2009) states that Kohlberg believed moral judgment develops with age (Kohlberg, L (1969) 'Stages of Moral Reasoning'. There are six stages grouped into three levels. Preconventional morality is Level 1 which has two stages. Kohlberg believed all children are at level 1 until they reach ten years. At Stage 1 the punishment orientation, children obey rules to avoid punishment and stage 2 the reward orientation they conform to obtain rewards, to have favors returned. Conventional morality is level 11 and it comprises of stage 3 and 4. Stage 3 is the good boy/ good girl orientation. Children conform to avoid disapproval of others and stage 4 the authority orientation upholds laws and social rules to avoid censure of authorities and feelings of guilt about not doing one's duty. Postconventional morality is level III which comprises stage 5 and 6. Stage 5 Social contract orientation, actions are guided by principles commonly agreed on as essential to the public welfare; principles upheld to retain respect of peers and thus self respect and stage 6 Ethical principle orientation actions are guided by self-chosen ethical principles which is mostly based on value justice, dignity and equality; principles are upheld to avoid self-condemnation (p.87). It must be noted Kohlberg before he died removed the sixth stage from the developmental stages. Kohlberg's theory focused on cognitive development as it relates to moral understanding since he thought that children developed their moral principles when they think about them. A child's progression through the stages is not determined only by maturation or development of the nervous system. Additionally, he must come to grips with moral issues as they present itself, as Piaget confers that disequilibrium may happen when a child believes that punishment for an unintentional action was unfair. Kohlberg also thought that moral understanding is related to learning social mores as neither parents nor peers is able to teach new modes of thinking (Fleming, 2008, p. 7-8) . 4. Explain delay of gratification and how it can be beneficial to the individual. Delay of gratification means refusing to accept an immediate gratification in favour of receiving a later gratification because the person perceives the latter will be bigger or better. Individuals benefit from delayed gratification in several ways. The individual may benefit from delayed gratification because it will bring about a bigger or better reward. According to Jacob (2015) research conducted by Walter Mischel showed there was a connection between children who were able to delay gratification and how they fared later in life. The test conducted by Mischel allowed children to participate in a 'marshmallow test'. They were asked to not eat a marshmallow while the instructor was out of the room, when they chose to wait until the person returned they were rewarded with the choice of marshmallows, cookies, pretzels or other treats (para. 9). There are also long term benefits from delayed gratification. According to Bezelon (2012) research conducted showed that kids who delayed gratification tended to score higher in their examination and social wellbeing. Even as a group they were better at planning and dealing with stress. In recent studies it revealed the into adulthood they are also less likely to be overweight or obese. In my personal experience I can relate to the benefits of delayed gratification.
When I decided to pursue a first degree, I thought it was going to be a challenge, since the program took four years to complete. If I had allowed the length of time it would take to complete the degree prevent me from pursuing the program, I would not be at OASIS today doing the Masters in Family Life Education and possibly the Doctoral program. I went from not having a first degree to pursuing a second degree.
5. What is behaviorism? Behaviorism is a theory of animal and human learning that focuses on objectively observable behaviors (measured responses to stimuli) and disregards conscious experience and mental processes, such as emotions or motives. Graham (2015) identified three types of behaviorism: Methodological behaviorism is a normative theory about the scientific conduct of psychology which emphasizes that psychology should focus on the behavior of organisms both human and nonhuman animals. Secondly, psychological behaviorism is a research program within psychology. It's focus is to explain human and animal behavior in terms of external physical stimuli, responses, learning histories and reinforcements. Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936), Edward Thorndike (1874–1949), as well as Watson and B. F. Skinner's were proponents of psychological
behaviorism. Thirdly, analytical or logical behaviorism is a theory within philosophy about the meaning or semantics of mental terms or concepts. It focuses on the idea that a mental state or condition signifies the behavioral disposition or family of behavioral tendencies gives evidences of a person's behaviour in a given situation. Proponents of analytical or logical behaviorism are Gilbert Ryle (1900–76) and the later work of Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–51)'
The following is a highlight of the history of Behaviorism as stated by Mc Leod (2013): Pavlov (1897) published the results of an experiment on conditioning after originally studying digestion in dogs.
Watson (1913) launches the behavioral school of psychology (classical conditioning), publishing an article, "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It".
Watson and Rayner (1920) conditioned an orphan called Albert B (aka Little Albert) to fear a white rat.
Thorndike (1905) formalized the "Law of Effect".
Skinner (1936) wrote "The Behavior of Organisms" and introduced the concepts of operant conditioning and shaping.
Clark Hull’s (1943) Principles of Behavior was published.
B.F. Skinner (1948) published Walden Two, in which he described a utopian society founded upon behaviorist principles (para. 11).
Bandura (1963) publishes a book called the "Social Leaning Theory and Personality development" which combines both cognitive and behavioral frameworks.
Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior (begun in 1958).
B.F. Skinner (1971) published his book, Beyond Freedom and Dignity, where he argues that free will is an illusion.